Amphibious Chennai Report

Author:
AMREEN IMTIAZ
M.Sc- Sustainable Architecture & Landscape Design
Politecnico di Milano
Supervised by:
Prof. LAURA POGLIANI

Department of Architecture & Urban Studies
Prof. PAOLO DEBIAGGI

Department of Architecture, Built Environment &
Construction Engineering
INTRODUCTION
The aim of the thesis is to explore the relevance of green infrastructure

in imparting water resilience of Chennai and propose strategies that allow
for the integration of green infrastructure, following a strategic
approach- proposing interventions at various scales rather than tackling
issues at the symptomatic level.
Chennai, like most Asian cities, totters between instances of cloudbursts

and dry spells, the worst of which were experienced in the recent past-
2015 and 2019 respectively. These problems if not addressed immediately,
pose a serious question of water security that may be exacerbated
exponentially given the threat of Climate Change. Therefore, this thesis
proposes solutions for water-sensitizing Chennai, and revitalizing the
Cooum river while elevating the public realm along the river within the
city. The project adopts a holistic approach giving due consideration to
ecological parameters which is lacking in the city’s current developmental
planning.
Why the Cooum river?
Chennai(Madras) was established on the banks of the Cooum river, and as

such has great historical significance for the city.
2
3 1. Gummidipoondi
2. Araniyar
3. Nagariyar
4 5
4. Nandhiyar
5. Kosasthalaiyar
6 6. Cooum
7. Adyar
8. Kovalam
7
Bay of Bengal
Chennai sub-basins
The Cooum river basin is a linear basin stretching across the city extent,
with a much smaller drainage area and hence the planned interventions can
be realised in comparatively lesser duration, serving as a pilot project
for similar interventions in the rest of the city.
As a result, the project will inherently also address problems pertinent at

the city-scale such as Urban Heat Islands, depletion of ground water
resources, and solutions to social issues of housing.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This project is an outcome of persistent effort while the result of which

would have been beyond imagination if not for everyone who has been part of
my journey.
First and foremost, I am ever grateful to the Supremacy for enabling me to

undertake this complex subject. I express my heartfelt gratitude to my
family and friends for providing me with the moral and material support.
I am honoured to be a part of the institution of Politecnico di Milano, and

I earnestly thank my supervising professors for their continued guidance
and support throughout the project.
I am also thankful to the plethora of research and resources that has been
made available as open data, that form the basis of this project. I
specially thank Prof. Chella Rajan for sharing some resourceful content
from his research team and also Mr. Palanichamy for sharing GIS material.
Last but not the least, I am appreciative of the attempts and instances
that did not materialise as these experiences enabled me to learn new tools
to self develop, and by eventually leading me to paths and people who have
today been an active part of my journey in creating this project.
CONTENTS
CONTEXT 9-48
Global Water Crisis 9

Territorial Scale 11
Regional Scale 15
Local Scale 18
Basin Scale 34
SOLUTION 47-48
Water-Sensitive Urban Design 47
PRECEDENTS 51-68
Principles & Methodologies adopted by Kongjian Yu (Turenscape) 51

Case Studies:
Sabarmati Riverfront Development, India 57
Cheonggyecheon Stream Restoration, S.Korea 60
Defensive Strategy: Deltaworks, Netherlands 61
Adaptive Strategy: Room for the River, Netherlands 62
Cascading Semarang, Indonesia 64
Summary 67
STRATEGY 71-76
Regional Scale 71
Basin Scale 72
City Scale 73
Building Scale 75
INTERVENTIONS 79-108
Regional Scale 79
Basin Scale 85
City Scale 92
Timeline for Implementation 106
ICRERP vs. Amphibious Chennai 107
REFERENCES 110
1. GLOBAL WATER CRISIS: Water is a
critical natural resource as it is
crucial for not just survival of humans,
but also necessary for sustaining
ecosystems. Water covers 70% of the Earth
and is often presumed to be available in
abundance. However, freshwater, which is
used on a daily basis, is incredibly Oceans
97.5%
rare. Only 3% of the world’s water is
fresh water, and two-thirds of that is
entrapped in frozen glaciers. Freshwater
2.5%
Currently, the world’s water resources

are increasingly under stress threatening
ecosystems, economies, and society. Glaciers
According to the World Economic Forum, 68.7%
water crises have been among the top Groundwater

30.1%
five global risks in each of the last Surface &
seven years, which is further exacerbated atmosphere Permafrost
0.4% 0.8%
by the global threat of climate change.
Wetlands Fresh lakes
Research demonstrates that the global 8.5% 67.5%
demand for water has tripled since the Rivers Soil moisture
1.5% 12%
1950s, while there is decline in the
supply of fresh water (Gleick, 2003). Vegetation
About 50,000,000 people live in countries 1.5% Atmosphere
9.5%
that are water-stressed or water-scarce.
By 2025, this number is projected to grow Fig.1 Earth’s Water Distribution
to 3 billion with the increasing Source: World bank, raconteur.net
population. [1,2]
Fig.2 Projected Water Stress across the World by 2040

Source: World Resources Institute (Aqueduct), raconteur.net
9 | Context- Global Water Crisis

Asia is home to about 4.5 billion people
(approx. 60% of world population), who
account for the consumption of around 65%
of the world’s water supply. With
approximately 30% of the Asian population
already facing water scarcity, Asia is
one of the regions that is challenged by
both- water abundance and scarcity. Two
of the largest Asian countries- India and
China have witnessed double-digit GDP
growth in recent years, coupled with
booming population. With the improved
socio-economic conditions, the demand for
water continues to increase. Many river
basins are already unable to cope with
the demands of their inhabiting
population. [3, 4]
The impacts of Climate Change are

pertinent with unpredictable and
unprecedented seasonal variations-
seasons of enormous precipitation
followed by drought leading to an
unreliable supply of surface water. Most
Asian cities witnessing rapid
urbanisation while majority are being
coastal inhabitations makes them
increasingly vulnerable to Sea Level Rise
(SLR) associated with Climate Change.
Short of steady supply of water through
rivers, extraction of ground water is
prevalent, further increasing their
vulnerability to flooding by the
resulting land subsidence. Cities having
a high surface water runoff reduces the
opportunity natural recharging of
aquifers in an effective way.
A systemic approach is necessary to

tackle these problems to ensuring a
steady source of water supply. [5]
Context- Global Water Crisis | 10

2. TERRITORIAL
Taking a closerSCALE:
look Taking
at thea Indian
closer years,
years, and
and the
the population of these cities
look
context:
at the Indian context: is
is projected
projected toto increase
increase as there is an
Population Distribution- Fig. 3 shows the increasing
increasing trend
trend of people abandoning
Population
ApproximatelyDistribution-
50% of Fig. country’s
the 3 shows their
their dependence
dependence onon primary occupations
that approximately 50% of
population lives in areas with an the country’s and
and move
move to
to urban
urban areas in search of
population
elevation oflives in
upto 165m areas with Sea
Above Mean an livelihood.
livelihood. [6]
[6]
elevation of upto 165m Above
Level (ASL), while 25% of the populationMean Sea
Level
lives in(ASL),
areaswhile
below25%
60m of
ASL.the population This trend
This trend has
has led to urban sprawl,
lives in areas below 60m ASL. putting ecological
putting ecological systems
systems at risk, and
Coastal metropolitan cities of India- the population
the population vulnerable
vulnerable to natural
Coastal
Mumbai, metropolitan
Chennai, andcities of India-
Kolkata have hazards caused
hazards caused by
by anthropogenic reasons
Mumbai,
witnessed rapid urbanization over have
Chennai, and Kolkata the as the
as the cities
cities grow in an unplanned,
witnessed
…….. rapid urbanization over the poorly managed
poorly managed fashion.
fashion. [7,
[7, 8,
8, 9]
9]
321m – 8611m ASL
165m – 321m ASL
60m – 165m ASL
<60m ASL
Delhi
Kolkata
Mumbai
Arabian Sea Bay of Bengal
Chennai
Indian Ocean
Fig.3 Map showing areas of equal population

Source: GHSL POP (EU-JRC); SRTM (USGS) | Raj Palanichamy
11 | Context- Territorial Scale

Ecological Stress- Fig. 4 shows the Inferences:
‘baseline water-stress’ in India which is Along with he Delhi-Mumbai Industrial
an indicator that measures total annual Corridor, majority of the deccan plateau,
water withdrawals expressed at a and the eastern coast of India is under
percentage of the total annual available High Water Stress. Heavy population
flow. Areas with withdrawals >40% are inhabitation, coupled with the water
considered as under High Baseline Water- stress related to mismanagement warns of
Stress. looming crises. [10, 11, 12]
Delhi
Kolkata
Mumbai
Chennai
Indian Ocean
Extremely High (>80%) High (40-80%) Medium-High (20-40%)
Low-Medium (10-20%) Low (<10%) Arid & Low Water Use
Fig.4 Map showing areas of baseline water-stress (2020)

Source: World Resources Institute Aqueduct
Context- Territorial Scale | 12

Green vs. Grey- Fig. 5 shows an overlay Inferences: …………….
of the major proposed/existing economic The regions along the industrial
corridors of India with the regions of corridors are seen to be along minimal-no
significant tree cover. tree cover. This less tree cover extent
can be correlated with the development
of infrastructure. It can be further
noticed that these regions coincide with
high baseline water stress.
Amritsar
Delhi
Kolkata
Mumbai
Vizag
Chennai
Kanyakumari
Indian Ocean
Significant tree cover Amritsar-Kolkata Industrial East Coast Economic

Corridor (1839km) Corridor
Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Bengaluru-Mumbai Economic Corridor

Corridor (1504km) Chennai-Bengaluru Industrial Corridor
Fig.5 Map showing major proposed/existing economic corridors of India, overlayed with
areas of significant tree cover (2010) Source: GLAD UMD
13 | Context- Territorial Scale

Natural Hazard- Fig. 6 shows the in terms of maximum possible impact but
‘Riverine flood risk’ in India which is rather as average annual impact.
assessed taking into account the hazard
(inundation caused by river overflow), Inferences:
exposure (population in flood zone), and The coastline of India is under risk from
vulnerability. The existing level of riverine flooding. As inferred from the
flood protection is also considered into previous maps, heavy population and
the risk calculation. baseline water stress exacerbate the
This indicator represents flood risk not flood risk in these regions. [13]
…...
Indian Ocean
Extremely High High Medium-High
Low-Medium Low
Fig.6 Map showing riverine flood risk (2019)

Source: World Resources Institute Aqueduct
Context- Territorial Scale | 14

3. REGIONAL SCALE: Inference:
Population Density- Fig. 7 shows the In cities like Chennai which is already
population density in the southern highly prone to the water-related
peninsula region. stresses, looking at the population
density, the extent of damage that the
city’s inhabitants are prone to can be
understood. [7]
River basin boundaries

Indian Ocean
Low High
Fig.7 Map showing the population density in the deccan plateau (2015)
Source: European Commission, JRC; Columbia University, CIESIN
15 | Context- Regional Scale

Ecological Stress- Fig. 8 & 9 demonstrate riverine flooding, decrease in tree cover
the reduction in tree cover over a means increase in run-off due to
decade, while Fig.10 points the areas of decreased infiltration. Vegetation
loss in tree cover and deforestation essentially works as a sponge, and forest
alert........ cover upstream enables in retaining
Inference: water; loss of tree cover thereby
Since the coastal areas are already prone influences peak run-off. [14]
show a risk of
Fig.8 Map showing tree cover in the Fig.10 Map showing loss in tree cover
Deccan plateau in 2000 2020
Source: Global Forest Watch Source: Global Forest Watch
Tree cover
River basin boundaries
Loss in tree cover
Deforestation alerts
*BoB- Bay of Bengal
Fig.9 Map showing tree cover in 2010

Source: Global Forest Watch
Context- Regional Scale | 16

Green vs. Grey- Fig. 11 shows Chennai Inference:
city to be devoid of any significant tree The highways originating from the green
cover, whereas the presence of tree cover areas outside the Chennai region have the
in the elevated regions outside the potential to become bio-corridors
Chennai region. entering the city.
Fig.11 Map showing the green & grey infrastructure in the vicinity of Chennai region
Source: GLAD UMD, ESRI
17 | Context- Regional Scale

4. LOCAL SCALE: city in a radial fashion along
Urban Sprawl- Chennai which was founded transportation infrastructure. [15] The
along the Cooum river has grown rapidly reinforcement/addition of transportation
over the years in an unplanned, infrastructure came at an ecological cost
uncontrolled fashion, indiscriminately of a drastic reduction in the
encroaching and building upon water infiltration surface and a decline in the
bodies within the city, or polluting them number of surface water bodies. [16]
and making them an eyesore rather than a
resource. From 1980-1991, the built-up area of
Chennai increased 3 folds.
Inference:
Fig. 12 shows the growth of Chennai
transporta
Bay of Bengal
1973 1980 1991 2006 Water-bodies
Fig.12 Diachronic map showing the growth of Chennai (1973-2006)

Source: Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority
Context- Local Scale | 18

Ecological Stress- Fig. 14 shows a series
of maps overlaying the urban expansion
with the green infrastructure
illustrating how the tree cover has
3.50 M (1971) 5.82 M (1991)
declined in <15 years and disappearance
of waterbodies in the greater Chennai
Metropolitan Area (CMA).
12.58 M (2026- projected)
Fig.13 Population expansion in Chennai

Source: Chennai Metropolitan Development Authority
Map A: 1991 Map B: 2006
Map C: 2013 Map D: 2015
Built-up area Agricultural lands Tree cover Water-bodies
Fig.14 Maps showing urban sprawl impacting the green infrastructure in Chennai
Source: Care Earth Trust
19 | Context- Local Scale

It has emerged that as the city expanded, Natural Hazards in the recent past-
>150 water bodies that were part of a
flood mitigating system in the city and
its suburbs, were encroached and turned
into human habitation.
The IT boom in Chennai at the turn of the

millennium, triggered massive expansion
in the south of the city. In 1980, 85% of
Chennai was wetlands, while this has
declined to 15% by 2016. [16]
It is evident what is the kind of impact

such a change would have on a river
basin.
Fig.16 Photo showing the aftermath of
2004 Tsunami in Chennai
Source: Press Trust of India
Tsunami 2004
Losses: 8835 human lives (in mainland
India)
Inundation distance: Upto 1.5km from the

coast
Cause of disaster: Impact was heightened

due to lack of adequate safety measures
Fig.15 Photos showing encroachment of

Pallikaranai marsh
Source: R. Padmanaban Fig.17 Photo showing the aftermath of
2015 Floods in Chennai
Source: Press Trust of India
Floods 2015
Losses: >400 human lives
Cause: Cloudbursts bringing unprecedented

amount of rainfall (1049mm) in ~100
years. The flood was caused and the
damage was magnified due to anthropogenic
reasons.

2015 Floods causes-
Following an extreme rainfall event,

Chennai experienced massive floods in
2015 causing heavy damage to life and
economy.
Historical return period

of the event
Event/ Considering Without
Station the 2015 considering
Data event the event
Minambakkam 68 years 93 years
Fig.15 Photos showing encroachment of IMD 10 x 10

Pallikaranai marsh grid point 86 years 115 years
Source: R. Padmanaban 13.5N 80.5E
Large Scale Factors causing the extreme

Drought 2019
rainfall event: The important large scale
Cause: Low rainfall, mismanagement of
characteristics of 2015 are very strong
water resources
El-Nino phenomenon and very warm BoB,
Though Chennai is blessed with ecological which have the probability of causing
resources- 3 rivers running across the this extreme event. The El-Nino of 2015
city, joining the Bay of Bengal on the was one of the strongest reported, which
east, and multiple wetlands, and urban started developing in 2014. The extreme
forests, the city teeters between floods rainfall event was an outcome of a
and droughts, and continues to lose out depression generated over a warm Bay of
on its water resources due to mismanaged Bengal (BoB) which brought huge moisture
urbanisation and encroachments. With from BoB and resulted in heavy
Climate Change and imminent Sea Level precipitation over the South-East coast
Rise, the city needs to adapt, developing of India. The Sea Surface Temperature
its Water Resilience, securing the water (SST) over BoB has statistically
needs of the inhabitants while ensuring significant increasing trend, attributed
the ability to resist to natural hazards to global warming.
without letting them become a disaster.
Small Scale Factors magnifying the
extreme rainfall event: Urbanization is
another factor which is reported to
intensify the extreme precipitation,
either through generation of convection
due to urban heat island (UHI)- Fig.16 or
through the uneven urban terrain
resulting in wake diffusion and
turbulence. Chennai is reported to have
significant urban heat island and there
is a possibility of such UHI-extremes
link. Though local temperature variations
do not have the capacity to organize such
a huge extreme events with high moisture
flux, but it can increase the intensity
of a severe extreme event. [17]

• reduction in the vent way caused by the
construction of bridges,
• sand bar formation at the mouths of

rivers,
• clogging of the drains due to

indiscriminate dumping of solid waste
and construction debris,
• inadequate design capacity
• lack of connectivity of storm sewers

with macro drainage, and
• encroachments.
Although a road network of about 6000 km

exists in the Greater Chennai
Bay of Corporation, only about 1660 km of storm
Bengal drains exist.
With a rapid increase in the built up

area of the city, a major consequence is
the reduction in the infiltration
component of the hydrologic cycle, which
would increase the peak run-off
discharge. Another consequence of
urbanization is the disappearance of many
minor and medium water bodies (Fig.17).
These water bodies served as detention
basins and resulted in decrease in the
peak discharge. Urbanization has reduced
the detention effect.
> – 3.65 °C 1.50° to 3.65 °C
Inappropriate urbanization may also lead
-3.65° to - 1.50 °C 3.65° to 7.30 °C
to the encroachment of the waterways,
-1.50 ° to 0 °C 7.30° to 11.50 °C
which reduces their vent way. A glaring
0° to 1.50 °C
example of this is the construction of
Fig.16 Change in LST of Chennai city from Mass Rapid Transit System (MRTS) along
1990 to 2010 and in some locations in the Buckingham
Source: USGS, NASA | Raj Palanichamy
canal. The new runway of the Chennai
Causes for the magnified impact of the airport has been built on the Adyar
extreme rainfall event: There are three River. [17, 21]
major tanks in the Chennai Metropolitan
Area (CMA), apart from which existed Another undermined effect of urbanization
several other water bodies, the number of is the “compound wall effect”. Compound
which has come down significantly in the walls alter the local overland flow
last three decades due to urbanization paths. This in turn changes the local
and encroachment of lake beds. flooding pattern, protecting some areas
while flooding the others. In several
The drainage system of Chennai suffers cases, the compound wall and roads have
from problems such as: affected the natural flow and the lack of

adequate cross drainage has led to much Flooding in various parts of south
of localized flooding and water logging. Chennai as the water that the city
received, far exceeded the flood carrying
Another major factor, though not capacity of the Adyar river.
influential in the 2015 Chennai floods,
to be taken into consideration is the All water bodies were completely full
ocean tidal levels. Flooding would be from the above-normal November 2015
exacerbated and recession would be rainfall and the catchment was completely
delayed if an intense rainfall event saturated, resulting in heavy runoff.
coincides with the occurrence of high [17]
tidal levels. [17]
This clearly signifies the need for
resilient river corridors and urban
typologies that function as water sponges.
1
4
2
Prevailing extent of Originally 2

surface water (Nov. existing water
2020) bodies
Fig.17 Existence of surface water bodies

Source: Bhuvan WBIS
The city of Chennai has 4 major

reservoirs/lakes that cater to majority
of Chennai’s water demand: 1.Cholavaram
(25M cu.m), 2.Redhills (93M cu.m),
3.Chembarambakkam (103M cu.m), and
4.Poondi (91M cu.m). (Fig.17)
These drinking water reservoirs double up

as flood control reservoirs in case of
emergencies, and the multitude of water
bodies should ideally perform the
detention function to reduce the peak
discharges.
When the Chembarambakkam tank is full,

excess water is released into the Adyar
river (2- Fig.18). Excess water from the
Poondi reservoir flows into the Cooum
river (1- Fig.18). The release from the Fig.18 Maps showing inundation after Dec.
Chembarambakkam reservoir caused massive 2015 floods Source: IMWI, JAXA

Chennai Droughts causes-
Chennai teeters between floods and

droughts as a consequence of its
mismanaged urbanization, decreasing the
detention as well as the infiltration
capacity. Fig. 19 & 20 show some of the
many examples where the city has lost its
water bodies to urban sprawl.
Fig.19 Map showing a comparison of the

waterbodies in a historical map (1814)
vs. current satellite image
Source: raremaps.com, Google
Thus the ‘blue water’ storage capacity is

tremendously impacted- reduced number of
surface water bodies, and receding water
table levels. (Fig.21)
Consequently, when the city receives less

rainfall, the impact is imminent, and
Chennai faces water shortage.
Fig.20 Map showing a comparison of the
waterbodies in a historical map (1814)
Fig.21 shows the evident fall in water
vs. current satellite image
table levels for Chennai over a period of Source: raremaps.com, Google
10 years. Over the years, the regions
with deeper water tables has increased
excessively.

Climate in Chennai-
Chennai has tropical climate and the city

relies predominantly on the monsoon for
the replenishment of its water sources.
Scientific theories and model studies

(Emanuel, 1987; Knutson and Tuleya, 2004)
suggest an increase in tropical cyclones
during recent decades. It has been
witnessed that the potential
destructiveness of cyclones, defined as
the total dissipation of power,
integrated over the lifetime of the
cyclone has increased, is increasing and
will increase in a warming environment.
[17]
450 40
400 35
350 30
300
25
250
20
200
15
150
10
100
50 5
0 0
With ClimateRainfall (mm) the rainfall is

change,
Average Low Temperature
expected to be less distributed across
Average high temperature
the year, meaning greater peaks resulting
90% 40
80% 35
70% 30
60%
25
50%
20
40%
Fig.21 Maps showing a comparison of the 15
groundwater levels of Chennai city in 30%
1991 vs. 2001 20% 10
Source: rainwaterharvesting.org 5
10%
0% 0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Avg. low temperature °C

Avg. high temperature °C
Relative Humidity

With Climate change, the rainfall is Sources of Chennai water supply-
expected to be less distributed across
the year, meaning greater peaks resulting Chennai relies on the following sources
in cloudbursts or extreme rainfall events to fulfil its water requirements:
(example- Chennai rains Nov/Dec 2015),
1. Surface water sources: lakes,
and troughs resulting in dry spells
tanks/reservoirs, and rivers of
(example- drought 2018/2019).
neighbouring states. Water from the
tanks (Poondi, Red hills, Cholavaram,
Chembarambakkam) are major surface
water sources from within Chennai.
Additionally, from 2019, the city has
expanded its reliance on from new
sources- Veeranam lake and quarries of
Sikarayapuram and Eraimayur.
2. Ground water: through borewells
3. Sea water desalination plants
4. Tertiary treatment reverse osmosis

plants: treats the sewage water
generated in the central and western
parts of the city. This treated water
is supplied to industries.
Fig.22 Maps showing large seasonal

variations in the reservoirs
Source: thenewsminute.com

Chennai Metropolitan Area (1189 Sq.km)
Kosasthalaiyar river (90000 c/s)

Cholavaram tank
Redhills tank (Puzhal lake)
Cooum river (21500 c/s)

~20km
~46km
Chembarambakkam tank
Adyar river (55000 c/s)
Chennai city (176 Sq.km)
Bay of Bengal
~12km
~29km
Fig.23 Map showing the 3 rivers and reservoirs of Chennai

Source: adapted from CMDA
Buckingham canal (48km within CMA)
Kodungaiyur drain (6.9km long)
Captain Cotton canal (4km long)
Otteri nullah (38.4km long)
Virugambakkam-Adambakkam drain (6.9km long)

Mambalam drain (9.4km long)
Velacheri drain (2.1km long)
Veerangal odai (2.8km long)
Pallikaranai marsh
Fig.24 Maps showing the macro-drainage network of Chennai

Source: adapted from CMDA

Ongoing water-related programmes and have their own wastewater reclamation
initiatives- plants and shall use reclaimed wastewater
for cooling purposes.
Among the water-supply/water-saving
programmes in Chennai (Fig.25), some of • Check dams & Injection wells:
the initiatives are mentioned below:
In order to keep the sustainable yield of
• Rain Water Harvesting: the aquifers and to arrest sea water
intrusion long term measures such as (i)
Starting from the 1990s, provision of construction of check-dams across River
rain water harvesting structures was made Kosasthalaiyar and (ii) construction of
obligatory for construction of major Injection wells in Minjur Aquifer have
developments. been initiated.
Provision of rainwater structures in all Construction of check dams was

types of developments, irrespective of implemented in order to harness the flood
size or use was made mandatory by waters available during the monsoon
amending the Building Byelaws in the year periods to recharge the ground water.
2001. This was applicable for new
constructions as well as existing To arrest sea water intrusion in a
buildings. coastal aquifer, 15 injection wells of
350mm dia. and 45m depth were constructed
In 2001, it was mandated that all to create an artificial barrier of fresh
centrally air-conditioned buildings shall water. [18]
Fig.25 Map showing the water supply system of Chennai

Source: CMWSSB

• Integrated Cooum River Eco Restoration Waste management: To collect the floating
Plan (ICRERP): debris on the river surface, boom systems
are proposed to be installed in 10 points
The Integrated Cooum River Eco- along the river.
Restoration Plan proposes to tackle the
restoration/rejuvenation of the Cooum In areas where the existing network does
river from Paruthipattu (as pollution not have enough capacity to handle the
sources are predominant downstream of sewage, in situ treatment is proposed.
Paruthipattu), in the densely populated For this purpose six modular sewage
urban area. Some of the objectives of treatment plants are proposed.
ICRERP are:
- Pollution abatement.
- Maintaining minimum ecological flows in

the river
- Improving and maintaining the flood-

carrying capacity of the river.
- Riverfront development within urbanised

areas, wherever possible.
Proposal:
Fluvial corridor: Only river channel Fig.27 Photo showing boom barriers to
improvement solutions are proposed by the entrap floating debris
Source: tuffboom.com
plan. As shown in Fig.26, these are
categorized into 3 segments:
1. From Paruthippatu to Virugambakkam Social Assessment: 14,257 families will

be affected by the restoration project.
2. From Virugambakkam to Aminjikari 76 slums have been identified along the
banks of the Cooum river that will be
3. From Aminjikari to mouth of river
resettled. [19]
(zone of tidal influence)
1 2 3
Fig.26 Extent of the Integrated Cooum River Eco-Restoration Plan

Data Source: Executive Summary- ICRERP

Paruthipatti-Virugambakkam Virugambakkam-Aminjikarai Aminjikarai-Mouth of river
Fig.28 Map showing areas of intervention of the ICRERP

Source: Executive Summary- ICRERP

Segment 1: Paruthippatu to Virugambakkam
Proposed STPs
Chennai City extent

Flood control strategy: In this stretch
Encroachments to be
resettled of the river which lies within the CMA
New residential zones (outside the city limit), the ICRERP
to be developed proposes the regularization of the
Slums to be riverbed’s slope and creation of a 3m
developed in-situ wide canal (Fig.29).
Mangrove plantation
The main function of the canal is to
Existing canals draining convey water during low flow season and
into Cooum river
avoid stagnation along the river.
Biodiversity: Due to the highly polluted

state of the soil along the banks, plant
species of commercial value- timber
yielding terrestrial tree species are
proposed be planted in this stretch. [19]
Canal draining off Timber-yielding tree Flooded extent

the seasonal low flow species of river during
extreme events
Drainage interceptors
Fig.29 Interventions in segment 1 of ICRERP implementation extent

Source: adapted from Executive Summary ICRERP

Segment 2: Virugambakkam to Aminjikarai and creation of a 8m wide canal is
proposed by the ICRERP for this stretch
(Fig.30).
Flood control strategy: The Virugambakkam
to Aminjikarai stretch starts from within Biodiversity: Flora species of commercial
the CMA and transitions to within the value- timber yielding terrestrial trees
city limits in Aminjikarai. are proposed be planted in this stretch.
Regularization of the riverbed’s slope [19]
Canal draining off Timber-yielding tree Flooded extent

the seasonal low flow species of river during
extreme events
Drainage interceptors


Segment 3: Aminjikarai to river mouth Biodiversity: Closer to the mouth of the
river, from Chetpet, which is the area of
tidal influence, Mangrove plantations are
Flood control strategy: The last stretch proposed for their ability to withstand
of the Cooum river from Aminjikarai to salinity, wave action and possibility to
the river mouth, lies well within the grow in poor soils, preventing ground
city limits, majority of which falls water pollution .
within an area of tidal influence. The
ICRERP, for this stretch, proposes Flora species of commercial value- timber
regularization of the riverbed’s slope yielding terrestrial trees are proposed
and deepening of the riverbed. creation be planted in this stretch. [19]
of a 8m wide canal is proposed by the
ICRERP for this stretch (Fig.31).
Tree species of Mangrove tree species Flooded extent

commercial value In areas of tidal influence of river during
extreme events
Slums to be
Drainage
rehabilitated
interceptors


4. BASIN SCALE: Present state:
The Cooum river and its basin- Cooum is a Fluvial Corridor: The Cooum is a shallow
seasonal river in a heavily polluted and wide river in the peri urban zone of
state which drains into the Bay of Bengal Chennai, transitioning into a narrow,
river on the east coast. The river is deep and wall protected channel in some
about 72km long, originating in the parts within the city limits of Chennai.
Thiruvallur district, upstream of
Chennai. From Paruthipattu to the city limit,
several contractions impact the flood
On basis of the simulated annual water carrying capacity of the river.
balance for the base year 2020, the Cooum Transverse structures (causeways- Fig.34)
basin is water deficit by 74% (Fig.32). and encroachments reduce the hydraulic
capacity of the river leading to a
backwater effect.
Water demand Water sources potential
Fig.32 Simulated annal water balance in

the Cooum river basin (2020) Fig.34 Photo of a causeway obstructing
Source: Study of Chennai River Basin- PWD 2007
flow of the Cooum river
Source: The Hindu, M. Vedhan
Over 20% of the water demand is for
irrigational purposes (Fig.33). Water Quality: Upstream, the flow in the
river is seasonal, whereas, within the
city limits the water quality drastically
changes, transparency is lost, colour
changes and morbidly reeks of sewage.
Sewage outfalls in the river consisting
of domestic and industrial waste, along
with solid waste dumped into the river.
Soil Quality: The soil is found in a

degraded state, but not categorized as
‘hazardous’ as per local parameters. [19]
Encroachments: They are identifiable

Industries Irrigation Domestic
along the entire river corridor though
more prominent within the metropolitan
Livestock Others area. Outside the CMA, encroachments are
more inconspicuous, for instance, in the
Fig.33 Water consumption in the Cooum
form of agricultural fields in the
river basin
Source: Study of Chennai River Basin- PWD 2007 fluvial corridor, or landfills in the
floodplain (Fig.42).

Watershed delineation- Present state:
Using GIS, the Cooum basin extent and the Fluvial Corridor: The Cooum is a shallow
hydrologic pattern of the basin was and wide river in the peri urban zone of
delineated (Fig.35) from Digital Chennai, transitioning into a narrow,
Elevation Model (DEM) of 30m spatial deep and wall protected channel in some
resolution. parts within the city limits of Chennai.
Overlaying the delineated watershed with From Paruthipattu to the city limit,
the satellite image of the city (Fig.36), several contractions impact the flood
it is evident how the urban typologies carrying capacity of the river.
and planning have very little correlation Transverse structures (causeways- Fig.34)
with the hydrologic pattern of the basin. and encroachments reduce
Fig.36 Map showing infrastructure

cutting across natural inundation areas
the hydraulic capacity of the river

leading to a backwater effect.
Fig.35 Map showing the delineated Cooum watershed and its hydrological pattern

Cooum river environs- Correlating this with the increase in the
number of farmers abandoning agriculture
Cooum river is about 72 km long, flowing due to lack of water, it is evident that
eastward towards the Bay of Bengal. the agricultural practices involve
cultivation of water-intensive crops.
1.At the origin: The Cooum river branches
out from the Kosasthalaiyar river, at the The upstream area of the Cooum basin,
bifurcation of which is located the outside Chennai, is predominantly crop
Kesavaram Anicut/Dam (Fig.37 & Fig.38). fields with agricultural tanks/retention
ponds/lakes (Fig.39 & Fig.41).
The overflow of these water bodies form a

stream that joins the Cooum river 10km
downstream of its origin, near Satharai
village.
2.In the Metropolitan Area: Mid-course of

the river, around 27km downstream its
origin, the Cooum river enter the Chennai
Metropolitan Area (CMA). There is
increase in the density of the
settlements and a decrease in the extent
Fig.37 Kesavaram dam across Cooum river of crop fields with incidences of
Source: Google Maps contributor DJ Tamil
fallow/barren land.
This land surrounding water bodies is

prone to inhabitation, and consequently,
the water body is prone to pollution or
eventual disappearance, similar to the
other surface water bodies that once
existed in Chennai. Lakes Y (Kolathur
lake) and Z (Retteri lake) may have been
a single water body in the past
Fig.38 Check dam across Kosathalaiyar stretching across 4km, now encroached
river
upon (Fig.43 & Fig.44).
Source: Google Maps contributor Ram Mohan
The increase in the settlement areas

This dam which was built along with the
marks the start of the sewage outfalls in
Poondi reservoir (a major source of water
the river, and landfills in flood plains.
supply to Chennai), diverts the water to
the bifurcated arm of the Kosasthalaiyar
river (Fig.40), directing the water to
the Poondi reservoir. Therefore, barring
periods of heavy rain spells, the water
from the parent river doesn’t enter the
Cooum river at its origin.
Inferring from the simulated annual water

balance of the Cooum river (Fig.33), over
20% of the water demand is consumed for
Fig.42 Landfill in the floodplain
irrigational use. Source: Google Earth

Cooum Agricultural Canals Tree cover/ Low density
watershed reservoirs plantations developments
Fig.39 Map showing the Cooum river basin at its origin
Kesavaram dam: Located at the origin of

Cooum river diverting water away from it
Kosasthalaiyar river: Water diverted to Poondi reservoir Agricultural fields with

Branching out as through the Kosasthalaiyar river water-intensive crops
Cooum river
Fig.40 Section A (~60m ASL)

Tree cover prone to felling Absence of any Non-perennial Cooum river;
significant tree cover Seasonal waterflow diverted to
Kosasthalaiyar river upstream
Fig.41 Section B
Cooum Slums along Railway New residential zones allotted

watershed the river line
Extent of CMA Lakes/areas Drainage Tree cover Medium density

of inundation channels developments
Fig.43 Map showing the Cooum river basin in the CMA

Medium/low density Flood plain undergoing Barren land surrounding
settlements prone to grow encroachment waterbody prone to
inhabitation
Flood plain prone to Waterbodies Fragmented
risk of encroachment vulnerable to settlements
encroachment
Barren land surrounding Start of sewage outfalls Disappearing tree cover

waterbody prone to into the Cooum river
inhabitation
River Agricultural fields with Disappearing
undergoing water-intensive crops tree cover
pollution
Fig.44 Section C (~30m ASL)
3.Within the city: About 47km downstream Slums and other encroachments dominate
its origin, the Cooum river enters the riverfront which also discharge their
Chennai city where there are extremely refuse directly into the river (Fig.46).
dense settlements. The river course About 118 outfalls are reported in the
becomes highly constricted, in some parts Cooum river, out of which 106 are just
as a narrow, deep and wall protected within the city limits. [19]
channel (Fig.45).
Within the city limits, the water quality
drastically changes; transparency is
lost, colour changes and morbidly reeks
of sewage. With a disparity between the
demand and supply of water in Chennai,
there is dependence on groundwater to
supplement the city’s water requirement.
In addition to receding water tables,
closer to the coastline, groundwater
extraction has resulted in saltwater
intrusion. With the global climate
change, sea level rise is another major
threat to Chennai. [20]
Fig.45 Photo showing a constricted and

heavily polluted section of Cooum river
Source: veethi.com
The high density urban fabric, coupled

with minimal tree cover has resulted in
sealed surfaces, consequently making the
infiltration negligible. Sewage outfalls
in the river consisting of domestic and
industrial waste, along with solid waste
dumped into the river, reduce the river
into an open sewer. Fig.46 Clearing of encroachments
Source: Theo Whitcomb

High density Chennai city Drainage Slums along the
developments extent channels river corridor
Fig.47 Map showing the Cooum river basin within the city
Informal settlements Highly dense Disappearing
urban fabric Water bodies
+ Disappearing
Constricted
Heavy run-off tree cover
river course
Fig.48 Section D (~15m ASL)

Heavily polluted river course Ground-water Threat of
extraction sea level rise
Poorly planned + Saltwater Island prone
infrastructure intrusion to inundation
Fig.49 Section E (~5m ASL)

Various edge conditions of the Cooum
river within the city extent:
Impermeability-
Heavy runoff + Flooding
Fig.51 Scenario 1- Key plan
3.Within the city: About 47km downstream

its origin, the Cooum river enters
Chennai city where there are extremely
dense settlements. The river course
Pollution-
becomes highly constricted, in some parts
Solid waste + Sewage
as a narrow, deep and wall protected
channel (Fig.45).
Fig.52 Photo showing the river edge

condition near Nungambakkam bridge
Source: Google contributor
Inaccessibility +
Encroachments
The high density urban fabric, coupled

with minimal
Groundwater tree +cover has resulted in
extraction
sealed surfaces,
Receding water table +consequently making the
Saltwater intrusion
infiltration negligible. Sewage outfalls
in the river consisting of domestic and Fig.53 Photo showing the river edge
Fig.50 Diagrams
industrial waste,enumerating
along with some
solidofwaste
the condition near Nungambakkam bridge
problems in the Cooum river-basin
dumped into the river, reduce the river (looking upstream)
into an open sewer.

Fig.54 Section through the Cooum river near the Nungambakkam railway bridge (looking upstream)- Scenario 1
Encroachments
Fig.56 Photo of a walled portion of the

Cooum river near Chetpet
Debris
Fig.57 Photo of a walled portion of the

Cooum river near Chetpet

Fig.58 Section through a walled portion of the Cooum river near Chetpet (looking upstream)- Scenario 2
Offices/commercial
establishments
bridge (located
Nungambakkam
downstream)
Fig.60 Photo near Chetpet showing

construction of the elevated expressway
within the Cooum fluvial corridor
Source: andamansaravanan.blogspot.com
Fig.61 Photo near Chetpet showing

construction of the elevated expressway
within the Cooum fluvial corridor
Source: andamansaravanan.blogspot.com

Encroachments Elevated expressway
on the fluvial
corridor
Fig.62 Section through the Cooum river near Chetpet showing the elevated expressway (looking downstream)-
Scenario 3

along the Cooum river near Chindadripet

Fig.64 Photo showing low income housing

Transportation infrastructure Slums/low income housing
along fluvial corridor in dilapidated condition

Fig.65 Section through the Cooum river near Chindadripet (looking downstream)- Scenario 4
Concluding from the context, it is
evident that Chennai is unequipped to Natural ground cover
confront the periodic water stresses and 40% evapotranspiration
the unprecedented shocks from extreme
rainfall or cloudbursts which are
imminent with Climate Change. The city
faces multiple water-related risks — from
flooding to sea level rise to receding
water table levels, and yet, the urban 10%
run-off
typologies and city planning are
indifferent to the region’s ecological
realities and challenges. 25% deep
infiltration
To reduce the impact of these events, 25% shallow
infiltration
traditional approaches to rainwater
management are not only an economic
liability but are also inadequate, owing 10-20% impervious surfaces
to their inability to evolve with the
38% evapotranspiration
changing climate.
Currently, the world’s water resources

are increasingly under stress-
threatening ecosystems, economies, and
society. This calls for a holistic
20%
approach, cashing in on the intrinsic run-off
ability of green infrastructure to
perform as “water sponges” and to
21% deep
transform cities as “sponge cities”. [22] infiltration
21% shallow
‘Sponge cities’ offer a wide range of infiltration
benefits:
75-100% impervious surfaces
1. Improved water quantity and quality
2. Reduction in flood risk 30% evapotranspiration
3. Decreased dependence on engineered
systems and grey infrastructure
4. Improved public realm [23]
Integrating green with grey

infrastructure: 55%
run-off
The multiple benefits of integrating

green infrastructure with engineered 5% deep
systems include- infiltration
10% shallow
1. Technical and environmental benefits: infiltration
Green infrastructure can boost

Fig.66 Relationship between the surface
infrastructure system resilience due to
runoff, infiltration and nature of the
its natural adaptive and regenerative ground surface
capacity.
47 | Solution- Water Sensitive Urban Design

2. Social: Green infrastructure empowers Green:
communities through participation in
project operations. This enhances project
sustainability as long-term viability is
highly dependent on community support.
3. Green infrastructure can be low-cost,

and cost-effective, helping enhance the
economic efficiency of infrastructure Grey:
investments. Its multiple benefits can
generate both monetary values and
nonmarket benefits.
Numerous studies and scenarios

demonstrate how nature’s innate ability
can be harnessed to substitute for or
enhance infrastructure systems, and Green with grey:
design development projects in ways that
both address development challenges and
curb ecosystem degradation. These types
of strategies are collectively called
nature-based solutions, while solutions
explicitly designed to deliver a service
are termed “green infrastructure”. [24]
Fig.68 Advantages of integrating green
infrastructural components with grey
infrastructure
Source: Integrating the grey, green and blue-
Yaella et. al
Green roof Green walls & street trees
Bioswale Rain-garden
Fig.67 Examples of green infrastructure

components
Source: ontheplatform.ork.uk
Water Sensitive Urban Design | 48

Deep form vs. shallow form- To generate a deep form requires rational
understanding of natural systems in
As explained by John T. Lyle, a “deep combination with intuitive imagery, and
form” is shaped by the interactions of thus a design process that combines high
inner ecological process and human vision levels of both analytical and creative
(Fig.69) which can make the underlying thinking.
order visible and meaningful in human
terms. Contrasting to this is the The Author proposes we take the
“shallow from”, which only has the underlying complex and elegant eco-
surface perceptual order and lacks the systematic order of nature as the
solidity of coherent process beneath the essential and fundamental inspiration for
surface (Fig.70). In deep form is a design. [25]
meeting of appearance and reality, mind
and nature, art and science. In correlation with this, Landscape
Architect Kongjian Yu of Turenscape
recommends 2 levels of actions to create
“deep forms”:
1. Planning to create configurative deep

forms,
2. Designing to create transformative

deep forms
Principles and Methodologies adopted by

Kongjiyan Yu-
To design to create transformative “deep

forms”, some of the principles
implemented by the Landscape Architect in
his projects are:
Fig.69 Example of “deep form” at small
scale - Accepting & living with the floods
Source: treehugger.com
- Using the landscape productively
- Value the ordinary- Reuse & Recycle
- Minimize intervention
- Porous landscape: pond-dyke model
- Let nature do the work (remediation)
- Designed ecologies for water cleansing;

using abstracted terraces
- Green solutions for recovering mother

rivers
- Small solutions cumulative for big

Fig.70 Example of “shallow form” at small
scale impacts [26]
Source: readersdigest.ca
51 | Precedents- Principle & Methodologies

1. Living with the floods- vegetation, but also to promote
continuity of the design with the
THE FLOATING GARDENS (21.3 Ha) surrounding ecosystem.
An ecological approach for the stormwater
management is proposed as an alternative
to the engineered, grey infrastructure
approach. It provides an alternative
flood control and storm water management
solution to be used as a model for the
entire river valley.
Fig.73 Layers of the natural matrix

Source: turenscape.com
The upper layer for humans which "floats"

above the seasonally flooded natural
matrix, is composed of groves of native
trees, a network of paths extends from
the urban fabric downwards the park.
10 year flood 50 year flood
20 year flood Location of the park
Fig.71 Flooding extent along the Yongning

river
Fig.72 Bank of the river- Before & After

Fig.74 Layers of the human matrix
The park situated along the Yongning Source: turenscape.com
river is composed of two layers: the
natural matrix overlapped with the human
matrix-- the floating gardens. The
natural matrix is composed of wetland and
natural vegetation designed for the
natural processes of flooding and native
habitats. Above this natural matrix,
float the gardens of humanity composed of
a designed tree matrix, a path network,
and a matrix of story boxes.
Fig.75 Overall masterplan of the
Native wetland plants, trees and bamboos floating gardens
are massed along the riverbank and
throughout the design not only to ensure
successful establishment of the
Precedents- Principles & Methodologies | 52

2. Productive use of landscape- vegetation, but also to promote
continuity of the design with the
SHENYANG ARCHITECTURAL UNIVERSITY (21 Ha) surrounding ecosystem.
Fig.78 A view of the rice fields

The upper layer for humans which "floats"

1- Central pond 3- Rice fields above the seasonally flooded natural
2- Dry crop area 4- Library
matrix, is composed of groves of native
Fig.76 Masterplan of the University trees, a network of paths extends from
Source: turenscape.com the urban fabric downwards the park.
China’s rapid urbanisation is inevitably
encroaching upon limited arable terrain,
raising issues of sustainable land use.
With 20% of the world population and only
18% of cultivable land, China is in the
danger of squandering one of its most
important and limited resource.
The project demonstrates how agricultural

Fig.79 A view of the dry crop area
landscape can become a part of the Source: turenscape.com
urbanized environment and create a
cultural identity. This concept is
implemented in the design by the use of
rice, native plants and crops to keep the
landscape productive (Fig.76,78,79) while
fulfilling its new role as an environment
for learning.
Fig.77 Spaces alongside cultivated land

53 | Precedents- Principles & Methodologies

3. Porous landscape: Pond-dyke model-
QUNLI STORMWATER PARK (34.2 Ha)
Skywalk, pavilion
& towers
Ground level path

network & platform
Fig.80 Masterplan of the stormwater park

In 2006, a new urban district, Qunli New

Town (2733 Hectares), was planned to be
developed at the east outskirt of Haerbin
Fill ring (mounds)
City of North China, a region where
flooding and water-logging were seen
often. While only about 16.4% of the
developable land was zoned as permeable
green space, the majority of the former
flat plain will be covered with
impermeable concrete. The site to be
developed as a park, was a former
wetland, that was later surrounded by Cut ring (ponds)
roads and dense development on all sides.
The design solution was the use of simple

cut-and-fill technique to create a
necklace of ponds-and-mounds surrounding
the former wetland, while leaving a major
core of the wetland untouched and left
alone for natural evolution and Existing wetland
transformation (Fig.81). The pond-and-
mound ring surrounding the periphery of
the wetland creates a storm water Fig.81 Layers of the stormwater park
filtrating and cleansing buffer zone for
the core wetland, and a welcoming
landscape filter between nature and city.
Native wetland grasses and meadow are
grown in the ponds of various depths and
the natural evolution process is
initiated.
Through the transformation of this dying

wetland, showcasing an approach of water-
sensitive urbanism, stormwater that
frequently causes flood in the city
become a positive environmental amenity Fig.82 An aerial view of the park
for the city. Source: turenscape.com

4. Designed ecologies for water cleansing- The strategy implemented is to slow the
flow of water from the hillside slopes
LIUPANSHUI MINGHU WETLAND PARK (60 Ha) and create a water-based ecological
infrastructure that will retain and
remediate the stormwater (Fig.85), and
make water the active agent in the
regeneration of a healthy ecosystem that
will provide natural and cultural
services in order to transform the
industrial city into a liveable habitat.
Fig.83 Masterplan of the wetland park

The holistic strategy for the project

targets to address some serious problems:
- Water pollution: Situated along with

one of the major heavy industrial cities.
From its industrial chimneys, decades of
air pollution deposits have fallen onto Fig.85 Concept of the wetland park
Source: landscapeperformance.org
the surrounding slopes and been washed
into the river along with stormwater
runoff that carries chemical fertiliser
runoff from the farm land on the slopes
and sewage from the scattered settlements
in the area
- Flood and stormwater inundation
- Channelization of the main river
- Lack of public space (Fig.84)
Fig.86 Terraced bioswales- water filters

Fig.84 Before and after the intervention Fig.87 Levels of the wetland park
Source: turenscape.com Source: turenscape.com
55 | Precedents- Principles & Methodologies

5. Recovering mother rivers- 6. Small solutions cumulative for big
impacts-
SANLIHE GREENWAY
Industry
Transport
Commercial & public
Households
Agriculture,
forestry & fishing
Fig.88 Dechannelizing the river- Step 1 Other

Fig.92 Energy consumption by sector
Source: Eurostat
With buildings being the major source of

energy consumption (Fig.92), small scale
interventions at the building level will
cumulatively bring about a major impact.
Fig.89 Recovering the natural hydrological

pattern- Step 2
Fig.90 Wetlands at nodes for cleansing-

Step 3
Treated greywater to kitchen

Nutrient-rich water Rainwater
Urine collection Treated greywater
Fig.93 An example of energy/water

Fig.91 Adding ponds further increasing the management at the building scale
“sponges”- Step 4 Source: re-thinkingthefuture.com,
biome-solutions.com
Fig.94 A natural greywater filtrating

system
Source: colourbox.com

SABARMATI RIVERFRONT DEVELOPMENT, 1. Enabling public accessibility- A two-
Ahmedabad, India level, continuous promenade at the
water’s edge along each bank of the river
The Sabarmati river which was once a is enabled by opting for changes to the
source of drinking water and informal river profile through channelization.
recreational activities for Ahmedabad, (Fig.97)
with rapid and haphazard urbanization
became neglected, inaccessible and
polluted. Over time, as the city grew,
the natural course of the river was
encroached upon. Unrestricted flow of
industrial and domestic waste polluted
the river. Informal settlements sprung up
along the river added to the problem and
these settlements were prone to flooding
during the monsoon.
Fig.95 Formerly inaccessible riverfront Fig.97 Areas to be reclaimed along the

Source: smartnet.niua.org Sabarmati river
Source: smartnet.niua.org
Fig.91 Adding ponds further increasing the

“sponges”- Step 4
Fig.96 Accessible riverfront (after) Fig.97 Enabling public accessibility by

Source: smartnet.niua.org channelizing the Sabarmati river withing
Objectives of the Sabarmati Riverfront Ahmedabad- an engineered approach
Development Project:
- Enabling public accessibility The area reclaimed along both banks

- Keeping the river pollution-free comprise of parks and green spaces
- Reducing risk of erosion and flooding constituting about 50% of the land
- Rehabilitating slum dwellers reclaimed to facilitate the riverfront
- Providing public spaces and socio- access (Fig.98).
cultural amenities
- Rejuvenating riverfront neighbourhoods
- Generating a self-finance model
- Giving the city a memorable identity
57 | Precedents- Sabarmati Riverfront Development

Fig.100 Routing the interceptor sewage
lines to sewage treatment plants
The river has been channelized to a

constant width to maintain the flood
carrying capacity uninterrupted, to
provide protection from periodic flooding
275m and prevent erosion of the river banks.
3. Providing public spaces and socio-

cultural amenities- The formerly
unorganized activities happening along
the river, such as the ‘Sunday market’
and ‘dhobhi ghats’ are accommodated in
formal facilities (Fig. 101).
Riverfront Market Exhibition Laundry

Fig.98 Areas reclaimed along the river Centre Campus
2. Keeping the river pollution free and

reducing the risk of flood/erosion- To
stop untreated sewage from flowing into
the river, the riverfront development
includes two interceptor sewer lines on Events Ground
both banks of the river (Fig.99, 100),
Fig.101 Amenities along the riverfront
capturing 38 sewage discharge points and Source: smartnet.niua.org
routing sewage with new pumping stations
in the reclaimed banks. The historic Sunday market, has been
refurbished as Riverfront Market adjacent
to its previous location (Fig.102). A
laundry campus has been created to
provide facilities for the washing
community that used the river banks for
laundering (Fig.103).
Fig.99 Intercepting sewage outfalls

These lines carry untreated sewage to the

two recently augmented sewage treatment
plants (Fig.100). The treated water from
these plants will be used in the future
Fig.102 An impression of the market
to replenish the river. Source: smartnet.niua.org
Precedents- Sabarmati Riverfront Development | 58

5. A self-financing model for the
riverfront development- to achieve its
objectives without relying on any
government funding, a small portion of
the reclaimed land is sold for commercial
development to generate adequate
resources to pay for developing the
riverfront and managing it (Fig.106).
Fig.103 A formal laundry campus

Trade-fair facilities for the business

community are integrated with outdoor
vending areas, situated all along the Fig.106 Saleable land along the river
length of the project accommodating Source: smartnet.niua.org
informal vendors.
The project still under realisation has
already led to increased land values,
4. Rejuvenation of the riverfront thus reducing the percentage of land for
neighbourhoods- 18 precincts are sale from that originally thought
identified which will undergo gradual necessary. The private developments that
‘upgradation’ promoting integrated and
will be built on the riverfront will be
high-density growth (Fig.104).
subjected controlled by volumetric
regulations to ensure that the built
environment along the riverfront is
harmonious and has a memorable skyline.
[27, 28]
Fig.104 18 precincts for rejuvenation

Fig.105 Precinct 5- existing vs. proposed

59 | Precedents- Sabarmati Riverfront Development

CHEONGGYECHEON STREAM RESTORATION, Seoul, is reserved for biodiversity with limited
South Korea human interference (Fig.108, 109).
The Cheonggyecheon stream, a channel that
UPSTREAM:HISTORY CULTURE NATURE
joins the Han river, runs through the
downtown area of the densely populated
Seoul. Following rapid urbanization, the
stream was completely covered with a
roadway. Additionally, another elevated
highway was added over the roadway, Fig.108 Zoning of the restored stream
burying the stream out of sight. Source: seouldsolution.kr
Over the years, Cheonggyecheon area had

become a shabby industrial area, suffered
from chronic, massive traffic volumes
with high levels of congestion, pollution
and elevated temperatures (urban heat
island). The roadways exhibited
structural disintegration. Considering
the above factors, the highway was
proposed to be removed (Fig.107), and the
stream to be restored.
Fig.109 Stream scenarios: zone 1, 2 & 3

Source: urban-regeneration.worldbank.org
The source of water entering the stream

is majorly water pumped from the Han
river, and also the water from the subway
stations. To maintain the water quality
of the stream, and to overcome the heavy
levels of contamination that is typically
constituent in the initial discharge
stormwater, a double canal/sewage system
is adopted to suffice even during extreme
rainfall events (Fig.110).
Fig.107 Dismantling of the roadways

Source: seoulsolution.kr
The priority of the restoration project

was flood control. The intervention leans
more towards the urban/engineered
approach: the stream was opted to be
channelised to secure a flood carrying Fig.110 Measures to regulate the water
capacity of 200 years. The up-stream area quality entering the stream
of the restored park is dotted with Source: Seoul Metropolitan Government
public spaces while the down-stream area
Precedents- Cheonggyecheon Stream Restoration | 60

Outcome of the restoration project: DEFENSIVE STRATEGY: DELTAWORKS,
Netherlands
- Increased in number of pedestrian
visitors The Deltaworks is the largest engineered
flood protection system, comprising of
- Reduction in use of private vehicles dams, storm barriers, dykes and levees.
entering the Cheonggyecheon area, In the densely populated areas near the
increase in use of public river mouths of the Rhine, the Meuse, and
transportation the Schelde, it proved very difficult to
build new dikes or strengthen the
- Improved air and water quality original ones. The solution resolved was
to close all the river mouths, the
- Reduction in noise level
‘Deltaplan’. By doing so, 700km of dyke
- Reduction in land surface temperatures length would be reduced.
- Corridor for wind passage created The necessity:
- Increased biodiversity with greater With around 17% of the country’s current
number of bird, fish and insect species land area claimed from the sea or lakes,
about 26% of the country’s area below sea
- Increase in price of land by 30-50% for level (Fig.112), 21% of population living
properties within 50m of the restored in areas below sea level, 66% of the
area. This is double the rate of country is vulnerable to submergence in
property increases in other areas of the absence of any protective measures.
Seoul. [29, 30]
Fig.111 Surface temperature of

Cheonggyecheon (post-restoration) vs.
nearby street
Source: seoulsolution.kr
N.A.P. is the Amsterdam Ordnance Level which is the reference plane

for sea level height in the Netherlands.
Fig.112 Map showing the flood prone

areas of Netherlands
Source: Research Publication- Haasnoot Et. al
Posing this threat to the country are the

North Sea, the Rhine (Waal) river and the
Meuse river, Ysselmeer lake. The flood of
1953 which claimed the life of 1835
people and hundreds of animals, while
61 | Precedents- Deltaworks
submerging 150,000 hectares of land under ADAPTIVE STRATEGY: ROOM FOR THE RIVER,
sea water, triggered the urgent action Netherlands
plan to implement the Deltaworks project,
an engineered approach to better protect This initiative seeks to restore natural
the Netherlands against water. “sponges” of water such as marshes and
wetlands to increase the flood water
storage capacity. Inherently, these also
improve the biodiversity of rivers, while
enhancing their aesthetic and
recreational value.
Formerly, in the Netherlands, water

management was seen as a matter of civil
engineering and the interventions aimed
at controlling nature. Over the last
centuries, this approach has resulted in
gradual development in the floodplain of
rivers thereby reduced room for the
rivers, requiring repeated heightening of
flood defences. An approach transitioning
from ‘fighting with water’ to ‘living
with water’ was necessary. [33]
Lowering of Deepening of Dyke relocation

floodplains summer bed
Fig.113 Map showing proposed levels of

Water storage Depoldering Dyke strengthening
protection against flooding
Source: Research Publication- Van Alphen
Presently, flood protection in

Netherlands is delivered by a system of Lowering groynes High-water channel Removing obstacles
3700 km primary flood defences, (dikes,

Fig.114 Measures of Room for the River
dunes, sea walls, dams and storm surge Source: rijkswaterstaat.nl
barriers), which prevent flooding from
the North Sea and major rivers and lakes.
In addition, a system of 14,000 km of
secondary dikes prevents flooding due to
the regional water systems.
This flood protection system also

requires dealing with a sea level rise of
about 2 mm/y, and already existing saline
seepage of brackish groundwater, salt
intrusion in the estuaries and land
subsidence.
The new flood protection standards are

achieved combined with adaptive
strategies such as the so-called ‘Room
for the Rivers’ that include floodplain
and side channel excavations, backward
dike realignment and flood retention that
reduce extreme flood levels. [31, 32]
Fig.115 Map showing intervention areas
Source: IHE
Precedents- Room for the River | 62

DYKE RELOCATION (Room for Waal river), The island and bypass channel together
Nijmegen, Netherlands form a river park that while reducing the
flood risks, also offers recreational,
Located upstream of the Waal river ecological and aesthetic values (Fig.118).
(Fig.116) in Nijmegen, this is the most
complex project within the Room for the The design objective was to experience
River programme. By constructing a bypass the river landscape and incorporate the
channel, an elongated island is created river dynamics (Fig.119). For example,
in the river Waal (Fig.117), between the some paths will occasionally be flooded
historic centre and the north shore of in the event of high water levels, only
the Waal River. being accessible via stepping stones.
Resultantly, a recreational, urban river

park is created, with part of the new
island available for housing. High water
levels are reduced by 34cm. [34, 35]
1day/year 5days/year
Fig.116 Map showing the location of the
intervention upstream of the Waal river
Fig.117 Map showing the elongated island
created as a result of dyke relocation
Source: H+N+S Landscape Architects
50days/year 180days/year
Fig.119 Dynamic nature of the river

Source: H+N+S Architects
Fig.118 Masterplan
Source: H+N+S Landscape Architects
Relocated
dyke
Previous
location
of dyke
Fig.119 Revised dyke location Fig.120 Before and after dyke relocation
Source: ruimtevoorderivier Source: Landezine, Johan Roerink Aeropicture
63 | Precedents- Room for the River

CASCADING SEMARANG, Semarang, Indonesia rise, this flooding and damages are
expected to increase in Semarang.
Semarang with the 5th largest metropolitan
area in Indonesia is the capital of The city is slowly growing into the hilly
Central Java province. Mount Ungaran regions, occupying more territory, with
located 20 km south of Semarang is part increased landslide risks due to higher
of the Javan volcanic mountain range, degrees of deforestation and surface
highly prone to earthquakes (Fig.121). sealing. Additionally, this expansion
This mountain adds to a strong topography also impacts recharge of different
around Semarang with a strong slope from aquifer levels beneath the city (Fig.122).
the hilly inland to the coastal lowlands.
4 Fig.122 Water challenges in Semarang

Source: Cascading Semarang Phase 2 Report
5 Water Challenges in Semarang:
6 - Surplus water in rainy season

There are 21 rivers located in Semarang,
some of which regularly flood. Flash
flood is also caused by poor drainage
infrastructure, environmental degradation
1- Feeding the industry - Recharging Aquifers in the upstream area, sedimentation in
New water Reservoirs the downstream area, poor maintenance and
2- Feeding the industry - Industrial zones high precipitation. With an increase in
3- Re-Channeling the city - Canals for occurrence of extreme weather events
recharging shallow aquifers caused by climate change and the constant
4- Spongy Mountain Terrace - Urbanization in growing pressure of urbanisation,
residential zone
Semarang is increasingly vulnerable
5- Spongy Mountain Terrace - New water towards flooding.
reservoirs
6- Spongy Mountain – Green bio-corridors - Water Scarcity during rest of the year
Fig.121 Map showing the context of Droughts are another main concern
Semarang and the overall project concept affecting Semarang, due to the clear
Source: Cascading Semarang Phase 2 Report seasonal shift. Inadequate network of
The lower areas of Semarang deal with piped water supply has given way to The
most water issues, like floods and lack of sustainable and reliable water
pollution, while the mountainous area supply has led to the exponential growth
suffers from a scarcity of drinking of private groundwater wells and the
water, landslide and flash floods. Short overexploitation of the groundwater.
Insufficient water supply has also
of steady supply from other sources, both
households and industry use ground water, impacted the livelihood of local farmers.
leading to land subsidence of up to 17
Vicious cycles and interdependent
cm/yr in some locations. This, combined
challenges in Semarang:
with increased surface runoff due to
increase in impermeable surfaces, The manner in which the city is currently
regularly cause flash flooding. Combined developing, is not sustainable and lacks
with the increasing threat of sea level resilience due the following factors:
Precedents- Cascading Semarang | 64

- Land subsidence damages infrastructure The project adopts a systemic approach to
making coastal properties uninhabitable address the different water-related
- Coastal industries face increasing concerns of Semarang. Accordingly, five
flood risks due to climate change and concepts focusing on different steps of
land subsidence, consequently impacting utilizing rainwater have been proposed.
the economy from reduced revenue
- Upstream urbanization without measures (i) Spongy mountain terrace
to increase the water retention capacity (ii) Re-channelling the city
in the upstream areas will further (iii) Feeding the industry
elevate flood risk causing additional (iv) Micro interventions
upstream migration and urbanization (v) Recharging the aquifer
- Possible groundwater depletion and
higher rainfall variability increases the
risk of water scarcity
Fig.123 Causes of water problems in Semarang
Fig.124 Proposals to resolve the water problems in Semarang

Source: Cascading Semarang Phase 2 Report
65 | Precedents- Cascading Semarang

1. Spongy mountain terrace: 2. Re-channelling the city:
‘Spongy Mountain Terraces’ imply the This strategy aims at the improvement of
creation of nature-based adaptive inner city urban water management,
systems, which allow for the capture, creating additional capacity for the
storage and reuse of water in the uphill storage and regulation of waterflow.
areas of Semarang thereby minimizing the Storing stormwater locally and
impact of runoff in downstream areas. The discharging it slowly after the storm,
uphill interventions focus on improving reduces the risk of pluvial and fluvial
spatial conditions by implementing new floods downstream. This system promotes
ecological conservation areas, mitigating the local handling of stormwater in
landslide risk and enhancing water contrast to the current approach- moving
retention in agricultural areas. Thereby, the water masses downstream. [5]
flood risk in the downstream areas of the
city will be reduced and water supply
will be more stable throughout the year.
1 2 3 4
Delay Store
1- Landslide Resilient Neighbourhood

2- Store and delay
3- Shallow aquifer recharge
4- Feeding the industry
Convey Cleanse
2+3 2+3 1+2 2 2+3+4
AGRICULTURE URBAN AREAS

Capture and Provide Store and Reuse
Protect from Landslides
NATURE / FOREST RIVER PARK

Retain and Infiltrate Retain and Infiltrate
Fig.125 Tools for spongy mountain

terraces and their location of adoption
Source: Cascading Semarang Phase 2 Report 1- Terraced jungle 4- Canal-front
2- Wetland park 5- Stepping stones
The Terraces will release new land for 3- Water squares 6- Kampung square
new urban developments, stimulate new Fig.126 Proposed interventions for re-
urban typologies and new ways of living channelling the city
with water. Source: Cascading Semarang Phase 2 Report
Precedents- Cascading Semarang | 66

PROJECT LOCATION YEAR APPROACH IMPLEMENTABLE SOLUTIONS
Sabarmati Riverfront Development
(i) Interceptor drain
plugging sewage
Ahmedabad, 2006- outfalls in the river
Engineered
India Present (ii) Self-financing
model by cashing-in on
the reclaimed land
Cheonggyecheon Stream Restoration

(i) Double interceptor
drain plugging sewage
outfalls in the river,
while proving source of
Seoul, clean water entering
Engineered +
South 2005 the stream
Nature-based
Korea (ii) Ecological segment
focussing on provision
of undisturbed natural
habitat for improving
biodiversity
The Floating Gardens- Yongning

River Park
(i) Designed to manage

the interaction of the
natural matrix and the
human matrix
Taizhou, Ecological/
2004 (ii) Secluded
China Nature-based
biodiversity islets
(iii) Nature-based
solution as stormwater
filtering system
Shenyang University Park
(i) Agricultural
Shenyang, Ecological/
2003 landscape as part of an
China Nature-based
urbanized environment
Qunli Stormwater Park

(i) Using the porosity
of natural landscape
elements as stormwater
Haerbin, Ecological/ filtering systems
2010
China Nature-based (ii) Leaving a natural
wetland undisturbed to
preserve and maintain
an ecological balance
67 | Precedents- Summary
PROJECT LOCATION YEAR APPROACH IMPLEMENTABLE SOLUTIONS
Liupanshui Minghu Wetland Park
(i) Using terraced
ponds to delay, store,
Liupanshui, Ecological/ and filter runoff
2012
China Nature-based (ii) Use of low
maintenance, native
species
Recovering the Mother River- The (i) Recovering the

Sanlihe Greenway natural hydraulic
pattern of a basin
(ii) Adding natural
Qian’an, Ecological/ cleansing systems-
2010
China Nature-based wetlands at the nodes
(iii) Introducing ponds
to reinforce the
retention capacity of
the basin
The Deltaworks
(i) Dykes as a
defensive strategy to
1950-
Netherlands Engineered fend from sea level
1997
rise and marine
flooding
Room for the Rivers (Ex. strategy

- Dyke Relocation)
(i) Retreating from

flood plain is primary
in allowing for rivers
Nijmegen, Engineered +
2016 to swell and thereby
Netherlands Nature-based
reducing the high water
levels and associated
flood risks
Cascading Semarang (i) Strategic approach

ranging from large
scale strategy of
transforming the
landscape into a
sponge, to micro-
2019:
Engineered + interventions
Semarang, Compet
Nature-based applicable at a single
Indonesia ition
house/neighbourhood
entry
level are essential to
addressing complex
water issues resulting
from inter-dependent
issues
Precedents- Summary | 68
As introduced in the first section of the ‘Coastal fortification’- Climate change
report, the ICRERP focuses on rapid is increasing the risk of coastal
draining of stormwater through river flooding through its effects on sea level
channel upgrades in the Cooum river. rise and the intensity of cyclones.
Contrasting to the above linear approach,
the strategy proposed in this report is The traditional grey infrastructure
interventions on a range of scales: components to combat this hazard is the
use of embankments, sluice gates, dykes
1. REGIONAL SCALE: The factors affecting and seawalls. Green infrastructure
infiltration capacity are- components such as Mangrove forests can
- Intensity and duration of rainfall provide effective protection against
- Amount of water in the soil coastal flooding.[24] Research shows that
- Slope of terrain mangrove conservation can pay for itself
- Nature of surface material in flood protection, thus being an
- Extent and type of vegetation effective, comparatively economical, and
resilient solution.[36]
‘Absorb’- By leveraging infrastructure
(Road/Rail Network) as Bio-Corridors, it Mangroves can decrease wave energy and
is possible to utilize the enormous storm surges, thereby serving as natural
lengths of State and National Highways, defences against rising sea levels.
which are basically giant stretches of Mangroves are salt-tolerant plants of
asphalt, to become carriers of green tropical and subtropical intertidal
infrastructure. Thereby, nature of the regions, that are a part of the coastal
surface material and the extent of ecosystems which can act as buffers
vegetation are optimized. Upstream tree against sea-level rise as well as against
cover management being most effective at natural hazards that bring intense wind,
slowing and retaining moderate floods rainfall, or storm surge, and are
before soil saturation (Bathurst et al. additionally beneficial due to their
2011), infiltration capacity can be large carbon storage capacities.[24]
significantly improved by leveraging
transportation infrastructure to become
carriers of green infrastructure.
Fig.128 Mangroves stabilize sediments

and attenuate waves
Source: WRI/Flickr
Potential bio-corridors CMA

National & State highways Chennai City
Fig.127 Map showing highways passing tree
cover areas potentially as bio-corridors
71 | Strategy- Regional Scale

2. BASIN SCALE: Replacing the current unsustainable
agricultural practices (Fig.130) with a
‘Revive’- “Kudimaramathu” is an ancient more sustainable form such as
community custom that involves desilting Agroforestry (Fig.131), will be a
of local tanks prior to the arrival of resilient and economically viable option.
the monsoon to reap maximum benefits from
1 2 3 4
the rain. This is a dying traditional
practice of Tamil Nadu that can revive
the ancient wisdom of water management
and be promoted to make aware of the
significance of the tanks to the farmers.
1- Carbon storage
2- Refuge for biodiversity
3- Increased water retention & reduced erosion
4- Diversified & increased revenue
Fig.131 Replacing with a more

sustainable agricultural system such
as Agroforestry
‘Retain’- Around 80 surface waterbodies/

Fig.129 Revival of “Kudimaramathu” tanks are present in the Cooum basin, all
of which today remain only outside the
‘Replace’- Over 20% of the water demand city limits of Chennai (Fig.132). The
in the Cooum basin is attributed to the Water Resources Department (WRD) of
agricultural sector. Rice paddy is a Chennai has proposed to create additional
predominant cultivation in the basin, storage in several tanks by deepening
employing flood irrigation. their foreshore area by 1m-2m.
The traditional grey infrastructural

approach to tackle the present
agricultural context in the basin would
be to reinforce engineered systems such
as dams, irrigation/drainage canals,
etc., while, embracing the green
infrastructural approach would mean to
opt for increasing the soil water
Fig.132 Surface waterbodies and other
retention and to the optimise/reduce the inundation areas in the Cooum basin
irrigation requirements. [24]
Augmenting these tanks waterbodies to
improve their storage capacity will have
1 2 3 4
a dramatic effect on urban flooding
downstream, and will also help in
improving the ground water storage. [37]
Research specific to the Adyar basin

1- Use of chemicals: soil & water pollution corroborates that augmenting the
2- Erosion through wind and rain
3- Water intensive monocultural agriculture tanks/waterbodies uniformly by 2m can
4- Slash and burn practices neutralize the adverse effects of
urbanization in 2050 during scenarios
Fig.130 Present Scenario: Water-intensive
monocultural agriculture like 1 in 50-year floods. [38]
Strategy- Basin Scale | 72

implement energy generation from waste.
Waste collection is proposed to be a paid
service. Handing of segregated waste will
be incentivized, thereby encouraging and
enforcing waste segregation at source.
Fig.133 Agricultural tanks upstream-

current scenario
1 2 3 1
1- Tree buffer: preventing encroachments

2- Pond-dyke model: Filter (phytoremediation)
+ Retain + Infiltrate
3- Bio-diversity islets
Fig.134 Agricultural tanks upstream-

proposed strategy Fig.135 An example of solid waste
management model
Rejuvenating the existing agricultural Source: GPT, UK
tanks/ surface waterbodies upstream to
increase their retention capacity while In Fig.135, an example of a waste
functioning as systems of filtration and management model by GPT demonstrates the
recharge (Fig.134) will supplement as paths for waste from the source, through
sources of water supply. the Material Recovery Facility (MRF)
illustrating how revenue opportunities
3. CITY SCALE: can be achieved by commoditising recycled
materials, ensuring the deviation from
‘Assort, Privatize, Incentivize’- Solid
landfills.
waste management remains a major
challenge for the city of Chennai, poor ‘Drain & Filter’- With the highly
management of which, is incidentally also urbanized setting of Chennai, the
a cause of pollution and accretion of infiltration capacity is minimal,
beds of the city’s drainage network. resulting in a heavy run-off. Owing to
the relative flat terrain of Chennai, in
With the current solid waste management
addition to the inadequacy of drainage
system, unsorted/poorly sorted waste
provisions, further exacerbated by the
typically ends up in landfills which are
poor maintenance of the existing drainage
already overwhelmed and nuisance to the
systems, water inundation is rampant.
residents living near these dumping
grounds. Inadequate waste disposal The traditional grey infrastructure
facilities contributes to much of the approach to tackle this would be
solid waste being dumped around drainage provision of storm drains, pumps and
channels/water bodies. outfalls, that solely focus out draining
out the stormwater rapidly, consequently
An effective way to overcome this would
wasting out on the opportunity of
be privatize solid waste management and
73 | Strategy- City Scale

benefitting from potable water.
A green infrastructural approach of

supplementing with retention areas will
store stormwater and thereby reduce drain
and pump requirements. These systems will
complement the grey infrastructure,
imparting resilience avoiding instances
of overwhelming during extreme weather
events. [24] Fig.137 Delineated hydrological pattern
of the Cooum basin
In order to achieve this, the following
green infrastructure tools are proposed
to be implemented:
Rain garden Bioswale
In Fig.135, an example of a waste

management model by GPT demonstrates the
paths for waste from the source, through
Constructed wetland the Material Recovery Facility (MRF)
illustrating how revenue opportunities
can be achieved by commoditising recycled
materials, ensuring the deviation from
landf
Sunken squares Detention pond >45m wide 27m – 30.5m 18m – 24m
Fig.136 Green infrastructure tools to be Fig.138 Streets to be realigned as per

implemented at city scale II Masterplan of Chennai
Data Source: CMDA
Utilizing the hydrological pattern of the
basin (Fig.137), streets and canals can ‘Riverine vigilantes’- The ICRERP
function as draining and filter channels proposes resettling 14,257 families
for the stormwater, before it joins the inhabiting the slums along the river
river course, thereby providing corridor to locations outside the city
opportunities for storage/increased limit. A potentially feasible and low-
infiltration, thus delaying peak cost option of improving the slum
discharge, drastically reducing the risk conditions, reducing their environmental
of riverine floods. impact on the river was overlooked in
favour of the high cost resettlement. [41]
Additionally, a numerous streets are
proposed to be realigned in the II Reserving a part of the re-developed
masterplan of Chennai (Fig.138) which can housing along the river for the families
include these green infrastructural to be resettled, in lieu of riverine
elements in their realignment. pollution vigil/maintenance, would be a
more sociologically acceptable and cost-
effective solution.
Strategy- City Scale | 74

4. NEIGHBOURHOOD/BUILDING SCALE: urban agriculture to treat (root-zone
treatment) and re-use water at the source
Built-up structures comprising over 80% of the sewage generation, will not only
of the Chennai city, micro-interventions immensely reduce the load on the
at the building scale will cumulatively centralized sewage treatment systems but
bring about a huge impact. Such also minimize the dependence on external
decentralized systems are more reliable sources for water supply.
as failure at one or more points do not
make large parts of the city vulnerable. 1- Settling tank
2- Kitchen
garden/ water
‘Harvest’- Dense development in the city
treatment system
has resulted in sealed surfaces which 3- Underground
evidently impacts permeability and water storage
therefore results in heavy run-off. This

heavy run-off factor can be utilized by
collecting and storing; harvesting the 1
2 3
rainwater for future use.
Treat
Though current bye-laws mandate rainwater
harvesting structures, poor know-how and
Grey water Store Rainwater
practices inconsiderate of the geological
conditions have rendered these structures Re-use Harvest
redundant and dysfunctional. Appropriate
Fig.140 ‘Tackle’ for water circularity
structures to harness the stormwater
while reducing the extraction of Simple changes such as avoiding the use
groundwater, will also stop the receding of synthetic chemical-based cleaning
of groundwater levels and salt water products will make this strategy easily
intrusion. [39] implementable.
‘De-compound’- Currently, property

1- Stratified pit:
Filtration + boundaries are defined using masonry
Recharge walls, and these being structures with
negligible permeability, cause what is
1 termed as the ‘compound wall effect’.
Percolation These walls change the local overland
Pits
flow paths and sometimes even block the
1- Underground
filtration chamber
local channels owing to inadequate
2- Underground provision of culverts. This in turn
water storage alters the local flooding pattern,
protecting some areas while flooding the
1
2
others. [39]
Rainwater
Harvesting Another factor contributing to increased
Fig.139 Tools for ‘harvest’ surface run-off is impermeable paving.
‘Tackle’- Going further beyond harvesting De-compounding walls and paving by

and utilizing rainwater is to enable implementing permeable materials with
water circularity by treating the added layers of suitable green elements
greywater at the source and reusing it. will enable fences to effectively and
Development models with integrated green economically serve the purpose of
infrastructural solutions in the form of preventing encroachment, and reducing
75 | Strategy- Neighbourhood/Building Scale

run-off when the pavements are made more ‘Floating filter’- Portable, floating
permeable. phytoremediation systems such as
“floating islands” a product developed by
1- Masonry walls
‘compound wall Clean water, India can facilitate water
effect’ treatment in urban contexts with space
2- Fence with
prickly vegetation constraints.
3- Permeable paving
This works on the principle of rootzone
treatment, and provide a concentrated
1 2
wetland effect while serving as micro-
habitat for biodiversity, alongside
giving an aesthetic uplift.
3
Fig.141 ‘De-compound’ for permeability
‘Harness’- Building roofs are large

surface area which are otherwise obsolete
offer multiple benefits by providing the
opportunity to harness solar energy and
space for increased green cover. Fig.143 ‘Floating filter’ for
phytoremediation
Solar energy: As Chennai receives
Regional Scale:
abundant solar energy round the year,
incorporating the use of solar-powered
devices such as solar water heaters,
solar cookers, and solar panels are Absorb Coastal Fortification
helpful steps towards urban resilience.
Basin Scale:
Green roofs: As vegetation possess the
ability to absorb and retain water,
adding green roofs to buildings come with
Revive Replace Retain
various advantages such as increased
rainwater absorption, insulation, habitat
City Scale:
for biodiversity, reduced surface
temperatures, etc. Based on the cost
factors, different models are adoptable
such as simple terrace gardens, or water
Assort, Drain & Riverine
resilient extensive green roofs that can Privatize, Filter Vigilantes
be easily be installed in apartment Incentivize
buildings.
Neighbourhood/Building Scale:
1- Harnessing solar
energy
2
2- Green roof
1
Harvest Tackle
Decompound Harness Floating

Filter
Fig.142 Tools for ‘harness’ Fig.143a Strategy across scales
Strategy- Neighbourhood/Building Scale | 76

1. REGIONAL SCALE:
Leveraging Infrastructure as Bio-

corridors to ‘Absorb’- Similar to most
developing nations, the infrastructural
planning in India is realised giving
maximum importance to the short-term
economic factors, without consideration
to the environmental impact. The country
has extensive road and rail network, the
maintenance of which ranges from the
Central governed bodies to local Public
Works Departments.
India has 142,126km of National Highways

(as of April 2019) which is a meagre 2.7% 1 2 2 1
of country’s total road network, and the
1- Slower traffic (7.2m wide- each lane 3.6m
government has plans to increase it to at wide)
least 200,000km. Most of existing network 2- Faster traffic (10.8m wide- each lane 3.6m
wide)
of highways are being expanded to four or
more lanes, and some existing roads are Fig.145 Current Scenario: National
being reclassified as National Highways. highways configured to rapidly drain
stormwater
In such a context, reconsidering the
present methodology of the highways B
configuration and transforming the

existing network of transportational
infrastructure by water-sensitizing them
will implicitly reduce the surface run-
off quotient of these roadways and
improve their water retention capacity.
1 2 2 1
A
1- Slower traffic (7.2m wide- each lane 3.6m

wide)
2- Faster traffic (10.8m wide- each lane 3.6m
wide)
A- Raingarden
B- Bioswale
Fig.146 Proposed: Leveraging National

highways as bio-corridors, increasing
Fig.144 AH45: Asian/National Highway retention capacity (reduced run-off)
79 | Interventions- Regional Scale

3 lane highway Median with
water-intensive
Two-way service ornamental Increased run-
road plants off from
impervious
surfaces
1
2
2
1
1- Slower traffic (7.2m wide- each lane 3.6m wide)
2- Faster traffic (10.8m wide- each lane 3.6m wide)
Bioswale:
Filter + Retain
+ Infiltrate
Barricade
replaced with
rain-garden
3
1
2
2
1 3
1- Slower traffic (5m wide- each lane 2.5m wide)

3- Dedicated 2-wheeler lane (2m wide)
Fig.147 Current vs. proposed scenario of National Highways
Interventions- Regional Scale | 80

A
1 1
Fig.148 SH114: State Highway 1- Fast traffic (7.2m wide- each lane 3.6m
wide)
A- Bioswale
Fig.150 Proposed: Leveraging State

highways as bio-corridors, increasing
retention capacity (reduced run-off)
1
1
1 1
1- Fast traffic (7.2m wide- each lane 3.6m

wide)
Fig.149 Current Scenario: State

highways contributing to increased
run-off/reduced permeability
1
1
Fig.151 Current vs. proposed scenario of
State Highways

Fig.152 Outer Ring Road (ORR) intersection at Cooum river
Fig.153 Outer Ring Road (ORR) as means of radiating green cover along its
length

1 2 2 1

Fig.154 Current Scenario: State highways contributing to increased run-off/reduced

permeability
1 2 2 1

Fig.155 Proposed: Leveraging Outer Ring Road (ORR) as a bio-corridor, increasing the
retention capacity (reduced run-off)

Agricultural Area prone to
fields inundation
Elevated 3
lane highway
Flood plain
& Cooum river
Fig.156 Current Scenario: Transportation infrastructure contributing to increased

run-off/reduced permeability
Fig.157 Proposed: Leveraging Outer Ring Road as a bio-corridor, increasing the retention
capacity (reduced run-off)

2. BASIN SCALE:
As introduced in the previous section of

the report, all of the surface water
bodies of the Cooum basin today remain May 2002
only outside the city limits. Basin scale
strategy of ‘Retain’ is proposed to be
implemented for all existing waterbodies
and to preserve them from encroachment.
The intervention is detailed on a segment

of the Cooum river (Fig.158) which is
dramatically dynamic owing to its
relatively sharp bend, which can serve as
a pilot for the remaining waterbodies in
the basin. The intervention is elaborated
also in the adjoining floodplain and
reservoir. Incidentally, this floodplain
is actively witnessing encroachment
(Fig.159). Research shows that a river's
rate of migration is closely correlated
with the sharpness of its bends; the
sharper and tighter the bend, the faster
the water flows, fuelling greater erosion
Jan 2021
speeding up the river’s migration. The
influence of a sharp bend on erosion and
Cooum river Reservoirs Floodplain
migration occurs just downstream from the
Landfill Hydrological pattern
curve, not directly alongside it. [40]
Fig.159 Dynamism around the river
0 200 400 800m
8
Fig.158 Satellite image of the Cooum river ~3km downstream the intersection of ORR
85 | Interventions- Basin Scale

Augmented
reservoirs:
Increased
B water storage
capacity while
functional as
stormwater
filtrating
systems
Green
buffer:
Promoting
biodiversity
& preventing
encroachments
A
Increased
room for
the river
Regularized
fluvial
corridor:
Min. 90m wide
Volume 1.5x
Protected
Floodplain:
Floodplain to
be restricted
as a no-
development
0
zone
Fig.160 Rejuvenated river corridor and reservoirs in the Chennai Metropolitan Area and beyond
Interventions- Basin Scale | 86

Scenario 1:
For most part of the year
Reservoir overflow:
Canal directing overflow from
augmented reservoirs upstream
Increased room for the river:
Flood basin in dynamic curves of the
river/locations where water collects;
as inferred from the diachronic map
Riparian zone:
Hydrophilic plant species capable
of phytoremediation
Green buffer:
Promoting biodiversity & preventing encroachments
Scenario 2:
During extreme weather events
Scenario 3:
During exception weather events- overflow from the
augmented reservoirs upstream reaching the river
Fig.161 A: River-edge and floodbasin in the Chennai Metropolitan Area and beyond

1 2 3 1
1- Green buffer: Promoting biodiversity & preventing encroachments

2- Riparian zone: Hydrophilic plant species capable of phytoremediation
3- Increased room for the river: Flood basin in dynamic curves of the
river/locations where water collects
Fig.162 Section through the rejuvenated river corridor in the Chennai Metropolitan Area and beyond

Pond-dyke model:
Cascading profile of pond-dyke model facilitating
retention, filtration, and infiltration
Biodiversity islet
Green buffer:
Promoting biodiversity & preventing encroachments
Fig.163 B: Varying water levels in an augmented reservoir with seasonal variability

1 2 3 1
1- Green buffer: Promoting biodiversity & preventing encroachments

2- Pond-dyke model: Cascading profile of pond-dyke model facilitating retention,
filtration, and infiltration
3- Biodiversity islet
Fig.164 Schematic section through the augmented reservoir B

Augmented reservoirs and material Depending on the composition of the
sustainability: excavated earth, ad-mixtures/stabilizers
will be added to make it usable as infill
Taking into account the number and extent material in the form of stabilized mud
of reservoirs proposed to be augmented, blocks, rammed earth walls,
it is evident that very large quantities panels/shells, etc.(Fig.165)
of earth will be excavated. With over
2500 families to be rehabilitated from These mud-blocks and walls will be
the areas reclaimed for the Cooum river prepared in-situ, eliminating the need to
rejuvenation alone, and the ever-growing be processed at a centralized location,
demand for housing for the increasing shortening the supply chain and the
population, the most suitable application associated carbon footprint.
for the soil excavated from the augmented
reservoirs is for it to be used as a
construction material.
Earth excavated to augment

reservoirs
Stabilized mud blocks:
(excavated earth + stabilizers) Moulded + Compacted → Sun-dried → In-fill construction material
Rammed earth walls:
Moulded Rammed/Compacted Rammed earth walls Perforated screens
Fig.165 Excavated earth as construction material

3. CITY SCALE:
The intervention is detailed on a segment Additionally, when overlayed with the

of the Cooum river in the city (Fig.166, delineated hydrological pattern, a number
167) that has a relatively sharp meander of opportunities are observed that can
and a significant number of areas to be potentially be integrated with green
resettled- providing a higher scope of infrastructure along the natural drainage
redevelopment along the riverfront. pattern (Fig.168).
Cooum river Slums (Source: ICRERP) Areas to be resettled (Source: ICRERP)

Areas inundated during 2015 floods (Source: IWMI/JAXA)
Fig.166 Areas within the city along the Cooum river prone to inundation
0 200 400 800m
11
Fig.167 Satellite image of the focus area for city scale interventions
Interventions- City Scale | 92

Dec 2000
1
4: Before
Oct 2020
4: During metro construction

Cooum river Un-built spaces
Fig.169 Condition of along the Cooum
Fig.168 Evolution of un-built spaces river and its surroundings
93 | Interventions- City Scale

0 100m 200m 400m
Riparian
zone:
Hydrophilic
plant species
facilitating
phytoremediation
Sunken
squares:
Stepped public
space allowing
for stormwater
retention
Regularized
fluvial
corridor:
Min. 50m wide
Retention
pond:
Residual space
transformed as a
stormwater
retention area
11
Linear park Public parks/play areas Riparian zone Constructed wetland/detention pond Community spaces Sunken squares Sponge streets
Fig.170 Masterplan showing city scale interventions

1- Reclaimed areas- Considering 70% to be 4- Aqueduct connecting to the retention
residential spaces and the average number pond functioning as a bye-pass during
of storeys as 1.5: ~67,200Sq.m exceptional weather events
2- Network of water-sensitized streets 5- Proposed built-forms for short-term

with the integration of green development. 15% of the residential
infrastructure spaces, 10% of retail spaces allotted for
occupants of reclaimed areas: ~28,500Sq.m
(42% of reclaimed extent)
3- Locating constructed wetlands at the 6- Location for long-term development.

nodes functioning as natural water- 15% of the residential spaces, 10% of the
filtrating systems retail spaces allotted for occupants of
the reclaimed areas: ~12,500 Sq.m (18% of
reclaimed extent)
Fig.171 Serviceability of constructed wetlands and relevance of ‘Riverine Vigilantes’

1- Element 1 of vernacular building 5- Vertical expansion
typology ‘Muttram’: built form wrapping
around a central gathering space
6- Element 3 of vernacular building

2- Making the built-form penetrable to typology ‘Thottam’: Utilizing rooftops as
improve accessibility to the riverfront productive spaces and passive energy
saving systems
3- Element 2 of vernacular building 7- Ground floor: Retail spaces; 10%

typology ‘Thinnai’: Adding opportunities allotted for occupants of reclaimed areas.
of interaction serving as pit-stops for Upper floors: residential spaces; 15% of
passers-by the total residential area allotted for
occupants of reclaimed areas
4- Vertical expansion 8- Southern and western facades of the

proposed built-forms to have perforated
mud-blocks ‘jaali’ to reduce heat gain
and modulate the humidity levels

1
1- Pop-up market: Flexible public

space for events/pop-up markets
2- Sunken square: Public spaces with
water-retention capability
3- Constructed wetland: Natural
water filtrating system as well as a
public space
4- ‘De-compounded’ roads: Existing
3
roads are water-sensitized by the
use of permeable paving materials
and replacing the central median
8 with a bio-swale/rain garden
5- Raingarden
2
6- Proposed developments: 15%
reserved for occupants of reclaimed
areas
7- Stepped river edge: Accessible
1 river edge with plant species
facilitating phytoremediation
8- Public park along riverfront
Fig.172 Scenario 1- Along the rejuvenated riverfront

1 2 3
4 5 6
1- Additional room for the river

2- Sunken square: Public spaces with
water-retention capability
3- Retention pond: An accessible
stepped public park functioning as a
retention pond during exceptional
weather events (>100 yr flood)
4- Community spaces: Proposed
developments enclosing community
spaces such as play areas, parks,
amphitheatres, veg. gardens, etc.
5- ‘De-compounded’ roads: Existing
roads are water-sensitized by the
use of permeable paving materials
and replacing the central median
with a bio-swale/rain garden
6- Bioswale as an ‘aqueduct’: During
exceptional weather events, overflow
of the river is conveyed to the
retention pond, which on fillingup
will convey the water downstream
Fig.173 Scenario 2- Retention pond functional during exceptional weather events

1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8 9
1- Tree trenches: Trees of varieties supporting soil

remediation, with in-built seating on trench periphery
2- Stepped river edge
3- Additional room for the river
4- Proposed developments
5- Constructed wetland: Natural water filtrating system as well
as a public space
6- Ramps: Enabling accessibility to lower levels
7- Riparian zone: Hydrophilic plant species facilitating
phytoremediation
8- Sunken square: Public spaces with water-retention capability
9- ‘De-compounded’ pedestrian streets: Permeable surfaces from
repurposed material

DI DI
2.4m 8m 2m 2m 50m 2m 2m 8m 2.4m
DI Drainage interceptor:
Stopping existing sewage outfalls and
redirecting them to STPs (as located in ICRERP)
Fig.175 Scenario 3- Section along the rejuvenated riverfront

Fig.176 Scenario 3- Axonometric view along the rejuvenated riverfront
1
1- ‘De-compounded’ pedestrian streets: Permeable surfaces from

repurposed material
2- Proposed developments: 15% reserved for ex-occupants of
reclaimed areas
3- Pedestrian bridge: Connecting the two banks with pedestrian
bridges, encouraging slow mobility
4- Flood basin: Additional room given to the river in areas
prone to inundation
5- Stepped river edge
6- Rammed earth seating: in-built seating on constructed
wetland periphery

DI DI
2.4m 8m 2m 2m 2m 2m 8m 2.4m
DI Drainage interceptor:
Stopping existing sewage outfalls and
redirecting them to STPs (as located in ICRERP)
Fig.178 Scenario 4- Section along the rejuvenated riverfront

Fig.179 Scenario 4- Axonometric view along the rejuvenated riverfront

Fig.180 An illustration along the rejuvenated riverfront
STRATEGY SHORT TERM MEDIUM TERM LONG TERM
Absorb: Leveraging
highways as bio-corridors
Revive: Ancient community

practices
Replace: Conventional
agriculture with
Agroforestry
Retain: Augmenting
upstream water bodies
Assort, Privatize &

Incentivize: Solid waste
management
Drain & Filter: Streets &

Open spaces with green
infrastructure
Riverine Vigilantes:
Rehabilitating
encroachments
Coastal fortification:
Mangrove plantation
Harvest: Rainwater saving
Tackle: Greywater
treatment at source
De-compound: Swapping
surface materials and
boundaries
Harness: Utilizing roofs

as space for harnessing
renewable energy
Interventions- Timeline for Implementation | 106

INTEGRATED COOUM RIVER ECO-
AMPHIBIOUS CHENNAI
RESTORATION PLAN
Aim of the project Cooum river rejuvenation and Developing Chennai's water-
riverfront development sensitivity and planning for the
city's water resilience following
a strategic approach
Location of Initialises from a part of the Interventions proposed at various

intervention Cooum river in the Chennai scales- starting from the
Metropolitan Area (Paruthipattu) to Regional Scale and extending to
the mouth of the river the Building Scale, along with
the Cooum riverfront development
Strategy adopted Engineered methods (grey Integration of grey and green

infrastructure) to facilitate rapid infrastructure to improve water
draining of the stormwater retention capacity of the basin
and to facilitate water use.
Governing hierarchy State Government of Tamil Nadu Proposed interventions will

involved include the involvement of
Central Government as well as the
State Governments of Tamil Nadu
and Andhra Pradesh
Timeline Plan prepared in 2012/13, Based on the urgency, complexity

implementation underway and the hierarchy of governing
bodies involved, interventions
are perceived to be implemented
within spans of 2-3 years (short-
term), 5-6 years (medium-term)
and 9-10 years (long-term)
Fluvial corridor River channel improvements are More room is provided to the
proposed by adding canals of river, and flood basins are
varying widths inside the riverbed proposed in areas prone to
to improve the flood carrying inundation. Additionally, a
capacity of the river. network of green infrastructure
are proposed to store/delay the
discharge of stormwater.
Waste management 1. Floating debris in the river are 1. Solid waste to be managed by
proposed to be collected with 'Assort, Privatize,
the help of boom barriers. Incentivize' model.
2. Sewage outfalls in the river are 2. Green infrastructural
plugged by the introduction of elements functioning as
an interceptor drainage running natural filtrating systems
parallel to the river. will facilitate a circular
3. Sewage is proposed to diverted water system/discharge
and treated at 6 new modular treated grey water into the
sewage treatment plants. river.
3. Residual organic matter
diverted to the 6 modular
STPs proposed by ICRERP.
107 | Interventions- ICRERP vs. Amphibious Chennai

4. Sewage outfalls in the river
are plugged by the
introduction of an interceptor
drainage running parallel to
the river.
Flora 1. Plant species of commercial 1. Native species promoting

value are proposed biodiversity and/or
2. Mangrove species are proposed phytoremediation are proposed
in areas of marine influence- 2. Mangrove species are proposed
closer to the coast in areas of marine influence-
closer to the coast
Resettlement of ex- Moved to locations outside the Relocated within the

occupants of the city neighbourhood by allotting 15% of
reclaimed areas the newly developed residential
buildings in the reclaimed
areas/surroundings in lieu of
working as riverine vigilantes
for maintenance of the river
corridor.
Interventions- ICRERP vs. Amphibious Chennai | 108

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[20]www.researchgate.net/publication/2560
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QOQlkG76xthZcNSqmQ5icL.html
[25]www.google.it/books/edition/Theory_in
_Landscape_Architecture/7jxGSGbrhEUC?hl=e
[9]www.economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/
n&gbpv=0
politics-and-nation/unplanned-
development-in-chennai-causes-
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25289_Salvaging_and_Scapegoating_Slum_Evi
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References | 112

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Author:

Prof. LAURA POGLIANI

Prof. PAOLO DEBIAGGI

The aim of the thesis is to explore the relevance of green infrastructure

Chennai, like most Asian cities, totters between instances of cloudbursts

Why the Cooum river?

Chennai(Madras) was established on the banks of the Cooum river, and as

As a result, the project will inherently also address problems pertinent at

This project is an outcome of persistent effort while the result of which

First and foremost, I am ever grateful to the Supremacy for enabling me to

I am honoured to be a part of the institution of Politecnico di Milano, and

Global Water Crisis 9

Water-Sensitive Urban Design 47

Principles & Methodologies adopted by Kongjian Yu (Turenscape) 51

Currently, the world’s water resources

water crises have been among the top Groundwater

Fig.2 Projected Water Stress across the World by 2040

9 | Context- Global Water Crisis

The impacts of Climate Change are

A systemic approach is necessary to

Context- Global Water Crisis | 10

321m – 8611m ASL

165m – 321m ASL

60m – 165m ASL

Arabian Sea Bay of Bengal

Fig.3 Map showing areas of equal population

11 | Context- Territorial Scale

Arabian Sea Bay of Bengal

Extremely High (>80%) High (40-80%) Medium-High (20-40%)

Low-Medium (10-20%) Low (<10%) Arid & Low Water Use

Fig.4 Map showing areas of baseline water-stress (2020)

Context- Territorial Scale | 12

Arabian Sea Bay of Bengal

Significant tree cover Amritsar-Kolkata Industrial East Coast Economic

Delhi-Mumbai Industrial Bengaluru-Mumbai Economic Corridor

13 | Context- Territorial Scale

Arabian Sea Bay of Bengal

Extremely High High Medium-High

Fig.6 Map showing riverine flood risk (2019)

Context- Territorial Scale | 14

Arabian Sea Bay of Bengal

River basin boundaries

15 | Context- Regional Scale

River basin boundaries

Loss in tree cover

*BoB- Bay of Bengal

Fig.9 Map showing tree cover in 2010

Context- Regional Scale | 16

17 | Context- Regional Scale

1973 1980 1991 2006 Water-bodies

Fig.12 Diachronic map showing the growth of Chennai (1973-2006)

Context- Local Scale | 18

12.58 M (2026- projected)

Fig.13 Population expansion in Chennai

Map A: 1991 Map B: 2006

Map C: 2013 Map D: 2015

Built-up area Agricultural lands Tree cover Water-bodies

19 | Context- Local Scale

The IT boom in Chennai at the turn of the

It is evident what is the kind of impact