MODULE I

Curso de Formação de Professores em Exercício

Course Design and

Evaluation - I

Universidade Pedagógica © 2014

Departamento de Ciências de Linguagem - Curso de Inglês
Ensino à Distância
Copyright
This Module cannot be printed for commercial purposes. In case of photocopying, reference should be
made to Universidade Pedagogica and to the Authors of the module.

Universidade Pedagógica
Universidade Pedagógica © 2014
Ensino à Distância
Rua Joao Carlos Beirao, nº 135
Telephone: 21-320860 /2
Telephone: 21-306720
Maputo - Mozambique

Fax: +258 21 320860 /2

E-mail: f:[email protected]
Website: www.up.ac.mz
Ou www.up.ac.mz/fclca.
Acknowledgements
The Universidade Pedagógica, English Course, wishes to thank those below for their contribution to
this module:

The Universidade Pedagógica especially English The CEAD (Centro de Educação Aberta e à
Department for giving me this chance and all who Distância) for giving me opportunity to develop
direct and indirectly contributed to do this this module that allowed me to exercise and apply
and without their help I would not make it. the techniques learned to develop materials for
distance education.
Technical Assistance
Author: Elias Peter

Instructional Designing: Victorino Guila

Language Review: Romão Paulo

Graphic Designing: Valdinácio Florêncio Paulo

Edition: Valdinácio Florêncio Paulo

Contents
About this MODULE I 1
How this MODULE I is structured ................................................................................ 1
The course overview ............................................................................................ 1
The course content ............................................................................................... 2
Resources ............................................................................................................. 2
Your comments .................................................................................................... 2

Course overview 3
Welcome to Course Design and Evaluation ................................................................... 3
Course Design and Evaluation—is this course for you? ................................................. 3
Course outcomes ........................................................................................................... 4
Timeframe ..................................................................................................................... 4
Study skills .................................................................................................................... 5
Need help? .................................................................................................................... 6
Assignments .................................................................................................................. 6
Assessments .................................................................................................................. 7

Getting around this MODULE I 8

Margin icons ................................................................................................................. 8

Unit 1 9
Defining Concepts ......................................................................................................... 9
Introduction .......................................................................................................... 9

Lesson 1 10
Course Design and Evaluation ..................................................................................... 10
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 10

Lesson 2 12
Curriculum .................................................................................................................. 12
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 12

Lesson 3 14
Syllabus....................................................................................................................... 14
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 14
Lesson 4 16
Similarities and differences ......................................................................................... 16
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 16
Unit summary.............................................................................................................. 18
Assignment ................................................................................................................. 20
Assessment .................................................................................................................. 20

Unit 2 22
Stages Of Course Design ............................................................................................. 22
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 22

Lesson 1 23
Contextualization in Course Design ............................................................................. 23
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 23

Lesson 2 26
Needs Analysis in Course Design ................................................................................ 26
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 26

Lesson 3 28
Types of Needs ............................................................................................................ 28
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 28

Lesson 4 30
Approaches to Needs Analysis .................................................................................... 30
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 30
Unit summary.............................................................................................................. 34
Assignment ................................................................................................................. 34
Assessment .................................................................................................................. 35

Unit 3 37
Needs Analysis Tools/Instruments ............................................................................... 37
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 37

Lesson 1 39
Questionnaires ............................................................................................................. 39
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 39

Lesson 2 43
Interviews.................................................................................................................... 43
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 43
Lesson 3 46
Observations ............................................................................................................... 46
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 46

Lesson 4 49
Documentation ............................................................................................................ 49
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 49
Unit summary.............................................................................................................. 51
Assignment ................................................................................................................. 52
Assessment .................................................................................................................. 52

Unit 4 54
Design Needs Analysis Tools ...................................................................................... 54
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 54

Lesson 1 55
Characteristics of Well Designed Questionnaires ......................................................... 55
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 55

Lesson 2 57
Characteristics of an Interview .................................................................................... 57
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 57

Lesson 3 60
Characteristics of Well Planned Observation ............................................................... 60
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 60

Lesson 4 62
Nature of Documentation ............................................................................................ 62
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 62
Unit summary.............................................................................................................. 64
Assignment ................................................................................................................. 64
Assessment .................................................................................................................. 64

Unit 5 66
Types of Syllabus I ...................................................................................................... 66
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 66

Lesson 1 68
Grammatical Syllabus ................................................................................................. 68
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 68
Lesson 2 71
Functional Notional Syllabus ....................................................................................... 71
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 71

Lesson 3 73
Procedural Syllabus ..................................................................................................... 73
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 73

Lesson 4 76
Content Syllabus ......................................................................................................... 76
Introduction ........................................................................................................ 76
Unit summary.............................................................................................................. 78
Assignment ................................................................................................................. 78
Assessment .................................................................................................................. 78
 Course Design and Evaluation - I

About this MODULE I

Course Design and Evaluation - I has been produced by
Universidade Pedagógica © 2014. All MODULE Is produced by
Universidade Pedagógica © 2014 are structured in the same way,
as outlined below.

How this MODULE I is

structured
The course overview
The course overview gives you a general introduction to the
course. Information contained in the course overview will help
you determine:

 If the course is suitable for you.

 What you will already need to know.

 What you can expect from the course.

 How much time you will need to invest to complete the course.

The overview also provides guidance on:

 Study skills.

 Where to get help.

 Course assignments and assessments.

 Activity icons.

 Units.

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully

before starting your study.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

The course content

The course is broken down into units. Each unit comprises:
 An introduction to the unit content.
 Unit outcomes.
 New terminology.
 Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.
 A unit summary.
 Assignments and/or assessments, as applicable.

Resources
For those interested in learning more on this subject, we provide
you with a list of additional resources at the end of this MODULE
I; these may be books, articles or web sites.

Your comments
After completing Course Design and Evaluation - I, we would
appreciate it if you would take a few moments to give us your
feedback on any aspect of this course. Your feedback might
include comments on:

 Course content and structure.

 Course reading materials and resources.

 Course assignments.

 Course assessments.

 Course duration.

 Course support (assigned tutors, technical help, etc.)

Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance

this course.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Course overview
Welcome to Course Design and
Evaluation
Welcome to Course Design and Evaluation. We hope that you will enjoy
this module and develop your knowledge and skills on issues related to
Course Design and Evaluation via distance learning. Congratulations on
your choice and decision to commit yourself, over the next few months,
to serious study and putting into practice your newly acquired learning
experience, skills and attitude towards English Language Teaching.

You may have, most likely, enrolled for this module because you are
already in some way involved in providing or facilitating education, and
probably, you want to know more and increase your repertoire or in
simple words, you want to improve your performance and practice. We
hope that this module will help you to develop the professionalism that
your work requires you to have and also that Course Design and
Evaluation will increase your appetite for further study in the field of
ELT.

Course Design and Evaluation—is

this course for you?
This course is intended for people who have some teaching experience
and are willing to improve their knowledge in terms of Syllabus Design,
Materials Development and Evaluation Approaches and Techniques.

This course will help you to analyse the syllabus you are working with,
more objectively, and will help you to look into possible positive
improvements more scientifically.

Course Design and Evaluation will help you to study different types of
Evaluation strategies as well as several kinds of tests and their purposes.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

In order to benefit more effectively from this module you need to have
finished Study Skills, Research methods and English Language Teaching
Methodology.

This course is modular structured and the sequence of each unit can be
used independently. The course is designed to be used actively by you
working in the field.

Course outcomes
Upon completion of Course Design and Evaluation - I you will be able to:

 Carry out needs analysis.

 Select appropriate syllabus.

Outcomes
 Design appropriate syllabus.

 Select teaching materials.

 Design teaching materials.

 Evaluate syllabus, materials, and students.

Timeframe
Each unit will depend on your own speed and well you are organised.

You should spend at least 2 hours a day to read each lesson.

How long? You should take at least 2 hours on self-study.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Study skills
As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to that
from your school days: you will choose what you want to study, you will
have professional and/or personal motivation for doing so and you will
most likely be fitting your study activities around other professional or
domestic responsibilities.
Essentially you will be taking control of your learning environment. As a
consequence, you will need to consider performance issues related to
time management, goal setting, stress management, etc. Perhaps you will
also need to reacquaint yourself in areas such as essay planning, coping
with exams and using the web as a learning resource.
Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the time
you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which you engage
in that learning.
We recommend that you take time now—before starting your self-
study—to familiarize yourself with these issues. There are a number of
excellent resources on the web. A few suggested links are:
 http://www.how-to-study.com/
The “How to study” web site is dedicated to study skills resources.
You will find links to study preparation (a list of nine essentials for a
good study place), taking notes, strategies for reading text books,
using reference sources, test anxiety.
 http://www.ucc.vt.edu/stdysk/stdyhlp.html
This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student Affairs.
You will find links to time scheduling (including a “where does time
go?” link), a study skill checklist, basic concentration techniques,
control of the study environment, note taking, how to read essays for
analysis, memory skills (“remembering”).

 http://www.howtostudy.org/resources.php
Another “How to study” web site with useful links to time
management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing skills,
getting the most out of doing (“hands-on” learning), memory building,
tips for staying motivated, developing a learning plan.
The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. At the time
of writing these web links were active. If you want to look for more go to
www.google.com and type “self-study basics”, “self-study tips”, “self-
study skills” or similar.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Need help?
In case of difficulties, please contact the following

In Maputo
Help
Elias Sinodingue Peter

Faculdade de Ciências de Linguagem Comunicação e Artes

Rua Joao Carlos Beirao 135

Maputo

Tel. 21 42 08 60/2 or 21 30 67 20

Cell 82 78 36 951

E-mail: [email protected]

In the provinces

In each province there is a resource centre available and a local Provincial

English Advisor to help you.

For an assistance related to an academic issue, the Provincial English

Advisor will be able to help you and do no hesitate to contact him or her.

Assignments
Throughout each unit, you will have to carry out a number of activities
that will help you to consolidate the matters reviewed.

We recommend that you go through all exercises indicated without

Assignments immediately resorting to the key answers or correction guide.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Assessments
In this subject you will have to write two tests per semester. In order to
complete the module, you will have to write a final exam at the end of the
Assessments academic year. Nevertheless, all exercises you will undertake at the end
of each lesson and unit will be checked by your tutor for purposes of
formative and continuous assessment.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Getting around this MODULE I

Margin icons
While working through this MODULE I you will notice the frequent use
of margin icons. These icons serve to “signpost” a particular piece of text,
a new task or change in activity; they have been included to help you to
find your way around this MODULE I.

A complete icon set is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize

yourself with the icons and their meaning before starting your study.

Activity Assessment Assignment Case study

Discussion Group activity Help Note it!

Outcomes Reading Reflection Study skills

Summary Terminology Time Tip

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Unit 1
Defining Concepts
Introduction
In this unit you are going to learn some of the most commonly used
concepts in this course, as well as understand the differences which exist
between, here I am referring to Curriculum, Syllabus, Evaluation and
Assessment, in varied contexts and settings.

This unit is mainly concerned with the issues which will be used as the
guiding principle throughout this module.

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 Learn the definitions of different concepts.

 Use the concepts appropriately.

Outcomes  Distinguish them from one another.

 Look at their essence.

Course: A pathway, road or programme.

Design: Develop or construct.

Terminology
Evaluation: Decision taking.

Curriculum: Educational policy statement.

Syllabus: A description of the contents of a course of instruction

and the order in which they are to be taught.

Needs A process of determining the needs for which a learner or

Analysis: a group of learners requires a language and arranging the
needs according to priorities.

Materials: Any academic resources.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Lesson 1
Course Design and Evaluation
Introduction
In this lesson we are going to begin by looking at the key concepts of this
course, starting with definitions.

By the end of this lesson you are expected to:

 Define the concepts Course, Design and Evaluation.

 To understand the difference between Evaluation and Testing.

Outcomes

Before we move on, I would like to find out from you,

 What is your understanding of Course Design?

Discussion  What do you think Evaluation means?

 Is Evaluation same as Testing?

In order to achieve that, we will have to start by looking at what the key
concepts in the programme mean. Bellow are some of the explanations of
these concepts. For better understanding you will need 90 minutes.
Time

Course Design and Evaluation is a subject aimed at helping you to get a

better understanding of the syllabus, the materials and methods of
evaluation you already use. This course will also equip you with enough
Reading
scientific knowledge to be able to design your own syllabus materials and
evaluation tools.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Course can be defined as a pathway to achieve a certain goal or

objective. It is also associated with the framework around which a body
of knowledge is built. A general example of a course is a road, which we
must follow to reach our destination. In our specific case, is to reach the
objectives.

Design can be understood as the development or construction process,

whereby different tools are used in order to built a solid structure, and be
it a path or a body of knowledge and experiences. This can be equated to
building that road.

Evaluation is a continuous process of gathering information for the

purpose of decision making. An example of this can be found in every
day life. We evaluate things to do, to buy to eat etc. Like, when we want
to by a radio, we may try it in the shop, to see if it is loud enough, it
captures the radio frequencies we desire, to see if it is portable or not. In
checking these items, we are collecting data for evaluation, which in the
end, will help us to make the final decision, if we are going to buy it or
not.

The reason for defining these concepts is to give us a better

understanding of the course we are embarking on, and the purpose with
which we are undertaking this programme.

Before we move on to next lesson, I would like you to think about

Curriculum and Syllabus. What do you think are their differences and or
Reflection similarities?

You must bring your thoughts on these concepts to the next lesson.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Lesson 2
Curriculum
Introduction
In this lesson we are going to look at some challenging concepts, like in
the previous lesson, we are going to start with defining Curriculum and
Syllabus.

By the end of this lesson you are expected to:

 Define the concepts of Curriculum and Syllabus.

 Understand and explain their differences.

 Understand the relevance of each of them

Outcomes

Before we start I would like you to discuss your views regarding the
following concepts:

Discussion - What conclusions did you reach on defining Curriculum and Syllabus?

- What do we understand by Curriculum?

- What is syllabus?

In order to achieve the required in-depth understanding, you will require at

least 45 minutes in this lesson.
Time

These are very well known concepts to everyone in or outside the

academic field, however, like most commonly known concepts; they are
often misused by various people due to the lack of understanding of the
Reading
real interpretation.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

More often than desired this concept is usually applied synonymously

with syllabus, although the two have very little in common if any.

In its etymological sense, Curriculum means, a document describing the

educational policies or strategies of a country or institution.

A Curriculum can be comparable to an umbrella term, which means a

general concept used in defining what should be done in a country‟s
educational system or institutions, bearing in mind its purpose and overall
objective.

For example, the Ministry of Education develops a Curriculum for the

country‟s educational system, stating what should be taught and why, in
order to achieve a national well-being, and to enable its citizens to
function effectively as useful members of the society, who have gone
through that educational system.

The same applies to an institution, for example the U.P. has its
curriculum, which is a statement of its policy and ethos as a teacher
training body.

In its curriculum it states or lists all the subjects which should be taught
in order to produce qualified teachers as defined by its mission statement.

Richards, Platt and Platt (1992) define it as “an educational programme

which states the educational purpose of the programme, the content,
teaching procedures and learning experiences which will be necessary to
achieve this purpose, some means for assessing whether or not the
educational ends have been achieved”.

As you might have noticed, the curriculum does not tell you or us the how,
when and by who the teaching and the evaluation of those subjects should

Reflection be done.

That is where we as course designers come in. Our responsibility is to

breakdown those policies, recommendations and guidelines into
applicable items, i.e., teachable units.

This is what will take us into the next lesson, before that, let us reflect:
what is curriculum? What is syllabus?

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Lesson 3
Syllabus
Introduction
Like in the previous lesson, here, we are going to look at the concept of
syllabus in some detail and some length. Although we have briefly
looked and discussed it in the previous lesson, we are now going to look
at its essence.

This lesson will require 45 minutes of your time

Time

By the end of this lesson you are expected to:

 Define the concept syllabus

 Learn its origins

Outcomes  Define the concept of curriculum

 Look at and understand their differences

After having looked at Curriculum in some detail, I believe that you are
now in a better position to discuss the following issues

Discussion -What is your present understanding of the Syllabus?

- Where did the concept syllabus originated from?

- Why is it important?

- Are there any differences between Syllabus and Curriculum?

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Syllabus is a detailed account of what to do, when to it and how to do it.

A syllabus plays a role of major guideline which supports the teacher on
everyday task of implementing the curriculum based on the objective
Note it!
generally defined.

The syllabus, gives the teacher the exact objectives of the specific subject
as well as the specific objectives and aims of each lesson. It is also
supposed to provide the teacher with a comprehensible list of the
bibliography, reference as well as support material and equipment to be
used in order to help you to achieve the afore mentioned goals.

It is also within the syllabus where we find the framework of types of

methodology which should be used to meet the needs of learners we are
working with.

Richards, Platt and Platt (ibid) define it as “a description of the contents

of a course of instruction and the order in which they are to be taught”.

The syllabus, also provides the evaluation tools to be used i.e., the types
of tests to be implemented when and how.

The syllabus should be a compact document with as much detail as

possible, and it should be able to function without he designers direct
input. That is, when a practitioner comes across a syllabus, he or she
should be able to operate with and within it independently, without the
interference or additional input from its designer.

To accomplish this, a syllabus designer should think of as many

questions as he or she can, and should provide as many and as accurate
answers as possible as to avoid the end user i.e. the teacher, to seek his or
her support or help or help in interpreting and implementing it.

Reflect on the concepts discussed in this lesson, and decide where do you
think each of these concepts would be better used or applied?
Reflection

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Lesson 4
Similarities and differences
Introduction
After having looked at the main definitions of the Curriculum and the
Syllabus, we shall move on to the stage where the theoretical concepts
can be matched to reality. In this lesson we are going to look at how their
difference can influence the decision making process.

By the end of this lesson you are expected to:

 Understand the differences and similarities

 Importance of the differences

Outcomes  Advantages of the similarities

 How to overcome misconceptions

For this lesson you will need at least 90 minutes.

Time

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Before we proceed, I would like you to fill in the following chart

indicating the differences and similarities between Curriculum and
Syllabus:
Activity

CURRICULUM SYLLABUS

As we have already mentioned at the beginning of this unit, there are little
if any, similarities between the curricula and the syllabus. The main
common factors are that each of them specifies objectives to be achieved
Reading
at the end of a given cycle of education; this does not mean that the two
concepts are entirely or overtly similar.

When we look at curriculum we will find out that the objectives and goals
set by it are of a global and generic nature as a reflection of a societal or
institutional perception of what the objectives or purposes of the training
or education should be.

The curriculum reflects the common aspirations of a nation or a group of

people within the nation who aim at the developing that particular society
or a section from it with specific skills which can be generally or globally
useful for that particular society or community.

This is the reason why we say that the curriculum reflects the policies of
a nation of its section or sections.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

On the other hand we find the syllabus, which, in turn, deciphers the
coded information or policies reflected in the curriculum in more specific
and manageable units of knowledge

Before moving on to the next unit, I would like you to spend some time to
complete the following task.
Reflection - What do you think the Curriculum tell us?

- What do you think the syllabus ask us to do?

For example, the curriculum may state that all secondary school students
from grade 8 to grade 12 should learn to use the English language
effectively by the end of that particular cycle of education i.e., the
Secondary Education.

- Can you think of more examples?

It does not tell us specifically, what should be taught, how it should be

taught, when it should be taught, how should be assessed, when should it
be assessed. It also, does not tell us what type of syllabus, tests, materials
Note it!
are or should be required in order to achieve the implementation of those
philosophical principles stated by the curriculum.

This is the reason why that the Syllabus are of paramount importance in
the teaching and learning process , hence we are going to embark on a
thorough study of its intricacies before we indulge in designing some.

Unit summary
In this unit you learned about the basic and key concepts of Course
Design and Evaluation. You looked into the definitions of the various

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Summary concepts as well as their use.

You also looked at the controversial concepts of Curriculum and Syllabus

as well as their similarities and differences.

Curriculum can be explained as a document which tell us what the

Ministry of Education of Mozambique wants to be taught, what subjects,
their purposes, the contents, their relevance, the evaluation periodicity
and overall objectives to be achieved at the end of each cycle of
education.

Syllabus can be explained as document which tells us how to do what the

Curriculum requires us to do in each subject. For example in English:
How are going to teach present simple, when are we going to do it, what
resources are we going to do it with, what methodology to be used, when
to evaluate and how to evaluate.

I believe that in this unit you got a better understanding of the purposes
and aims of this module and how the knowledge you gain from it will be
of practical and positive effect in your teaching and learning process,

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Assignment
For this unit‟s assignment, I would like you to review the following
questions, using the information you gathered in the previous lessons:

1. Define the concepts Course Design and Evaluation

Assignment
2. Define the concepts of Curriculum and Syllabus.

3. What is the essence of Curriculum?

4. What is the essence of Syllabus?

5. What are the differences and similarities between Curriculum and

Syllabus?

6. Think of context you may apply one or the other of the above
concepts.

Assessment
1. Write a short essay of about 2, A4 pages discussing the concepts
Curriculum and Syllabus you have learned in this unit. Mentioning
Assessment contexts in which they could be most appropriately applied.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Answer Key
1. Course Design and Evaluation is a course which aims at offering
teachers with the tools to design, adapt, review and implement
syllabus ant teaching materials with a given context. It also
provides teachers with knowledge to assist them in selecting
appropriate evaluation tools.

2. Curriculum is a document which gives general guidelines of the

objectives of the teaching and learning process within a given
institution or system of education. The Syllabus, on the other
hand, gives detailed instructions on how to teach, when to teach ,
what to teach why to teach, what materials to use and when, how
and why to evaluate.

3. The essence of curriculum is to provide a uniform educational

strategy of education within a system of education so that there
would be no discrepancies in terms of the abilities acquired by
individuals within the same system.

4. The syllabus has the main purpose of guiding the teachers and or
instructors with specific knowledge of and about the
implementation of the strategies proposed by the Curriculum.

5. The main differences are that the Curriculum is general or global,

while the syllabus is subject specific.

6. Curriculum can be appropriately applied in a context which is

referring to the overall education policy, while syllabus is mainly
used when we are talking about a specific subject program.

Further Reading
 Nunan, D (1988) Syllabus Design O.U.P. Oxford, U.K

 Richards, Platt and Platt (1992) Dictionary of Language Teaching

and Applied Linguistics, Longman, UK

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Unit 2
Stages Of Course Design
Introduction
This unit will look into two stages of Course Design which are, basically
the milestones in the process of designing a syllabus or a course.

There are many stages in the process of designing a course, however we

will concentrate on the ones which we believe to be the most important
and should not be ignored during the process, and these are:

- Contextualization

- Needs Analysis

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 Understand what contextualization means.

 Learn how to contextualize.

Outcomes  Define Needs Analysis.

 Know different types of needs.

 Design needs analysis tools.

 Carry out needs analysis.

Contextualization A process of identifying and defining the context

Needs Analysis: A process of analysing the stakeholders necessities

Terminology
Needs: Desires and wants of a person or group of people

Tools: Implements or objects to help us to carry out a task

Stakeholders: All interested parties

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Lesson 1
Contextualization in Course
Design
Introduction
Welcome to the first lesson of unit 2. This lesson will look at the concept
of Contextualization, which is a determining factor in a designing
process.

By the end of this lesson you are expected to:

 Understand what is contextualization,

 How important it is,

 How to determine it.

Outcomes

For better understanding of these factors, you should spend about 90

minutes of your time.
Time

Before we delve deeper into the discussion of needs analysis, we are going
to look at one of the stages which we believe to be the most crucial in this
process because it is the one which defines the nature and character of the
Discussion
steps that will follow as well as its success or failure of the whole
programme. Therefore I would like you to discuss the following issues

- What do you think Contextualization means?

- When do you think we should use this concept?

- At what stage of Course Design, should this concept be applied?

Contextualization is the stage where we carry out preliminary enquiries

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

about the organization or institution we are going to work with. It is within

the contextualization stage where and when we identify the location of the
institution or organization we are working with. It is at this stage where
we become acquainted with the stake holders and any other factors which
may affect the development of the programme we intend to run.

In practical terms, it means that it is within the contextualization stage

where we find the following:

Note it! Aspects to look for in Contextualization

 Who are the sponsors?

 Who are the students?
 Who are the direct beneficiaries?
 Who are the indirect beneficiaries?
 What is the location?
 What environment are we going to run the program in?
 What is the generally accepted socio-cultural background of all
the stakeholders?
 The existence or lack of infrastructures
 Availability of resources.

The contextualization stage is very important because it is based on this

information that we can move on to the next stage, that of needs analysis.

Some questions may arise like when and where should we carry out this
stage? Essentially, this can be done once an approach or contact has been
established any of the stakeholders. For example, a representative of an
institution or company comes to us requesting us to run an English
Language Course for a group of people on their behalf, this where we
should start this stage, by asking questions to ascertain certain relevant
fact and factors as those previously mentioned.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

At this point I would like you to determine a context and think of some
questions you would ask and complete the following table:
Activity

Context ………………………………………………………………….

Questions
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….

Usually, this preliminary enquiry is done informally, but depending on

the circumstances, these could be done more formally.

For example, you may have agreed, during the initial conversation, that
you should submit all the questions you want answered in a written
document, subsequently a written reply will be sent back to you.

The contextualization stage will help us to identify and define the needs
analysis target groups, as well as with the choice of needs analysis tools
which are the most appropriate for that particular context. We will look at

those in more detail at the next lesson.

Before moving on to the next lesson, I would like you to describe to

context in which you work, and determine how you reached to that

Reflection conclusion.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Lesson 2
Needs Analysis in Course Design
Introduction
In this lesson we will look at another fundamental stage of Course
Design, that of Needs Analysis. I am almost certain that most of you have
heard of this concept before. What this lesson is going to do is to help
improve your understanding and use of this concept.

To achieve that, we need to spend at least 90 minutes in this lesson.

Time

By the end of this lesson you are expected to:

 Define Needs Analysis

 Understand its purpose

 Know types of needs

Outcomes

Before we start our discussion and considerations, I would like you to

think about the following issues and provide your point of view:

- Have ever heard of Needs Analysis?

- What do you think this concept means?

Reflection - What is the purpose of Needs Analysis?

- When should the needs Analysis be carried out?
- How does it relate to the general concept of Course Design?

Needs Analysis is another crucial stage in the process, because this is

where we are going to start a study of what the stakeholders‟ precise needs
are.
Note it!

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

The needs analysis is the process of gathering specific information about

the stakeholders needs in order to design a programme or a course which
will meet their demands.
Activity
The needs analysis will help us to try and satisfy as much as possible the
stakeholders demands, particularly those of the learners.

As Richards, Platt and Platt (1992:242) explain them, Needs Analysis is

the process of determining the needs for which a learner or a group of
learners requires a language and arranging the needs according to
priorities. Needs assessment makes use of both subjective and objective
information e.g., data from questionnaires, tests, interviews, observations,
and seeks to obtain information on situations; objectives: types of
communication; and level of proficiency.

As you can see, this is a response to what happened in the past, where, in
many teaching programmes and teaching materials, there was little
emphasis put on the learners and their needs, therefore it is important that
we reverse the situation by looking at the direct intervenients´ needs and
wants.

This is the reason why Needs Analysis is very important in order to try
and bridge that existing gap, consequently producing courses which are
relevant and motivating.

In order to achieve this purpose, we must identify the instruments which

are going to help us to collect the relevant information.

It is also at the needs analysis stage where we are going to start, first and
foremost, asking our selves some crucial questions like;

 What kind of information am I looking for?

 How am I going to get the information?

 What am I going to use the information for?

 Who am I going to get the information from?

 Who is going to help with the process?

Answer these questions based on the information you have gathered in

the previous lessons.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Lesson 3
Types of Needs
Introduction
As we have seen in the previous lesson, Needs Analysis is a complex
concept and process; however, with the knowledge of different types of
Needs, we can minimize the complexity and simplify the process making
it more effective.

By the end of this lesson you are expected to:

 Identify Objectives and Subjective Needs

 Define Objective and Subjective Needs

Outcomes  Effectively use the definitions for Needs Analysis

To achieve these goals, we have to spend about 90 minutes in this lesson.

Time

Before we look at tools which will help us to gather the desired

information, we should look at types of needs, by reflecting on and about
Reflection our understanding, based on our life experiences:

. How many types of needs are there ?

. What type of needs are there?

. What makes them different?

. Are they equally important?

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

According to Brindley (1989) in Johnson (1989:70), there are two main

types of needs to be taken into consideration:

Note it!  Objective Needs

 Subjective Needs

Brindley (1989) defines Objective Needs as „needs which are derivable

from different kinds of factual information about learners, their use of
language in real life communication situation as well as their current
language proficiency, and language‟.

While Subjective Needs refer to cognitive and affective needs of the

learners in the learning situation, derivable from information about
affective and cognitive factors such as personality, confidence, attitudes,
learner‟s wants and expectations with regards to the learning of English
and their individual cognitive style and learning strategies‟.

It is this apparent contradiction between the two types of needs that

makes a large number of syllabuses ineffective, because they tend to
focus more on one type of need than the other. This has resulted in the
development of teaching programmes which are or were ineffective.

In order to overcome this situation, some approaches to Needs Analysis

have been developed, which vary according to the nature of the course,
the designer‟s perception of language, learning and teaching theories.

It is, therefore, very important that we select the appropriate approach to

needs analysis to ascertain both types of needs in order to be able to
develop a syllabus which will cater for all of them.

Based on the context you have identified in Lesson 1, select an

appropriate approach to Needs Analysis and give reasons for your choice.
Activity

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Lesson 4
Approaches to Needs Analysis
Introduction
After having looked at the definitions and the essence of Needs Analysis,
as well as the types of needs, in this lesson, we will focus on approaches
to Needs Analysis.

By the end of this lesson you are expected to:

 Define the concept approach.

 Identify approaches to Needs Analysis,

 Explain each type of approach to Needs Analysis

Outcomes

For better understanding of these concepts, we need to spend 120 minutes

in this lesson.
Time

In this lesson, we are going to look at some approaches to Needs Analysis,

before that I would you to discuss the following aspects:

Discussion - What do you think they are?

- Bearing in mind the purpose of the teaching and learning process,

- What do you think is the essence of each of the following

approaches?

- Approaches can also be called Orientation.

- What do you think are the differences between an Approach and

an Orientation?

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Here are some of the explanations related to these concepts.

There are basically three main approaches to needs analysis, and I believe
Reading that each of them reflects the underlying philosophy of the basic
principles of the three major linguistic sciences.

These approaches to needs analysis are what Bridley (ibid) calls

orientation‟. Thus we have:

 Language Proficiency Orientation,

 Psychological /Humanistic Orientation,

 Specific Purpose Orientation.

The Language Proficiency Orientation, views the learners as being

merely a language learner, and it stresses the objective needs, which are
perceived as being the gap between the present and the desired general
language proficiency.

This orientation emphasises the ease of administration and it is concerned

with the learner‟s level of proficiency in one or more language skills.

The proponents of this orientation, when carrying out needs analysis, are
more concerned with biographical date, the learner‟s level of language
proficiency, and the learner‟s difficulties or shortcomings. This simply
means, they want to find out how old you are, what you know and what
you do not know.

To gather such information, the designer uses questionnaires, interviews,

observations and language proficiency tests (this instrument will be
discussed at a later stage in this Module).
Note it!

The Psychological/Humanistic Orientation, views the learners as sapient

human being in a society with the capacity to become self-directed. It
stresses Subjective Needs, which are perceived, by its advocates, as a gap
Reading
between the current states of awareness necessary for the learners to
become self-directing‟. What do you think self-directing means?

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

When we talk about self-directing, we should refer back to the purposes

of Needs Analysis, where the students‟ involvement is very important in
defining the establishment of the content of the syllabus.

It encourages the learners‟ involvement during the planning and

preparation of the course. Its concern is to collect the learner‟s
biographical data, learner‟s motivation, and attitude towards foreign
language learning, personality, learning styles, desires and expectations.

Contrary to the previous approaches, this one, concerns itself with what
and how the learners feel about the language as a whole, as well as its
inherent socio-cultural load.

The main instruments for data collection are similar to those described
above, but they differ in data, and this orientation does not incorporate the
language proficiency test as one of its instruments.
Note it!

The Specific Purpose Orientation, views the language learner as a

language user. The Needs are perceived as being a gap between present
language performance in a specific area and language performance
required in a particular communication situation.

This orientation stresses Objective Needs and requires a detailed data

collection on those needs. Its advocates argue that language users learn
more effectively from a programme content which is relevant to their
specific area of need or interest.

It does not consider general language proficiency as important, as long as

the learner can operate effectively in the specific areas, relevant to the
learner‟s objective needs.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

After having read the information on the approaches, I would like you to
answer the following questions:

- What needs, can be identified by the Language proficiency

Activity
approach?

- What needs, can be identified by the Psychological Humanistic

approach?

- What needs, can be identified by the Specific orientation

approach?

- What instrument or instruments could be more effective in

identifying subjective needs?

This approach does not consider all the other factors previously discussed.
Its main concern is to find out what you do not know in a specific field

Summary and will try to teach you. For example, a learner is going to use English in
a restaurant as a waiter, it will teach him/her enough language to operate
in that arena only. They (the proponents) will not consider if you might
need to use the language in a social or cultural sphere.

The main information or data required is the biographical, language usage

in the target situation and the needs of other interested parties, i.e.,
employers, sponsors, etc.

You are recommended to move on to the Further Reading section of this

unit for additional referenced information regarding these concepts.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Unit summary
In this unit you learned the concepts of Contextualization, Needs,
Analysis, Types of Needs and Approaches to Needs Analysis.

Summary The purpose of the previous four lessons were to raise your awareness in
regard to the first few crucial stages you need to follow in order to carry
out an effective needs analysis stage, particularly the reason why you
should carry them out.

This unit serves as the foundation upon which you are going to build the
course as well as the body of knowledge which will follow.

Remember, there is no an effective course which does not go through

these stages.

You must always bear in mind that whatever information you gather now,
at Needs Analysis, will determine the type of course you are going to
design and its subsequent success or failure.

Assignment
After having read all the unit, answer the following questions

1. What is Contextualization?

2. When should it take place?

Assignment
3. What is Needs Analysis?

4. What is the objective of Needs Analysis?

5. How would you define Needs?

6. What Types of Needs are you aware of?

7. What are Objective Needs?

8. What are Subjective Needs?

9. What are the Approaches to Needs Analysis?

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Assessment
Before you carry out a Needs Analysis exercise, I would like you to write
a short essay of about 2, A4 pages discussing the
Assessment Psychological/Humanistic Orientation to Needs Analysis, in order to
determine your understanding of these theoretical concepts.

Answer Key
1. Contextualization is the stage where the designer makes the
preliminary contact with a stakeholder in order to determine the
nature of the course to be designed, and specifically in what
context such a course will be run.

2. This stage should be the first step, before any decision regarding
the needs analysis approaches selection could be made.

3. Needs analysis is the process of gathering information from

various stakeholders in order to determine the type of course to
be designed.

4. Needs analysis will help the designer to determine the type of

methodology, teaching materials, evaluation strategy, timeframe,
type of teachers, length of course and overall expected outcome.

5. Needs can generally be defined as necessities of a human being.

6. There are two main types of needs.

7. 7 Objective needs also known as primary needs are those which a

human being requires for his or her survival foe example food
and shelter.

8. Subjective or secondary needs are those which a human being

requires for his or her comfort, not necessarily for survival, for
example a TV or expensive item of clothing.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

9. Approaches to needs analysis are the strategies we choose to use

in order to carry out the Needs analysis.

Further Reading

 Richterich and Chancerel (1983) Identifying the Needs of Adults

Learning a Foreign Language, Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK

 Van Ek and Trim (1983) Crossing the Threshold, Pergamon

Press. Oxford, UK

 Tarone and Yule (1989) Focus on Language Learner, O.U.P.,

Oxford, UK

 Brindley (1989) The Role of Needs Analysis in Adult ESL

Programme Design, in Johnson (1989)

 Johnson (1989) The Second Language Curriculum, C.U.P.,

Cambridge, UK

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Unit 3
Needs Analysis Tools/Instruments
Introduction
As we have noted in the previous unit, there are varying types of data
required for each of the three approaches to Needs Analysis, similarly
there are different tools or instruments used for gathering such
information, namely Questionnaire, Interviews, Observation, Tests, and
Documentation.

At this point I would encourage you to read Oppenheim (1992), who

studied each of these tools more exhaustively. However, for the purpose
of this course, we are going to focus on the issues which will have a
direct and immediate impact on us and our work.

In this unit, we are going to look at each of those instruments

independently; we are also going to look at the advantages and
disadvantages of each of the instruments, as well as the characteristics of
a well designed tool for needs analysis.

I must, however, add that at this stage we will not discuss Test as a tool
for data collection as this will be dealt with more thoroughly at a later
stage in the course.

For better understanding we will try to focus one instrument in each of

the following four lessons.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 Design Needs Analysis tools.

 Select Needs Analysis tools.

 Characterize Needs Analysis tools.

Outcomes
 Define Needs Analysis tools.

 Explain Needs Analysis tools.

 Implement Needs Analysis tools.

Questionnaire: A set of questions on a topic or group of topics

designed to be answered by a respondent.

Terminology Interview: A directed conversation between an investigator and

an individual or a group of individuals in order to
gather information.

Observation: Procedure or technique that is based on systematic

observation of events.

Test: Any procedure for measuring ability, knowledge or

performance.

Documentation: Are formal papers bearing important or official

information?

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Lesson 1
Questionnaires
Introduction
This lesson will look at questionnaires as one of the instruments for
Needs Analysis. We are going to discuss different types of
questionnaires, their definitions and uses.

By the end of this lesson you are expected to:

 Define questionnaires.

 Identify different types of questionnaires

 Understand advantages and disadvantages of questionnaires.

Outcomes

To achieve these objectives, we will need to spend about 90 minutes in

this lesson.
Time

Before we star, I would like you to discuss the following questions:

- Do you know what questionnaires are?

Discussion - What are their purposes?

- When and where do you think they should be used?

- Have you ever answered a questionnaire?

- Have you ever designed a questionnaire?

- What types of questionnaires are you aware of?

In this lesson we will try to answer these and other questions related to
this concept.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

As we have seen in the terminology section, Questionnaire is a set of

questions on a topic or group of topics designed to be answered by a
respondent.
Reading
In the academic world, questionnaires are an overrated research
instrument because of its apparent ease of design and administration;
however, we should be very careful when using a tool or a concept which
is believed to be easy and simple. Sometimes, most of such types of
instruments carry a double burden, that of being too common, easy and
consequently ineffective or; too complex, overwhelming and also
ineffective.

There are many types of questionnaires with different purposes that is

why, when we decide to use a questionnaire, we should, at the very
beginning of the process, be very clear in our minds about, what we need
to use them for as well as the underlying principles for their design as
discussed by Oppenheim (1992:102-103). The following are examples of
some questions we should ask ourselves even before starting the
questionnaire design process:

 What am I going to do with the information which I am going to

get?
Reflection  What questions am I going to ask?

 Are the answers to the questions I decided to ask relevant to the

overall purpose of the project?

 Who Am I going to ask the questions?

 How am I going to ask?

 What time frame are the respondents allocated to return the

questionnaires?

 How many people am I going to question and why?

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

These are some of the main questions that we should bear in mind and
find the answers to, before we embrace a questionnaire design process
with the purpose of Needs Analysis.
Note it!
Once the above questions have been answered, we should move on to a
level higher, where we need to look at some more questions, in details
like:

 What language am I going to use?

 How long should the questions be?

Activity  What items should I include to ask about?

 What options am I going to incorporate?

 What kind of questions am I going to use? (Open ended/Multiple

choice/Ratings).

 How hard should the questions be?

These are some of the questions we should find the answer to during the
questionnaire design process.

Finally, that is, after the process has been completed, we need to think of
some more questions, like:
Reflection  When am I going to administer the questionnaires?

 Where am I going to administer them?

 How am I going to administer them?

 What logistical support do I have or need?

 How am I going to collect and collate the responses?

 How am I going to publish/show my results?

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

The ideas discussed in this lesson and the questions raised, are by no
means intended to deter anyone from using questionnaires, the sole

Summary purpose of this discussion is to draw your attention to the fact that. If you
want to design effective questionnaires you should take all of these factors
into consideration.

You should also be relatively acquainted with the principles, techniques,

types and approaches of questionnaire design, and administration.

At this point, I would like you to design a short questionnaire to be use with
learners
Activity

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Lesson 2
Interviews
Introduction
In this lesson we are going to talk about Interviews, whish is one of the
instruments for Needs Analysis. Like questionnaires, interviews are also
taken for granted as everyone assumes that it is easy to conduct one. Here
we will try to dispel this myth.

By the end of this lesson you are expected to:

 Define interviews

 Understand different types of interviews

 How to design and conduct academic interviews.

Outcomes

To achieve these objectives, we will need to spend at least 90 minutes in

this lesson.
Time

Interviews are commonly used in the academic research, and like

questionnaires, a lot o people take them for granted, considering the fact
that they are just conversations between two or more people.
Reading
Again, I must point out that their simplicity and apparent ease can be a
cause of concern and ineffectiveness.

Apart from being complex to arrange, organize and structure, they have
the disadvantages of not always providing you with the necessary
information useful for the purpose which you have or had in mind when
you chose to conduct them.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

You should, once again, start by asking yourself some questions like:
 Why Am I going to use interviews instead of one of the other
tools?
Discussion  Who am I going to interview?
 Why am I going to interviews that person or people?
 What am I going to ask and why?
 How am I going to ask?
 How am I going to structure my questions?
 How long should the interview last?
 When am I going to conduct the interview?
 Where am I going to conduct the interview?
 What logistical support do I have or need?
 Am I going to record the interview? If so, do I have the necessary
equipment?
Am I going to take notes of the interview during the interview or I am
going to ask for assistance from somebody or some people?

These are some of the preliminary questions that we should ask ourselves
before we begin the whole process. However, during the process our
minds should be working double shift simultaneously, because we need to
Note it!
be asking the questions and getting the answers, while at the same time we
are assessing our interviewee‟s reactions, level of comfort, level of
confidence, level of honesty and above all the objectivity of the answers
provided. This is the reason why we need to be asking ourselves:

 Is he or she comfortable?

 Is he or she confident to answer questions about the issue at hand?

Reflection
 Is he or she telling me the truth?

 Does he or she understand the questions?

 Is the level of the language being used appropriate to

interviewees‟ level?

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

 Are there any concepts I mentioned, which need explanations?

Are there any questions which need rewording?

All of these should be going on in you mind during the interview so that
you affect the necessary adjustments to maximize the effectiveness of

Summary your exercise, without jeopardizing the confidence and esteem of your
respondent.

After the process has been completed you must think of same questions as
the ones I mentioned at the end of the questionnaire administration
process.

To end this lesson, I must say that an interview is a very good and
efficient way of carrying out a research but it requires a great deal of
preparation and self-discipline, before, during and after the whole process
has been concluded.

Based on the insight you have acquired in this lesson, list advantages and
disadvantages of Interviews.

Activity

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Lesson 3
Observations
Introduction
In this lesson we will discuss observation as one of Needs Analysis tools.
Like the previously discussed tools in this unit, it is also under estimated.
We hope to provide you with better understanding to enable you to use it
more effectively.

By the end of this lesson you are expected to:

 Define Observation

 Describe different purposes of Observations

 Conduct an effective observation.

Outcomes

In order to achieve this, we need to spend at least 90 minutes in this

lesson.
Time

To begin with I would like you to reflect on the following questions.

- What is your understanding of Observation?

- When and where should an observation be carried out?

Reflection - Have you ever been observed?

- Have you ever observed anyone?

- What do you think are the advantages of observation?

- Are observations reliable?

- These and other questions will be discussed in this lesson.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Observation is another tool commonly used in the teaching and learning

academic research. It is highly valued but it also has its drawbacks. Being
the major one, that of „observing an untruth‟.
Reading
I believe that this is true to the human nature that when we are expecting a
visitor we always tend to polish our performance, be it at home, at school,
or at work. This is the reason why that when we embark on an
observation, more often than never, we encounter situations which do not
always reflect the truth. It is bearing this in mind that when planning an
observation we should always approach it with an open mind and caution.

Apart from the usual questions we should ask the beginning of the
process, we should also add another factor, that of the personality of the
people or person we are going to observe. In many occasions, the success
of our mission is hindered by the reaction of the person or people being
observed.

In order to overcome this, it is, therefore, important to establish a good

rapport with the person or people we are targeting. It is also important
that we do not draw our conclusions based on the first impression, hence
the need for planning. Once again, this starts with some questions, like:

 Who am I going to Observe?

 Why am I going to observe him or her?

Discussion  When am I going to observe?

 What am I going to observe?

 How long is the observation going to last?

 How many times am I going to observe that person or a group of

people?

 Have I planned my checklist thoroughly?

 Do I have or need any logistical support or assistance?

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

All of these plus many more questions should be considered before the
process starts.

During the process itself, we must always be alert, to make sure that
Activity
we do not see what is not there and adversely we miss what is there.

At this point, I would like you to design an observation checklist for

your colleague who is teaching a Grade 9 class.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Lesson 4
Documentation
Introduction
Like the previous tools, documentation is another Needs Analysis tool
which is often misunderstood, due to its common use. In this lesson, we
will look at how documentation can be effectively use for academic
research.

By the end of this lesson you are expected to:

 Define documentation in academic field

 Identify different type of documentation and purposes

 Correctly use documentation as a needs Analysis tool.

Outcomes

In order to achieve these objectives, we need to spend at least 90 minutes

in this lesson.
Time

Before we start, I would like you to spend at least 90 minutes in this

lesson

Discussion - What do think documentation means in the context of Course

design?

- What type of documentation do you think are required to carry out

a needs analysis?

- Have you ever been asked to present some documentation for

professional purposes?

- What types of documentation did you present?

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Documentation, as defined in the terminology, refers to the official paper

with official information. However, for the purpose of this discussion, we
shall use the concept documentation as referring to any written material
which can give us any additional information and insight regarding the
subject under analysis.

As we are talking about the teaching and learning process, and

specifically about the analysis of learners needs, it is relevant to mention
any items which have an official standing within that process. Here are
examples of some:

 Syllabus

 Timetables
Note it!  Test results records

 Personal records of the stakeholders

 Registration books,

 Lesson plans,

 Students‟ work

 Textbooks

 Teachers books

 Annual and termly evaluation records,

 And many more documentation which we deem necessary to help

us to gather the information we are seeking.

At this stage, I must point out that, depending on the individual or

individuals we are working with the number of documentation required
may vary.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

For example if we want to find information from a headmaster regarding

the learners performance, we may ask for school records, individual
students report cards, a document with expected outcomes, record of
teachers performance.

I must also remind you that the needs analysis is not only carried out for
the students or teachers, but for all the stakeholders, and the nature of
documentation required to support our endeavour will be determined by
Group activity
that factor.

At this point I would like you to make a list of documentation you may
require from a sponsor for the purpose of needs analysis.

Unit summary
In this unit you learned about different tools or instruments of needs
analysis, and you have also learned about factor which should be

Summary considered before, during and after the decision has been made regarding
which instrument to use.

In conclusion I would like to say that for an effective and productive

needs analysis process, we need to use one or more of the tools which we
have mentioned in order to ensure that whatever information we gather is
credible.

Let me give you an example: If you decide to use a questionnaire, you

may get some responses which are not sufficient to help you make a
thoughtful judgement; it would therefore be useful if we followed them
[the questionnaires] with an interview in order to cross check the
information gathered.

On the other hand you may decide to use interviews, but as I mentioned
earlier you may not always get the whole truth from your interviewee,

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

subsequent observation would be appropriate in order to help you to

establish the veracity of the facts brought to you at the interview.

Finally I would like to say that, for an effective and successful Needs
Analysis process we have to use two or more tools discussed in this unit
to guarantee that whatever decision we will have to make at subsequent
stages is based on facts and not fiction.

Assignment
Answer the following question as accurately and as succinctly as you can:

1. What are the advantages of a questionnaire?

2. What are the disadvantages of the questionnaires?

Assignment
3. What are the disadvantages of an Interview?

4. What are the Disadvantages of Observation?

5. What do you understand by documentation?

6. What are the disadvantages of documentation?

Assessment
For this unit‟s assessment I would like you to describe an experience you
may have had where any of these instruments were used. For example, if
Assessment you have been through an interview, tell us what was your experience
like, if you liked it or not, if it was too long or too short, if it was useful or
not, if the questions were clear or not, etc.

This experience discussion should be for any situation in your life where
you went through or used any of the instruments discussed in this unit.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Answer Key

1. The main advantage of questionnaires is that they are easy

to administer and the respondent has the freedom of saying
exactly what they feel regarding an issue.

2. The main disadvantages of questionnaires is that they may

not always be returned in time and some may not be
returned at all.

3. The main disadvantage of interview is that the interviewee

may provide unreliable answers because he or she is trying
to please the interviewer by give information that he or she
thinks the interviewer wants to hear.

4. The main disadvantages of the observation is that the

person being observed may not display the real personality,
he or she may be putting on a performance to please the
observer.

5. Documentation are official papers which contain verifiable

information to support the designer in the process of Course
Design.

6. The main disadvantage of documentation is that there is a

risk of being provided with unrealistic information
especially when it comes to statistical data.

Further Reading
 Oppenheim (1992) Questionnaire Design, Interviewing and
Attitude Measurement, Pinter Publishers Ltd, London, UK

 Richards ,Platt and Platt (1992) Dictionary of Language Teaching

and Applied Linguistics, Longman, UK

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Unit 4
Design Needs Analysis Tools
Introduction
Building upon the concepts we studied in the previous unit, here we will
look at the main characteristics that a well designed Needs Analysis
instruments should have, in order to maximize its effectiveness, hence
providing the necessary information and data required to achieve the
goals at hand.

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 Understand the key aspects that the needs analysis tools should
contain.
 Learn about how to go about designing the tools without making
Outcomes many mistakes.
 Know how to approach the target group.
 Produce effective needs analysis tools.
 Identify the major positive characteristics within the tools.
 Explain how the needs analysis tools could be more effective.

Question: A sentence which is addressed to a listener or reader

and asks for an expression of fact, opinion, belief etc.

Respondent: An individual or group of individuals who answer to a

Terminology series of questions, mainly in a written form.

Interviewer: A person or group of people who conduct an interview.

The people or person who asks and records the answers.

Interviewee: A person or group of people who answer the questions,

mainly orally or verbally.

Setting: A time and place where an event takes place.

Logistics: The organising of all the people and things needed for a
large-scale or complicated event.

Interview: A directed conversation between an investigator and an

individual or group of individuals in order to gather
information.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Lesson 1
Characteristics of Well Designed
Questionnaires
Introduction
This is a follow up of lesson 1 in unit 3, where we looked at
Questionnaires. This lesson will focus on strategies to minimize the
perceived disadvantages of Questionnaires, and maximize its
effectiveness.

By the end of this lesson you are expected to:

 Identify positive aspects of questionnaires

 Reduce disadvantages

Outcomes  Design effective questionnaires

To achieve these objectives, we will spend at least 90 minutes in this

lesson.
Time

Before we start, I would like you to think about what would be the
characteristics of a well designed questionnaire. List at least five
Reflection characteristics of a well-designed questionnaire.

A well planned questionnaire is an instrument which comprises all the

requisites needed to achieve the objective or purpose at hand, that of
gathering as much useful information as possible in order to help us
Note it!
design an effective course for a given group of interested parties.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

As we have previously mentioned, this can only be attained by a thorough

and thoughtful planning and administration.

A good Questionnaire should have:

 An introductory paragraph explaining the respondent the purpose

of the questionnaire.

 Short sentences, clear, simple grammatical structure, simple and

clear language which can easily be understood by the respondent.

 Unambiguous questions, which means that the questions should

be clear enough and require a single acceptable answer.

 The questionnaire should have as many options as possible in

order to assist the respondent to find the right answer.

 It should include a paragraph with the time frame for their return.

 It should explain place and mode of questionnaire collection.

 Should avoid open ended questions.

 Should avoid discussion questions.

 Should always provide space for the respondent‟s additional

information if and when needed.

 Should include a paragraph of gratitude to the respondents for

their effort and time.

These, are the basic principles we should look into and bear in mind
when we are designing a questionnaire, I must point out that these need
not be exactly in this order.

Based on the information provided in this lesson, give the reasons of each
of the characteristics listed above.

For example: - Why is it important to have an introductory paragraph?

Activity
- Why are short sentences better than long ones?

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Lesson 2
Characteristics of an Interview
Introduction
In this lesson we are going to look at characteristics of a well designed
interview or more precisely a well designed and planed interview guide.
Here we are also going to look at maximizing on the advantages of
interviews.

By the end of this lesson you are expected to:

 Design an interview guide

 Plan an interview

 Conduct an interview
Outcomes

For this lesson we will need to spend at least 90 minutes.

Time

Before we delve into an in-depth discussion, I would like you to discuss

the following issues:

Discussion - What is an interview?

- How reliable are the interviews?

- What are the major differences between an interview and a

questionnaire?

- How long do you think an interview should last?

- What should you inform the interviewee about?

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

As we have mentioned in the previous unit, an interview is „a

conversation‟, I must, however, add that an interview is a formal
conversation aimed at obtained as much detailed relevant information as
Note it!
possible. Therefore it is important that when planning ant interview we
should have an interview guide, where we list clear and succinctly all the
questions we need to ask.

Think of aspects which can distinguish a good interview from a bad one

INTERVIEW
Group activity
GOOD BAD

Some of the aspects we should consider are:

 Start the interview with general or social questions, which will

Reading allow the interviewee feel at ease and relaxed hence gaining his or
her confidence. For example we may star by asking questions about
the weather, the family, common cultural or sporting events, etc.

 You should give as much information, about yourself and the

project, as possible.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

 You must grade your questions according to the level of

complexity.

 You must use simple and clear language.

 You should ask, politely, for clarification of the answers which

you are unsure about.

 You much show interest to the answers at all times, even when
you realize that your interviewee is digressing too much.

 You should be prepared to „pull your interviewee back on track,

whenever you realize that he or she is off the mark.

 You end your interview by thanking the interviewee, and promise

to share the outcome of the interview in the near future.

 You must guarantee your interviewee of the privacy and

confidentiality of the information gathered, to safeguard her or
his integrity.

These are some of the aspects which we should consider when conducting
an interview. At this point I would like you to design an interview guide to
be use with teachers in a context of your choice. The guide you design
Activity should not have more than 10 items.

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Lesson 3
Characteristics of Well Planned
Observation
Introduction
This lesson will look at observation and ways in which we can most
effectively benefit from its use in needs analysis.

By the end of this lesson you are expected to:

 Design an observation chart

 Plan an observation

 Conduct an observation
Outcomes

For this lesson, we will need to spend at least 90 minutes.

Time

Considering the discussion we had in Lesson 3 of Unit 3, think of a

context in which you would carry out an observation. Describe it and give
your reasons for choosing an observation instead of any other tool.
Discussion

Complete the following chart with the characteristics of good and bad
observation:

OBSERVATION

GOOD BAD

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

An observation, as we have previously seen, is a very practical and

effective way of gathering information for any kind of academic research.
However, to capitalize on its advantages, we need to:
Note it!
 Have an observation plan.

 Be familiarized with the setting in which we are going to observe.

 Be aware of the sequence and purpose of events as they occur.

 Be unbiased.

 Be objective.

 Establish a good rapport with the person or people being

observed.

 Reframe from interfering with the course of events in the process.

 Explain what we want to observe and why before the event

These are some of the point you should bear in mind when carrying out
an observation. Remember this is an academic research and does not need
to be judgemental regarding the personality of the observed, but it needs
to be as uncompromising as possible to ensure that whatever we observe
and whatever conclusions we draw after the events, are as accurate as
possible, and as relevant as they can be.

Before we conclude this lesson, I would like you to design an observation

chart for a context of your choice, to be used with prospective learners.
Activity

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Lesson 4
Nature of Documentation
Introduction
In this lesson we are going to look at documentation as an instrument of
needs analysis and more precisely the type of documents we need to
collect in order to carry out this process as opposed to other types of
official documents.

By the end of this lesson you are expected to:

 Identify types of documents

 Understand where to collect them

 Know the purpose of the documents we collect

Outcomes

For this lesson, we will need at least 90 minutes.

Time

Based on the previous discussion on Documentation, list the documents

required from each of the following stakeholders, for the purpose of course
design:
Group activity

DOCUMENTATION

TEACHERS STUDENTS HEADMASTERS SPONSORS PARENTS

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

This is another of the most common instruments, used to collect data, in an

academic research. To make it effective, we need to be very clear about
what kind of documentation we need and what we hope to achieve or
Note it!
gather from them. That is why planning is of paramount importance.

Before, during and after the documentation analysis, we need to:

 Know, whose documentation we need,

 What kind of documentation we need,

 What kind of information are you looking for,

 Make sure that you know which documents will give you what
information

 Know exactly what information you are looking for.

The most common example of documentation use for needs analysis is

when we want to decide on a training programme for teachers. In this
case, we need to collect as many documents as possible to establish what
he or she has done professionally, what he or she knows academically,
and what needs to be improved.

To conclude, identify documents which you think are more effective for
needs analysis and give your reasons.
Activity

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Unit summary
In this unit you learned what the best or ideal characteristics of a well
designed tool of needs analysis are. We have looked at the basic

Summary principles or guidelines for designing and administering a good

questionnaire: we have looked at what to think about before, during and
after conducting and interview; we discussed the common good practices
in an observation. Finally we looked at how the documentation analysis
should be done.

All of these guidelines we looked at in this unit are aimed at helping you
to design, develop and conduct you needs analysis as effectively as
possible in order to help you achieve that ultimate goal of designing an
appropriate course for your given group of learners.

Assignment
1. List the characteristics of a well designed questionnaire.

2. List the characteristics of a well designed interview guide

3. List the characteristics of an Observation checklist.

Assignment
4. List the kind of documentation you will need to ascertain the
learners‟ needs.

Assessment
1. Based on his theoretical background and knowledge you have acquired
so far, design three different needs analysis tools of your choice for three
Assessment different stakeholders.

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Answer Key

For a clear understanding of the concepts discussed in this unit as

well as samples of Questionnaire, interview guides, observation
charts, please refer to Oppenheim (1992)

Further Reading

 Peter, E.S. (1991), A Study of the Problems and Principles in

Syllabus Specification for ESP (Unpublished), University of
Bristol Library, Bristol, U.K.

 Oppenheim, A.N. (1992) (New Ed) Questionnaires Design,

Interviewing and Attitude Measurement, Pinter Publishers Ltd,
London. U.K

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Unit 5
Types of Syllabus I
Introduction
As there are various definitions of syllabus, so are types of syllabus. Each
of them, with their own theoretical foundation.

The syllabuses are mainly based on psycholinguistic principles and

theories about language learning and the teaching methodologies or
approaches that are used. The reason I say this is because many
syllabuses tend to reflect a certain methodology or approach, which
happens to be the most popular at a particular moment in time.

If we look at it in the context of the progression of ELT, from Grammar-

Translation to Communicative Language Teaching, we will have the
following types of syllabus. Grammatical, Notional, Functional,
Procedural, Content, Task-Based, Lexical, Structural and Interactional.

As there are many types of syllabuses, in this unit we will try to discuss
four and the other will be discussed in the next unit.

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 Define different types of syllabus.

 Select appropriate syllabus.

Outcomes  Design appropriate syllabus.

 Analyse different types of syllabus.

 Adapt different types of syllabus.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Grammatical: A phrase, clause or sentence which is acceptable

because it follows the rules of a grammar.

Functional-Notional: A syllabus in which the language content is

Terminology arranged in terms of functions or speech acts,
together with the language items needed for them.

Procedural: A syllabus which is organised around tasks or

procedures, rather than in terms of grammar or
vocabulary.

Communicative: An approach to foreign or second language

teaching which emphasizes that the goal of
language learning is communicative competence.

Method: A way of teaching a language which is based on

systematic principles and procedures.

Unit: A single item or part that is the smallest item or

part in a larger whole.

Task: An activity which is designed to help achieve a

particular learning goal.

Structure: Refers to a sequence of linguistic units that are in

certain relationship to one another.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Lesson 1
Grammatical Syllabus
Introduction
In this lesson we will talk about Grammatical Syllabus, which is one of
the oldest and the most criticised, however, it has its merits.

By the end of this lesson you are expected to:

 Define Grammatical Syllabus

 Identify its uses

 Understand its advantages and disadvantages.

Outcomes

For better understanding, we will need to spend at least 90 minutes in this

lesson.
Time

Before we proceed, I would like you to reflect on the following issues.

- What is your understanding of grammatical syllabus?

Reflection
- What are the advantages of Grammatical Syllabus?

- What are the disadvantages of grammatical syllabus?

- Should Grammatical Syllabus be ignored?

- Is there a place for Grammatical Syllabus in the current trends of

EFL teaching philosophy?

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

This lesson will try to answer these and other questions related to this
syllabus.

Reading According to Nunan (1988:28), this type of syllabus is the

“One in which syllabus input is selected and graded according to

grammatical notions of simplicity and complexity”

The principle behind it constitutes a starting point for most syllabuses

even now, because, regardless of the name or labels they might have, a
large number of syllabuses are still graded according to what is perceived
to be the grammatical level of difficulty that the learners might encounter
during the learning process. However, this type of syllabus is more
noticeable in the grammar translation method; Oral and Situational
approach; Suggestopeadea; and in the Silent way.

These approaches and methods base their teaching and learning on the
grammatical level of difficulty.

For instance, the Grammar-Translation method grades its material in

accordance with the material‟s structural difficulty, hence introducing the
less difficult items earlier in the course, followed by more complex items
later. A similar practice can be found the Oral and Situational approach,
which aims at developing the learner‟s oral skill, related to a number of
situations. Again it uses the same principal for grading and selecting the
materials as Grammar-Translation.

Suggestopeadea also grades its materials based on grammatical and

vocabulary difficulty. The Silent way, like Oral approach, is based on
structural difficulty.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

For example, most grammatical syllabuses may start the course by

teaching pronouns, followed by the present tense and subsequently nouns.
Thus, the learner will learn to construct sentences like “I go to school”.
Note it!
This will, gradually become more and more complex as the level of
grammatical difficulty increases, by adding more grammatically
challenging concepts like, adjective, adverbs, future tenses, et., hence
encouraging the learners to build up or construct more complex sentences
like “Tomorrow I am going to my beautiful school quickly because I will
be wearing my new shoes”.

Although this type of syllabus has been widely contested, I believe that it
has its merits. For example, after having carried out a needs analysis, we
conclude that most of our learners want to learn more about grammar; in
this case a grammatical syllabus would be appropriate.

A request like this may be encountered when we are asked to design a

course for a group of university graduates who want to and study at an
English speaking institution. The mastery of complex grammatical
structures might be lacking, in this context, a grammatical syllabus would
be recommended.

After having read the information on Grammatical Syllabus, I would like

you to list the Advantages and disadvantages

Activity GRAMMATICAL SYLLABUS

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Lesson 2
Functional Notional Syllabus
Introduction
In this lesson, we will talk about another type of syllabus,
Functional/Notional Syllabus, which is also one of the most talked about,
but not without its limitations.

By the end of this lesson you are expected to:

 Define Functional Notional Syllabus

 Identify its uses

 Understand its advantages and disadvantages

Outcomes

For better understanding of these concepts, we will need to spend at least

90 minutes in this lesson.
Time

Before we move on I would like you to discuss the following issues.

- What is your understanding of Functional Notional Syllabus?

Discussion - Define the concepts Function and Notion in an EFL context. How
does Functional Notional Syllabus relate to grammatical syllabus?

- What is the underlying EFL philosophy behind this syllabus?

This type of syllabus is based on the principle that the language should be
taught according to its functions and notions, which means that it should
take into account the communicative purposes for which the language is
Reading
used.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

At the same time it should take into account the conceptual meanings
expressed through language, e.g., objects, entities, state of affairs, logical
relationships, etc. This type of syllabus is most visible in the Audio-
lingual method and in some types of CLT (communicative Language
Teaching) syllabuses.

These types of syllabuses grade their materials according to the level or

degree of difficulty of the functions and notions.

An example of this type of syllabus, is that of the Specific Orientation to

needs analysis, would be recommended, because it reflects the principle
that a language learner undertakes the EFL course with the sole purpose
of functioning effectively in a given setting and use the language to
perform pre determined functions like, requesting, asking for directions,
agreeing, giving directions or instructions etc.. This is the type of syllabus
you would use to train people who work in a restaurant as we have
exemplified in the previous unit.

Complete the following table comparing the characteristics of a

Grammatical Syllabus and the Functional Notional:

Activity SYLLABUS

GRAMMATICAL FUNCTIONAL/ NOTIONAL

Before we move on to the next lesson, I would like you to think of a

context in which the Functional Notional syllabus would be most
appropriate and why.

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Lesson 3
Procedural Syllabus
Introduction
In this lesson, we will look at procedural syllabus, which tends to focus
on the procedures for the language use rather than the grammar, function
or notion.

By the end of this lesson you are expected to:

 Identify Procedural Syllabus

 Understand its uses

 Look at its advantages and disadvantages

Outcomes

For this lesson we will need to spend at least 90 minutes.

Time

Like in the previous lesson, before we move on, I would like you to reflect
on the following issues:
Reflection - What is you understanding of procedural syllabus?

- How doest it differ from Grammatical and Notional Functional

syllabus?

- What are the main advantages of this type of syllabus?

- What are its disadvantages?

- When and where do you think it would be most appropriately

applied?

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

In this lesson we will try to answer these and other questions related to
this type of syllabus.

Reading But before we do that, let us look at what some researchers say about it.

The Procedural syllabus is a

“Syllabus which is organised around tasks rather than in terms of grammar

or vocabulary”

Richards, Platt and Webber (1985:289). This type of syllabus is mainly

concerned with the classroom processes that stimulate learning and it
grades its materials and contents according to the level or degree of
difficulty of the task that the learners have to undertake in the classroom.
This type of syllabus can be found in CLT and in the Learner Centred
Approach.

I believe that this type of syllabus is self-explanatory, because it focuses

on the classroom procedures which means, the steps we follow in class are
graded in such a way as to ease the burden from the learners.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

At This point, I would like to think of some classroom procedures you use
which can be linked to this type of syllabus

Activity PROCEDURES

- How effective do you find theses procedures?

- What do you think are their drawbacks?
- Could these procedures be used with any other type of syllabus?

For example, depending on the learners linguistic ability we may decide

to start with simple tasks, like asking and answering questions, to more
complex ones like description of the working of a computer, which,
obviously, will involve the use of technical vocabulary.

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Lesson 4
Content Syllabus
Introduction
In this lesson, we will look at Content syllabus which is designed based
on the content of the input required for learners to acquire in order to
enable them to perform certain tasks.

By the end of this lesson you are expected to:

 Identify Content syllabus,

 Understand the advantages and disadvantages

 Effectively apply Content syllabus

Outcomes

For this lesson, we will need to spend at least 90 minutes.

Time

- What is your understanding of Content syllabus?

- Where and when do you think it should be applied more
Reflection effectively?
- What are the differences between the Content syllabus and the
other type of syllabus we have looked at so far?

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

According to Nunan (1988:48), the content syllabus characterized by

having

Reading “Experiential content, which provided the point of departure for the
syllabus, is usually derived from some fairly well-defined subject-area.
This might be other subjects in a school curriculum such as science or
social studies, or specialist subject matter relating to an academic or
technical field such as mechanical engineering, medicine or computing.”

What is your Understanding of EAP and ESP in the context of EFL

teaching?

This type of syllabus is the one that is mostly applied to ESP and EAP
courses, and it can be used with any method of approach. The grading of
materials or content is mainly based on the level of importance of the
subject matter.

Before we conclude this lesson I would like you to make a list of the
advantages and disadvantages of the Content Syllabus:

Activity CONTENT SYLLABUS

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Give the reasons for your choice of advantages and disadvantages. For
example, if you say designing a syllabus, based on its textbook content is
good or is an advantage, explain why.

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 Course Design and Evaluation - I

Unit summary
In this unit you learned about four main types of syllabus which are used
in ELT, however I must point out that these are not the only ones which

Summary exist, but for the purpose of this study we will move on to look at the
other types of syllabus in the following unit.

Assignment
1. What is a Grammatical Syllabus?

2. What is a Functional Notional Syllabus

3. What is a Procedural Syllabus?

Assignment
4. What is a Content Syllabus?

Assessment
Write a short report, discussing the advantages and disadvantages of the
four types of syllabus we have looked at in this unit.
Assessment

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Answer Key

1. Grammatical Syllabus are those structured based on the

level of grammatical difficulty.

2. Functional Notional are the syllabus designed based on the

level of importance of the functions of language and notions
within those functions

3. Procedural syllabuses are those designed taking in

consideration the level of importance of the steps teachers
follow in a classroom.

4. Content syllabuses are those based on the importance of the

content of the required target language use.

Further Reading

 Nunan (1988) The Learner Centred Curriculum, C.U.P.

Cambridge, UK

 Long (1985) A Role for Instruction in Second Language

Acquisition: Task-Based Language Training, in Hyltenstam and
Pienemam (ed) (1985)

 Hyltenstam and Pienemam (ed) (1985), Modelling and Assessing

Second Language Acquisition, Multilingual Matters Ltd,
Clevedon, UK

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