LECTURE #32 – SUMMARY

Muons - An Example of Time Dilation and Length Contraction

Muons are unstable particles created when cosmic rays interact with the upper
atmosphere. They move at very high velocities (β ~ 0.9999) and have very short
lifetimes, τ = 2 × 10-6 s, as measured in the lab.

Do muons reach the ground, given an atmospheric "thickness" of about 10 km?

"Classical" answer: distance = velocity × time = 0.9999c × 2 × 10-6 s ≅ 0.6 km
∴ conclude that muons will never reach the ground.
However, they do! What is wrong? Because muons move so quickly, relativistic
effects are important. The classical answer mixes up reference frames.
• τ - refers to lifetime in the muon reference frame (lab where τ is measured)
• atmospheric thickness - refers to length in the Earth’s reference frame

(1) Time dilation approach – from Earth frame muon frame

→ treat the muons as a clock in A' A' of reference
t' = 0 muons are created
top of atmosphere
t' = τ muons are destroyed
∆t' = τ v= βc
The creation and destruction of muons occurs at the
same place in A'.
What is the time interval as measured in A? A
Earth's surface
∆t = γ∆t' = γτ = 1.4 × 10 −4 s i.e., it takes 70 times longer
∴ distance = 0.9999c × 1.4 × 10-4 s ≅ 42 km
Since 42 km > 10 km, the muons will reach the ground.

(2) Length contraction approach – from muon frame

In reference frame A (now with the muons) muon frame
lifetime = τ = 2 × 10-6 s A of reference
velocity of ground = 0.9999c top of atmosphere
So the distance that the ground travels before the
muon decays is 0.6 km. But what is the thickness of
v= βc
the atmosphere that the muon sees?
proper length of atmosphere = 10 km A'
length of atmosphere in muon frame is Earth's surface
2 2 2
∆x = ∆x' 1 − v c = 10 1 − 0.9999 = 0.14 km
i.e., the atmosphere that the muon sees is 70 times thinner
0.6 km > 0.14 km and so the ground will reach the muon.
Thus, length contraction and time dilation are real!
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PHY 140Y – Foundations of Physics, Fall Term 2001 (K. Strong) Lecture 32
Section V.5 Energy in STR
Derivation of E = mc2
Einstein conceived of this equation using a thought experiment, which we
will "reproduce". Imagine a closed box of mass m and length L, initially at rest. A
flash of light is emitted from one end of the box.
We know from mechanics that moving objects carry both energy and
momentum. This is also true for electromagnetic waves. Maxwell showed that
the energy E and momentum p of a wave are related by p = E / c .
Because the emitted light wave carries momentum E/c, the box must recoil
in order to conserve momentum. The recoil speed is v, which we assume is
much less than c, since the box is massive.
E
Momentum conservation: = Mv where M = mass of the box.
c
The light will move down the length of the box in
L v mass M
time: ∆t = (again assumes v << c, so that
c c
distance travelled by light is L).
During ∆t , the box moves a very small distance L
 E L
  EL x
∆x , given by: ∆x = v∆t =    = 2
.
 Mc c
  Mc
Once the light hits the end of the box, it transfers its momentum to the box and
brings it to a stop. The box is now in a new position. Its centre of mass appears to
have moved, but the box is an isolated system whose centre of mass cannot move!
To deal with this contradiction, Einstein assumed that light carries mass (as well as
energy and momentum).

If m = mass carried by the light, then: mL = M∆x

in order that the centre of mass of (the box + light) does not move.
M∆x M EL E
Using the expression for ∆x and solving for m gives: m = = 2
= 2
L L Mc c
2
∴ E = mc
where
E = energy of the light, usually written as Eo to denote that it is the rest energy
m = equivalent mass of the light

Although this expression has been derived for light energy, it is universal
statement of the equivalence of mass and energy. It can also be derived from
the definition of kinetic energy of a moving body. Because mass and energy are
not independent quantities, the separate conservation principles of energy and
mass are properly combined in the principle of conservation of mass-energy.
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PHY 140Y – Foundations of Physics, Fall Term 2001 (K. Strong) Lecture 32
Energy and Momentum in Special Relativity
The energy term in Eo = mc2 is the rest energy of a particle, not the total energy.
  
Newtonian mechanics: p = mu where u is the particle velocity
This suggests that if momentum is conserved in one reference frame, then it will
not be conserved in another because of Lorentz velocity addition.
 
In fact, p = mu is only an approximation for momentum for u << c.

  mu
General equation for momentum, valid at all speeds u: p = γm u =
1 − u2 / c 2
This momentum is conserved in all inertial reference frames and reduces to
 
p = mu for small u.

Also note that as u→c, then γ→∞ and so p→∞.

Since force = dp/dt, this means that a very large force p/mu
is needed to produce even a small change in the
velocity of a rapidly moving particle. This helps to
explain why it is impossible to accelerate an object to 1
the speed of light: the object’s momentum would →∞
and no matter how close u is to c, an ∞ force would
be needed to give the object the “last bit of speed”
0 1
needed to reach c. speed u/c

Now, calculate kinetic energy gained as a particle accelerates from rest to speed u.

dp d  mu  m du
F= =   =
dt dt  1 − u2 / c 2  (1 − u2 / c 2 )3 / 2 dt
 m du  mc 2
So: K = ∫ Fdx = ∫   udt = ... = − mc 2 = γmc 2 − mc 2
 (1 − u / c ) dt 
3 / 2
2 2
1 − u2 / c 2
= kinetic energy of a particle in a reference frame in which it has speed u
= total energy – rest energy = E - Eo

For u<<c, it can be shown (problem 43) that: K = 21 mu 2

For a particle at rest, u = 0 and then: E = E 0 = mc 2
This is an alternative derivation of the equivalence of mass and energy.

Let’s combine the equations p = γmu and E = γmc 2 : p = u c 2E

We can also write: E 2 − c 2p 2 = ( γmc 2 ) − c 2 ( γmu)2 to get: E 2 = c 2p 2 + (mc 2 )2
This is the energy-momentum relation. For particles at rest, p=0 and E = mc 2 .
For particles at high speed, rest energy is negligible and E ≈ pc . For photons
(bundles of EM energy, no mass), E = pc , as we used before.
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PHY 140Y – Foundations of Physics, Fall Term 2001 (K. Strong) Lecture 32
Section V.6 General Relativity (Einstein, 1914-16)
Recall that the Special Theory of Relativity is “special” because it is restricted to
reference frames in uniform motion. Einstein later tried to develop a theory that
expressed the laws of physics in the same form all frames of reference, including
those in accelerated motion. However, he recognized that it is impossible to
distinguish the effects of uniform acceleration from those of a uniform
gravitational field, and so his theory became a theory of gravity.
Einstein built on the idea of 4-D spacetime, introducing geometrical
curvature of spacetime to account for gravity → General Theory of Relativity
Two postulates of General Theory of Relativity:
(1) All the laws of physics have the same form for observers in any frame of
reference, whether accelerated or not.
(2) In the vicinity of a given point, a gravitational field is equivalent to an
accelerated frame of reference in the absence of gravitational effects
(this is the principle of equivalence).
The predictions of the GTR differ from those of Newton’s theory of gravity
only in regions of very strong gravitational fields or when the overall structure of
the universe is considered. “strong fields” = those of objects whose escape
speed is comparable to that of light
We have no direct lab experience of such strong fields, and so the GTR is
not as solidly established as the STR. However, GTR is an important theory for
astrophysics, helping to explain the physics of neutron stars and black holes.

Space-Time Diagrams
These are graphical depictions of the space and time coordinates of a
reference frame. A complete diagram is 4D, but we usually suppress one or
more spatial dimensions. An event is represented by a point on the diagram and
the path followed by a system on the diagram is called a world-line.
The speed of a particle is the inverse of the slope of the world-line. Nothing
can have a world-line with a slope whose absolute magnitude is less than that of
the world-line for light (slope = ±1/c).
zero speed
A point at the origin is “here t
v<0 v>0 tangent || 1/c so travel beyond
and now”. The future is t>0
and the past is t<0. Travel this point is impossible
to the past requires the
light, slope = -1/c
slope of a particle’s world-
light, slope = 1/c
line to equal and then
FUTURE
become less than 1/c – this
is prohibited and so travel NOW
0
x
into the past is impossible PAST
under Special Relativity.
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PHY 140Y – Foundations of Physics, Fall Term 2001 (K. Strong) Lecture 32