ADDIS ABABA SCIENCE & TECHENOLOGY

UNIVERSTY
COLLEGE OF ELECTRICAL AND MECHANICAL
ENGINERRING DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND
COMPUTER ENGINEERING

Power Quality and Reliability

Individual assignment
By Biniyam Degemu FTP 0277/10

Submitted to: Dr. Milkias Berhanu

Aug 27, 2021
1.Define:
a. at least three types of power quality disturbances and their main sources for poor
power quality
b. The voltage and current distortion

Answer

Harmonic distortion:-
We can understand the word harmonic like the integer which multiplies
fundamental frequencies is known as “Harmonics”. Here, harmonic is a type of
signal whose frequency is an integral multiple of the reference signal. In another
way, it can be defined as the ratio between the frequency of the signal and the
frequency of the reference signal.
Causes:

The main reasons for the harmonic-distortions are the nonlinear load and
nonlinearity characteristics of the electronic components. Nonlinear load
changes the impedance with the applied input voltage. This leads to distortions
will develop in the output signal. And the components which are using in the
circuit also show the nonlinearity characteristics. This also leads to the
development of the harmonics in the output. Because of the harmonic-distortions
circuit gets heat and output not equal to the input. This effect is harmful to any
circuit.

 Electric machines working above the knee of the magnetization curve

(magnetic saturation), arc furnaces, welding machines, rectifiers, DC brush
motors, solid state electronic devices such as PC/CPUS ,solid state device
like fluorescent ,and VFD(variable frequency drives).
 Over voltage:-
When the voltage in a circuit or part of it is raised above its upper
design limit, this is known as overvoltage. The conditions may be
hazardous. Depending on its duration, the overvoltage event can be
transient—a voltage spike—or permanent, leading to a power surge.

Causes:-
 Overvoltages can be the result of load switching,
 variations in the reactive compensation on the system (e.g.,
switching on a capacitor bank).
 Poor system voltage regulation capabilities or controls result in
overvoltages.
 Incorrect tap settings on transformers can also result in system
overvoltages.

Fig: Wave form of over voltage

Voltage Imbalance

Voltage imbalance (or unbalance) is defined as the ratio of the negative

or zero sequence components to the positive sequence component. The
negative or zero sequence voltages in a power system generally result
from unbalanced loads causing negative or zero sequence currents to
flow. Imbalance can be estimated as the maximum deviation from the
average of the three-phase voltages or currents, divided by the average
of the three phase voltages or currents, expressed in percent.
Causes:-
 The primary source of voltage imbalance less than 2% is
unbalanced single phase loads on a three-phase circuit.
 Voltage imbalance can also be the result of capacitor bank
anomalies, such as a blown fuse on one phase of a three-
phase bank.
 Severe voltage imbalance (greater than 5%) can result from
single-phasing conditions.

Fig : Wave form of unbalanced voltage

Voltage Fluctuation
Voltage fluctuations are rapid changes in voltage within the allowable limits of
voltage magnitude of 0.95 to 1.05 pu of nominal voltage.

Causes:-
 A poor and inconsistent flow of electricity
 Even nature can be the cause here. For instance, a lightning strike can
cause a surge which will cause your voltage to spike abnormally.
 Faulty electrical devices might be to blame as well.
 Bad wiring can also lead to voltage fluctuations.
B. voltage distortion

Voltage distortion is any deviation from the nominal sine waveform of the
AC line voltage. System harmonic voltage distortion is caused by the flow of
harmonic currents through system impedance, namely inductive reactance.
For each frequency, at which harmonic current is flowing, there is a
corresponding inductive reactance associated with system and thus a
voltage drop at that frequency. The factors that affect the system inductive
reactance are the generator, transformer, series line reactors or current
limiting reactors, and circuit conductors.

Current distortion
any distortion from the nominal sine waveform of the AC line Current.
Assuming that the source bus is a pure sinusoid, there is a nonlinear load
that draws a distorted current.
2. Calculate the reliability indices due to the power quality problems around
AASTU based on the assumed twelve outages that occur end to the customers
around AASTU in May13, 2021. The EEP has 3000 customers around AASTU
(Tulu Demtu condominium).
The summary of each interruption and its duration as given by;

a. Determine SAIDI, SAIFI, CAIDI, CAIFI and ASAI

b. How do you compare the system average interruption frequency index (SAIFI)
with the IEEE/EEP standards? If it’s less or greater than the standards what is your
recommendation related with the reliability improvement the network
 Answer
Date time No of Duration(min) Customer
customer interrupted
interrupted *duration(hours)
13th 8:15 24 80 32(24*(80/60))
13th 10:10 10 30 5
13th 11:23 5 140 11.667
13th 12:50 4 200 13.333
13th 13:00 34 120 68
13th 15:27 3 30 1.5
13th 16:30 2 10 0.333
13th 17:10 15 15 3.75
13th 18:34 120 20 40
13th 19:50 80 10 13.333
13th 20:10 30 5 2.5
13th 23:00 40 15 10

∑= 367 ∑= 675 ∑= 201.413

A) Now from the table we can determine SAIDI, SAIFI, CAIDI, CAIFI,ASAI as

follow:-

SAIDI = Summation of(customer interrupted*duration(hour))

Total no. Of customers

= 201.413/3000

=0.067hr*60 ( to change to minute)

SAIDI= 4.028min

SAIFI = Summation of customers interrupted

Total no. Of customers
=367/3000

SAIFI=0.122

So on 13th of the month, customer of this utility had a 0.122 probability of

experiencing an outage.
 CAIDI = Summation of(customer interrupted*duration(hour))
Total no. Of customers interruption

= 201.413*60min/367

CAIDI=32.93min

That means on average any customer who experience an outage on 13 th was out of
service for 32.93min.

CAIFI = total no. Of customer interruption

total No.of customer interrupted

=12/367

CAIFI =0.033

So the average number of interruption for a customer who was interrupted on 13th
is 0.033.

ASAI = customers hours service availability

Customers hour service demand

=1- customer hours of service non-availability

Customers hours service demand
= 1- 201.413/(3000*24) ( as one day 13th is under study customers hours
service demand is 24hrs)

ASAI=0.9972

ASAI=99.72%

B) System average interruption frequency index (SAIFI) standard of Ethiopia

electric agency is 20 interruption per year per customers. So the daily standard
becomes 20 divide by day of the year.

Standard SAIFI per day= 20/365

Standard SAIFI =0.055 interruption/day.customer

As compare to the Ethiopian reliability standard the calculated SAIFI is greater
i.e 0.122 > 0.055. so there are more interruption per customer on 13 th around
tulu-demtu condominium.

Recommendation

 Monitor and access power system equipments.

 Prevention and correction measures must be taken.
 Rewriting of maintenance schedules.
 Adding of more protection devices.
 Optimize equipment loading to provide maximum value. Loading of
equipment such as transformer, cables, and lines should be determined
based on evaluation of the value obtained rather than any arbitrary
standard value. Mostly the transformers have the duty to carry over rated
values this leads to failure of insulation which results interruption.

3.What do harmonic do in electrical power system network? Thus,

a. Define total harmonic distortion (THD)

b. What is the adverse effect of harmonics on entire electrical power network
c. What is its relation with parallel and series resonant circuits
d. What are the main sources and mitigation techniques that are used for harmonic?
Answer
A,
Total Harmonic Distortion or THD is an indicative measurement of power
quality in electrical systems. When there is presence of harmonics in
electrical power system, it will create a disturbance in electrical supply.
Both voltage and current frequency can have harmonic components to
create a distortion. THD refers to the total amount of distortion (or
disturbances) created by these harmonics. The fundamental voltage
frequency waveform of a 50 Hz looks like a pure sine wave. Presence of a
second harmonic also look like a pure sine wave but the number of cycles
will be doubled. Hence the frequency of 2nd harmonic wave will be 100 Hz.
Similarly third harmonic frequency of a 50 Hz voltage nothing but 150 Hz.
 B,

 Power sources act as non-linear loads, drawing a distorted waveform that

contains harmonics. These harmonics can cause problems ranging from telephone
transmission interference to degradation of conductors and insulating material in
motors and
transformers.
 Reduced performance of energy generation, transport and usage systems
 The premature ageing of insulation on grid components, leading to energy
reduction
 Poor functioning of the system or any of its components
 Flow of additional current through power capacitors
 Decrements in the useful lives of the incandescent lamps
 Increase skin and proximity effects
 Interference problem with telecommunication

C,
elements of power system circuit are predominantly inductive.so power factor
correction capacitors are commonly used in practical electrical system to offset
utility imposed power factor penalties. The combination of capacitors and and
inductive elements in the system can result either in series or parallel resonance,
or a combination of both, depending on system configuration, which can result in
an abnormal situation.

 Parallel resonance is more common as capacitor banks act in parallel with

inductive system impedance, which can be a problem when the resonant
frequency is close to one of those generated by the harmonic source. It
may produce excessive harmonic voltage across network elements. This
will cause
capacitor or insulation failure.
 Series resonance can result in unexpected amounts of harmonic currents
flowing through certain elements. Excessive harmonic current flow can
cause inadvertent relay operation, burned fuses, or overheating of cables.
 So the effect of series and parallel resonant circuit is the same as harmonic
since they produce their on current harmonics and voltage harmonics.

D,

Main sources
1. Arcing devices
2. Semiconductor based power supply system
3. Inverter fed A.C. drives
4. Thyristor controlled reactors
5. Phase controllers
6. A.C. regulators

Mitigation techniques

 Line reactor.
 K-factor transformer.
 Tuned harmonic filter.
 Active harmonic filter.
 IGBT based fast switch harmonic filter.
 Phase shift transformer.
 12 and 18 pulse rectifiers

4.Mention:

a. the difference between voltage sag, swell, dip and interruption and explain how
voltage sag occur using power network schematic diagram
b. In addition try to mention the source of voltage sag and interruptions
c. the procedures to estimate voltage sag performances
Answer
Voltage sag :-short duration reduction in RMS voltage
Typical duration for instantaneous 0.5 to 30 cycles Momentary 30
cycle to 1 second temporary 3 second to 1 minute
Typical voltage magnitude in Pu 0.1 to 0.9pu typical duration.
 Voltage dip:- means the amount of voltage decline from nominal
value.
Example a voltage dip of 30% is equal to voltage sag to 70%.
Voltage swell:- short duration increase in nominal supply voltage.
Typical duration for instantaneous 0.5 to 30 cycles with voltage
magnitude of 1.1 to 1.8pu
Momentary 30 cycle to 1 second with voltage magnitude of 1.1
to 1.4pu temporary 3 second to 1 minute with voltage magnitude of
1.1 to 1.2pu
Voltage interruption:- much decrease in voltage which approaches to
less than 0.1pu of nominal voltage magnitude.
Voltage sags and interruptions are generally caused by faults (short circuits) on
the utility system.
Voltage sags and interruptions are generally caused by faults (short circuits) on
the utility system. Consider a customer that is supplied from the feeder supplied
by circuit breaker 1 on the diagram shown below.

If there is a fault on the same feeder, the customer will experience a voltage sag
during the fault followed by an interruption when the breaker opens to clear the
fault. If the fault is temporary in nature, a reclosing operation on the breaker
should be successful and the interruption will only be temporary. It will usually
require about 5 or 6 cycles for the breaker to operate, during which time a
voltage sag occurs. The breaker will remain open for typically a minimum of 12
cycles up to 5 s depending on utility reclosing practices. Sensitive. Equipment
will almost surely trip during this interruption

A much more common event would be a fault on one of the other feeders from
the substation, i.e., a fault on a parallel feeder, or a fault somewhere on the
transmission system (see the fault locations shown in Fig.3.1). In either of these
cases, the customer will experience a voltage sag during the period that the fault
is actually on the system. As soon as breakers open to clear the fault, normal
voltage will be restored at the customer
To clear the fault shown on the transmission system, both breakers A and B
must operate. Transmission breakers will typically clear a fault in 5 or 6 cycles.
In this case there are two lines supplying the distribution substation and only
one has a fault. Therefore, customers supplied from the substation should
expect to see only a sag and not an interruption.

B. causes of voltage sags and interruptions

are:
 Starting of large motors.
 Sudden change in heavy loads (e.g., arc furnace).
 Transformer connection.
 Faults and switching operation.
 Protection system faults.
 Load transferring from one power source to another.
c.
It is important to understand the expected voltage sag performance
of the supply system so that facilities can be designed and equipment
specifications developed to assure the optimum operation of
production facilities. The following is a general procedure for working
with industrial customers to assure compatibility between the supply
system characteristics and the facility operation:
 Determine the number and characteristics of voltage sags that
result from transmission system faults
 Determine the number and characteristics of voltage sags that
result from distribution system faults (for facilities that are supplied
 from distribution systems)
 Determine the equipment sensitivity to voltage sags. This will
determine the actual performance of the production process based
on voltage sag performance calculated in steps above.
 Evaluate the economics of different solutions that could improve
the performance, either on the supply system (fewer voltage sags)
or within the customer facility (better immunity).

5. The radial power system supplying one of the industrial customers in Addis
Ababa with several large AC and DC adjustable-speed drives is shown below. The
DC and AC drives are fed via dedicated transformers at 100V and 380V,
respectively. System information including source impedance, feeder and
transformer data are provided in Tables below.
a. Identify Pcc points for faults on one of the 15kV, 33KV 132kV and 230kV
feeders and calculate the critical distances (Lcrit) that results in critical voltages
applying the fault at each bus at different time span.
b. Compute the critical distances (Lcrit) in table below for sag magnitudes of
10%,30%,50%,70%and90% on the 15kV,33KV,132kV and 230kV feeders.
Answer
A) in sag analysis Pcc points have to be identified first. Pcc points “point of
common coupling” means the point from which both the fault and load fed (the
load current branch off from fault current).
For any fault on one of 15KV feeders, the fault current will flow through kalit-
15KV bus, but not farther to wards the load. So the Pcc bus is kalit-15KV for
all fault within 15KV feeders. In the same way , kalit-33KV bus is the Pcc for
any of the fault within 33KV feeders. Other Pcc’s are kalit-132KV and kalit-
230KV.
To calculate the critical distance that result critical voltage sag by applying
fault on the bus for a radial power system
Vsag= Zf/(Zs+Zf) but Zf=0 since the fault happens at the bus the impedance
from the bus to the fault is zero. Now the sag magnitude becomes zero to find
the critical distance Lcrt= Zs*Vsag/(Z(1-Vsag)) in km.since Vsag=0 the
critical distance becomes zero when applying fault at the bus.
B) the critical distances (Lcrit) in table below for sag magnitudes of 10%, 30%,
50%,
70% and 90% on the 15 kV, 33 KV, 132 kV and 230 kV feeders. Using the
formula Lcrit = Zs*V/(Z(1-V)) we can get the critical distance for each buses.
For a sag magnitude of 10% on bus 15KV, Zs=70% and Z=22% from the table
given below. The critical distance becomes

Lcrit = Zs*V/(Z(1-V)) = 0.7*0.1/(0.22(1-0.1)) =0.354km, in the same way,the

critical distance at each bus and sag level can be calculated in the table 2 . note
that critical distance measured in kilo meter(KM).

15KV 33KV 132KV 230KV-Seb 230KV-Sul

eta ulta
Z 22% 4% 0.3% 0.02% 0.02%
Zs 70% 20% 3% 1% 1.2%
V=10% Lcrt=0.35 Lcrt=0.56 Lcrt=1.11 Lcrt=5.56 Lcrt=6.67
V=30% Lcrt=1.36 Lcrt=2.14 Lcrt=4.29 Lcrt=21.43 Lcrt=25.74
V=50% Lcrt=3.18 Lcrt=5 Lcrt=10 Lcrt=50 Lcrt=60
V=70% Lcrt=7.43 Lcrt=11.67 Lcrt=23.33 Lcrt=116.6 7 Lcrt=140

V=90% Lcrt=28.64 Lcrt=45 Lcrt=90 Lcrt=450 Lcrt=540

Answer
7.Kaliti power distribution system was facing the voltage interruptions and sags for
the last two years due to many industrial loads like Industrial park that are
connected to the network has resulted the utility to loss much money, the loss in
money increase as the percentage voltage sag increases. Thus, the weighting factor
increases as the voltage sag increase. The following table combines the weighting
factors with expected performances.

If an interruption cost 100,000 Birr, then determine the total cost that utility losses
associated with the total voltage interruption and sags

Answer
When the percentage voltage interapution and sag increases the loss of money on
the utility side will increase greatly . The weighting factor increases as voltage sag
increase as shown in the table 3. The total equivalent interruption is determined
by:-
Category of events Weighting factor of each Number of Total
events for economic events per equivalent
analysis year interruptions
Interruptions 1 10 10
Sag with minimum 0.8 20 16
voltage below 50%
Sag with minimum 0.4 28 11.2
voltage between 50% and
70%
Sag with minimum 0.1 100 10
voltage between 70 % and
90%
Total 47.2
Then we can determine the total cost that utility losses associated with
the total voltage interruption and sags.
Given that the cost of an interruption is 100,000Birr, now from the table
the total equivalent interruption is 47.2.
Total cost that utility losses= total equivalent interruption * cost per
interruption = 47.2/yr * 100,000Birr
Total cost that utility losses =4.72 million Birr/yr but this interruption is
the same for the last to years. So the total cost of the 2 year becomes
Total cost that utility losses = 4.72 million birr/yr*2year
Total cost that utility losses =9.44 million birr