CHAPTER 2: Radiation Integrals and Auxiliary Potential Functions

CHAPTER 2: Radiation Integrals and Auxiliary Potential functions
2.1 Introduction:
Vector potentials
To analyze the fields radiated by sources, it is common practice to introduce auxiliary functions
known as vector potentials, which will aid in the solution of
Maxwell’s equations.
• The two-step procedure usually involves simpler integrations than the direct path.
• All field functions can be retrieved from the vector potentials through differentiations.
• Other auxiliary functions may be used (Hertz potentials): π e , πh

• The use of vector potentials basically permits to reduce the number of unknowns.
Useful identities from vector analysis
During the following mathematical treatment, we will make use of the following relations:
Reciprocally, it can then be demonstrated that

1) If the divergence of a vector field equals zero, then there exists a potential vector field so that the
curl of the potential field equals the vector field.
2) If the curl of a vector field equals zero, then this vector field can be written as the gradient of a
potential function
2.2 Vector potential A for electric current source J

2.3 Vector Potential F for Magnetic Current Source M
Solution of the inhomogeneous vector potential equation
We assume an infinitesimal source with current
density Jz pointing in z-direction.
The source is located at the origin of the xyz
coordinate system.
Since the source has only a z-component,
only a -component will exist.
Thus we can write
In the following, we present an intuitive way of

solving this inhomogeneous equation.
Homogeneous equation:
At points outside of the considered infinitesimal source, the wave equation reduces to the scalar
equation
In the limit of an infinitesimal source, the source is a single point.

Therefore, in the scalar equation, Az is only dependent on the radial distance r, and independent of
the angles ϕ and θ , i.e. Az = Az(r).
We can then express the Laplace operator in spherical coordinates and neglect the angle
derivations:
r = distance from the point on the charge density to the observation point Similarly, we can write the
solution to the static inhomogeneous vector potential equation
Similarly, for the remaining x-and y-directions:
General solution of the vector potential equation:
Far-field approximation
Fields radiated by antennas of finite dimensions are spherical waves in the far-field. Therefore, we
use spherical coordinates to write a general form of the vector potential
ANTENNA FIELD ZONES
The space surrounding an antenna is usually subdivided into three regions: (1) reactive near-field,
(2) radiating near-field (Fresnel), and (3) far-field (Fraunhofer) regions as shown in Figure 20.
These regions are so designated to identify the field structure in each. Although no abrupt changes
in the field configurations are noted as the boundaries are crossed, there are distinct differences
among them. The boundaries separating these regions are not unique, although various criteria have
been established and are commonly used to identify the regions.
Reactive near-field region is defined as “that portion of the near-field region immediately
surrounding the antenna wherein the reactive field predominates.” For most antennas, the outer
3
boundary of this region is commonly taken to exist at a distance R < 0.62 √ D / λ from the antenna
surface, where λ is the wavelength and D is the largest dimension of the antenna.
Radiating near-field (Fresnel) region is defined as “that region of the field of an antenna between
the reactive near-field region and the far-field region wherein radiation fields predominate and
wherein the angular field distribution is dependent upon the distance from the antenna. If the
antenna has a maximum dimension that is not large compared to the wavelength, this region may
3
not exist.The inner boundary is taken to be the distance R ≥ 0.62 √ D / λ and the outer boundary the
2
distance R< 2 D /λ , where D is the largest† dimension of the antenna.
Far-field (Fraunhofer) region is defined as “that region of the field of an antenna where the angular
field distribution is essentially independent of the distance from the antenna. If the antenna has a
maximum† overall dimension D, the far-field region is commonly taken to exist at distances
greater than 2D2/λ from the antenna, λ being the wavelength.
Figure 20:Field regions of an antenna

A typical progression of the shape of an antenna, with the largest dimension D, is shown in Figure
21. It is apparent that in the reactive near-field region the pattern is more spread out and nearly
uniform, with slight variations. As the observation is moved to the radiating near-field region
(Fresnel), the pattern begins to smooth and form lobes. In the far-field region (Fraunhofer), the
pattern is well formed, usually consisting of few minor lobes and one, or more, major lobes.
Figure 21 Typical changes of antenna amplitude pattern shape from reactive near field toward the
far field.
Antenna Theorems: Four theorems can be applicable to antenna and field theory. They are
1. Reciprocity Theorem. 2. Equality of directional patterns. 3. Equality of effective lengths.
4. Equality of impedances.
Reciprocity Theorem:
Statement: If an e.m.f. or voltage is applied to the terminals of an antenna1 and the current
measured at the terminals of another antenna 2, then same amount of current will be obtained at the
terminals of antenna 1 if same e.m.f. or voltage is applied to the terminals of antenna 2.
Or
If a current I1 at the terminals of antenna 1 includes an e.m.f. E21 at the open terminals of antenna
2 and a current I2 at the terminals of antenna 2 induces an e.m.f. E 12 at the open terminals of
antenna 1then E12=E21 provided I1=I2.
Proof: To prove the reciprocity theorem assume the medium between two antennas is linear,
passive and isotropic so that it can be replaced by a four terminal network as shown in below
figures.
Where Z11, Z22 are the self impedances of antennas 1 and 2., Zm is mutual impedance between two
antennas. Applying KVL to figure (a) of mesh 2 , we get
Equality of directional patterns:

Statement: The directional patterns of transmitting and receiving antennas are same if all the media
are linear, passive, isotropic and reciprocity theorem holds good.
Proof: Consider two antennas 1 and 2. Let antenna 1 as transmitting antenna (Test antenna) and
antenna 2 as receiving antenna (Subject antenna). Keeping the
antenna 1 at the center of the
observation circle, the receiving antenna 2 is moved along the
surface of the observation circle as
shown in the figure.
Now if a voltage E is applied at transmitting antenna and the
resulting current I at the terminals of receiving antenna is
measured. If the process is reversed i.e. the same voltage E is applied to antenna 2 and resulting
current I is measured at antenna 1. According to reciprocity theorem, for every position of antennas
the ratio E/I is same. Thus it is proved radiation pattern or directional patterns of the antennas are
same.
Equality of effective Lengths:

For transmitting antenna: Effective length of a transmitting antenna is defined as the length of a
linear antenna that has a current I(c) at all points along its length and that radiates the electric field
as shown in below figure.
Equality of Impedances:
Statement: If an antenna is used either transmitting or receiving antenna its impedance will be the
same.
Proof: We can prove this physically. Since the antenna is the same circuit irrespective of mode of
excitation and hence the impedance of an antenna remains same whether transmitting or receiving.
Let there are two antennas with a wide separation in between. If antenna 2 is quite away from
antenna 1so that the mutual impedance between the two is neglected. Thus the self impedance of
antenna 1 is given by E1=Z11I1+Z12 I2 =Z11I1+(0)I2 =E1/I1 = self impedance of antenna 1. But this
assumption not true when antenna 1 is receiving because during reception it is the mutual
impedance (Z12) between the two antennas which provides coupling. If an equivalent antenna 1 is
drawn under load (ZL) then Z12I2 acts as a voltage generator as shown in below figure.
DUALITY THEOREM
When two equations that describe the behavior of two different variables are of the same
mathematical form, their solutions will also be identical. The variables in the two equations that
occupy identical positions are known as dual quantities and a solution of one can be formed by a
systematic interchange of symbols to the other. This concept is known as the duality theorem.

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CHAPTER 2: Radiation Integrals and Auxiliary Potential functions

• Other auxiliary functions may be used (Hertz potentials): π e , πh

Reciprocally, it can then be demonstrated that

2.2 Vector potential A for electric current source J

In the following, we present an intuitive way of

In the limit of an infinitesimal source, the source is a single point.

Similarly, for the remaining x-and y-directions:

General solution of the vector potential equation:

Figure 20:Field regions of an antenna

Equality of directional patterns:

Equality of effective Lengths:

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