RNA Splicing
RNA Splicing
splicing Wikipedia
RNA splicing
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
In molecular biology, splicing is the editing of the nascent precursor messenger RNA (premRNA) transcript.
After splicing, introns are removed and exons are joined together (ligated). For nuclearencoded genes, splicing
takes place within the nucleus either cotranscriptionally or immediately after transcription. For those
eukaryotic genes that contain introns, splicing is usually required in order to create an mRNA molecule that can
be translated into protein. For many eukaryotic introns, splicing is carried out in a series of reactions which are
catalyzed by the spliceosome, a complex of small nuclear ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs). Selfsplicing introns,
or ribozymes capable of catalyzing their own excision from their parent RNA molecule, also exist.
Contents
1 Splicing pathways
1.1 Spliceosomal
1.1.1 Introns
1.1.2 Formation and activity
1.2 Selfsplicing
1.3 tRNA splicing
2 Evolution
3 Biochemical mechanism
4 Alternative splicing
5 Experimental manipulation of splicing
6 Splicing errors and variation
7 Protein splicing
8 See also
9 References
10 External links
Splicing pathways
Several methods of RNA splicing occur in nature; the type of splicing depends on the structure of the spliced
intron and the catalysts required for splicing to occur.
Spliceosomal
Introns
The word intron is derived from the term intervening sequence, that is, a segment of DNA that "intervenes"
between two exons of a gene. The term intron refers to both the DNA sequence within a gene and the
corresponding sequence in the unprocessed RNA transcript. As part of the RNA processing pathway, introns
are removed by RNA splicing either shortly after or concurrent with transcription.[1] Introns are found in the
genes of most organisms and many viruses. They can be located in a wide range of genes, including those that
generate proteins, ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and transfer RNA (tRNA).[2]
Spliceosomal introns often reside within the sequence of eukaryotic proteincoding genes. Within the intron, a
donor site (5' end of the intron), a branch site (near the 3' end of the intron) and an acceptor site (3' end of the
intron) are required for splicing. The splice donor site includes an almost invariant sequence GU at the 5' end of
the intron, within a larger, less highly conserved region. The splice acceptor site at the 3' end of the intron
terminates the intron with an almost invariant AG sequence. Upstream (5'ward) from the AG there is a region
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high in pyrimidines (C and U), or polypyrimidine tract. Further upstream from the polypyrimidine tract is the
branchpoint, which includes an adenine nucleotide involved in lariat formation.[3][4] The consensus sequence
for an intron (in IUPAC nucleic acid notation) is: GG[cut]GURAGU (donor site) ... intron sequence ... Y
URAC (branch sequence 2050 nucleotides upstream of acceptor site) ... YrichNCAG[cut]G (acceptor
site).[5] However, it is noted that the specific sequence of intronic splicing elements and the number of
nucleotides between the branchpoint and the nearest 3’ acceptor site affect splice site selection.[6][7] Also, point
mutations in the underlying DNA or errors during transcription can activate a cryptic splice site in part of the
transcript that usually is not spliced. This results in a mature messenger RNA with a missing section of an exon.
In this way, a point mutation, which might otherwise affect only a single amino acid, can manifest as a deletion
or truncation in the final protein.
Simple illustration of exons and introns in premRNA
Formation and activity
Splicing is catalyzed by the spliceosome, a large RNAprotein complex composed of five small nuclear
ribonucleoproteins (snRNPs, pronounced 'snurps'). Assembly and activity of the spliceosome occurs during
transcription of the premRNA. The RNA components of snRNPs interact with the intron and are involved in
catalysis. Two types of spliceosomes have been identified (major and minor) which contain different snRNPs.
The major spliceosome splices introns containing GU at the 5' splice site and AG at the 3' splice site. It
is composed of the U1, U2, U4, U5, and U6 snRNPs and is active in the nucleus. In addition, a number of
proteins including U2 small nuclear RNA auxiliary factor 1 (U2AF35), U2AF2 (U2AF65)[8] and SF1 are
required for the assembly of the spliceosome.[4][9] The spliceosome forms different complexes during the
splicing process:[10]
Complex E
The U1 snRNP binds to the GU sequence at the 5' splice site of an intron;
Splicing factor 1 binds to the intron branch point sequence;
U2AF1 binds at the 3' splice site of the intron;
U2AF2 binds to the polypyrimidine tract;[11]
Complex A (prespliceosome)
The U2 snRNP displaces SF1 and binds to the branch point sequence and ATP is
hydrolyzed;
Complex B (precatalytic spliceosome)
The U5/U4/U6 snRNP trimer binds, and the U5 snRNP binds exons at the 5' site, with U6
binding to U2;
Complex B*
The U1 snRNP is released, U5 shifts from exon to intron, and the U6 binds at the 5' splice
site;
Complex C (catalytic spliceosome)
U4 is released, U6/U2 catalyzes transesterification, making the 5'end of the intron ligate to
the A on intron and form a lariat, U5 binds exon at 3' splice site, and the 5' site is cleaved,
resulting in the formation of the lariat;
Complex C* (postspliceosomal complex)
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U2/U5/U6 remain bound to the lariat, and the 3' site is cleaved and exons are ligated using
ATP hydrolysis. The spliced RNA is released, the lariat is released and degraded,[12] and the
snRNPs are recycled.
This type of splicing is termed canonical splicing or termed the lariat pathway, which accounts for more
than 99% of splicing. By contrast, when the intronic flanking sequences do not follow the GUAG rule,
noncanonical splicing is said to occur (see "minor spliceosome" below).[13]
The minor spliceosome is very similar to the major spliceosome, but instead it splices out rare introns
with different splice site sequences. While the minor and major spliceosomes contain the same U5
snRNP, the minor spliceosome has different but functionally analogous snRNPs for U1, U2, U4, and U6,
which are respectively called U11, U12, U4atac, and U6atac.[14] Unlike the major spliceosome, it is
found outside the nucleus, but very close to the nuclear membrane.[15]
Transsplicing is a form of splicing that joins two exons that are not within the same RNA transcript.[16]
Selfsplicing
Selfsplicing occurs for rare introns that form a ribozyme, performing the functions of the spliceosome by RNA
alone. There are three kinds of selfsplicing introns, Group I, Group II and Group III. Group I and II introns
perform splicing similar to the spliceosome without requiring any protein. This similarity suggests that Group I
and II introns may be evolutionarily related to the spliceosome. Selfsplicing may also be very ancient, and may
have existed in an RNA world present before protein.
Two transesterifications characterize the mechanism in which group I introns are spliced:
1. 3'OH of a free guanine nucleoside (or one located in the intron) or a nucleotide cofactor (GMP, GDP,
GTP) attacks phosphate at the 5' splice site.
2. 3'OH of the 5' exon becomes a nucleophile and the second transesterification results in the joining of the
two exons.
The mechanism in which group II introns are spliced (two transesterification reaction like group I introns) is as
follows:
1. The 3'OH of a specific adenosine in the intron attacks the 5' splice site, thereby forming the lariat
2. The 3'OH of the 5' exon triggers the second transesterification at the 3' splice site, thereby joining the
exons together.
tRNA splicing
tRNA (also tRNAlike) splicing is another rare form of splicing that usually occurs in tRNA. The splicing
reaction involves a different biochemistry than the spliceosomal and selfsplicing pathways.
In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a yeast tRNA splicing endonuclease heterotetramer, composed of
TSEN54, TSEN2, TSEN34, and TSEN15, cleaves pretRNA at two sites in the acceptor loop to form a 5'half
tRNA, terminating at a 2',3'cyclic phosphodiester group, and a 3'half tRNA, terminating at a 5'hydroxyl
group, along with a discarded intron.[17] Yeast tRNA kinase then phosphorylates the 5'hydroxyl group using
adenosine triphosphate. Yeast tRNA cyclic phosphodiesterase cleaves the cyclic phosphodiester group to form
a 2'phosphorylated 3' end. Yeast tRNA ligase adds an adenosine monophosphate group to the 5' end of the 3'
half and joins the two halves together.[18] NADdependent 2'phosphotransferase then removes the 2'phosphate
group.[19][20]
Evolution
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Splicing occurs in all the kingdoms or domains of life, however, the extent and types of splicing can be very
different between the major divisions. Eukaryotes splice many proteincoding messenger RNAs and some non
coding RNAs. Prokaryotes, on the other hand, splice rarely and mostly noncoding RNAs. Another important
difference between these two groups of organisms is that prokaryotes completely lack the spliceosomal
pathway.
Because spliceosomal introns are not conserved in all species, there is debate concerning when spliceosomal
splicing evolved. Two models have been proposed: the intron late and intron early models (see intron
evolution).
Splicing diversity
Eukaryotes Prokaryotes
Spliceosomal + −
Selfsplicing + +
tRNA + +
Biochemical mechanism
Spliceosomal splicing and selfsplicing
involve a twostep biochemical process.
Both steps involve transesterification
reactions that occur between RNA
nucleotides. tRNA splicing, however, is an
exception and does not occur by
transesterification.[21]
Spliceosomal and selfsplicing
transesterification reactions occur via two
sequential transesterification reactions.
First, the 2'OH of a specific branchpoint
nucleotide within the intron, defined during
spliceosome assembly, performs a
nucleophilic attack on the first nucleotide of Diagram illustrating the twostep biochemistry of splicing
the intron at the 5' splice site, forming the
lariat intermediate. Second, the 3'OH of the
released 5' exon then performs a nucleophilic attack at the first nucleotide following the last nucleotide of the
intron at the 3' splice site, thus joining the exons and releasing the intron lariat.[22]
Alternative splicing
In many cases, the splicing process can create a range of unique proteins by varying the exon composition of
the same mRNA. This phenomenon is then called alternative splicing. Alternative splicing can occur in many
ways. Exons can be extended or skipped, or introns can be retained. It is estimated that 95% of transcripts from
multiexon genes undergo alternative splicing, some instances of which occur in a tissuespecific manner and/or
under specific cellular conditions.[23] Development of high throughput mRNA sequencing technology can help
quantify the expression levels of alternatively spliced isoforms. Differential expression levels across tissues and
cell lineages allowed computational approaches to be developed to predict the functions of these
isoforms.[24][25] Given this complexity, alternative splicing of premRNA transcripts is regulated by a system of
transacting proteins (activators and repressors) that bind to cisacting sites or "elements" (enhancers and
silencers) on the premRNA transcript itself. These proteins and their respective binding elements promote or
reduce the usage of a particular splice site. The binding specificity comes from the sequence and structure of
the ciselements e.g. in HIV1 there are many donor and acceptor splice sites. Among the various splice sites
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ssA7 which is 3' acceptor site folds into three stem loop structure i.e. Intronic splicing silencer (ISS), Exonic
splicing enhancer (ESE) and Exonic splicing silencer (ESSE3). Solution structure of Intronic splicing silencer
and its interaction to host protein hnRNPA1 give insight into specific recognition.[26] However, adding to the
complexity of alternative splicing, it is noted that the effects of regulatory factors are many times position
dependent. For example, a splicing factor that serves as a splicing activator when bound to an intronic enhancer
element may serve as a repressor when bound to its splicing element in the context of an exon, and vice
versa.[27] In addition to the positiondependent effects of enhancer and silencer elements, the location of the
branchpoint (i.e., distance upstream of the nearest 3’ acceptor site) also affects splicing.[6] The secondary
structure of the premRNA transcript also plays a role in regulating splicing, such as by bringing together
splicing elements or by masking a sequence that would otherwise serve as a binding element for a splicing
factor.[28][29]
Experimental manipulation of splicing
Splicing events can be experimentally altered[30][31] by binding stericblocking antisense oligos such as
Morpholinos or Peptide nucleic acids to snRNP binding sites, to the branchpoint nucleotide that closes the
lariat,[32] or to spliceregulatory element binding sites.[33]
Splicing errors and variation
It has been suggested that one third of all diseasecausing mutations impact on splicing.[27] Common errors
include:
Mutation of a splice site resulting in loss of function of that site. Results in exposure of a premature stop
codon, loss of an exon, or inclusion of an intron.
Mutation of a splice site reducing specificity. May result in variation in the splice location, causing
insertion or deletion of amino acids, or most likely, a disruption of the reading frame.
Displacement of a splice site, leading to inclusion or exclusion of more RNA than expected, resulting in
longer or shorter exons.
Although many splicing errors are safeguarded by a cellular quality control mechanism termed nonsense
mediated mRNA decay (NMD),[34] a number of splicingrelated diseases also exist, as suggested above.[35]
Allelic differences in mRNA splicing are likely to be a common and important source of phenotypic diversity
at the molecular level, in addition to their contribution to genetic disease susceptibility. Indeed, genomewide
studies in humans have identified a range of genes that are subject to allelespecific splicing.
Protein splicing
In addition to RNA, proteins can undergo splicing. Although the biomolecular mechanisms are different, the
principle is the same: parts of the protein, called inteins instead of introns, are removed. The remaining parts,
called exteins instead of exons, are fused together. Protein splicing has been observed in a wide range of
organisms, including bacteria, archaea, plants, yeast and humans.[36]
See also
cDNA
posttranscriptional modification Wikimedia Commons has
media related to Splicing.
mRNA capping
polyadenylation
Exon Junction Complex
SWAP protein domain, a splicing regulator
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External links
Virtual Cell Animation Collection: mRNA Splicing (http://vcell.ndsu.nodak.edu/animations/mrnasplicin
g/index.htm)
RNA Splicing (https://www.nlm.nih.gov/cgi/mesh/2011/MB_cgi?mode=&term=RNA+Splicing) at the
US National Library of Medicine Medical Subject Headings (MeSH)
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