The Group Depth Interview

Author(s): Alfred E. Goldman

Source: Journal of Marketing, Vol. 26, No. 3 (Jul., 1962), pp. 61-68
Published by: American Marketing Association
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 The Group Depth Interview

ALFREDE. GOLDMAN CONSIDERATION of each of the three elements of the name

given to the group-interview technique suggests that, while
the label may be as serviceable as any other, under certain condi-
tions it is not wholly accurate. A comprehensive review of group
methods is beyond the scope of this article; and the interested
reader can refer to the voluminous literature on this technique
and its application to marketing, education, and psychotherapy.1
Instead, the present article explains what is meant by group,
depth, and interview in a group depth interview . . . the mechanics
of moderating such interviews . . . and the five requirements of
these interviews.
Group
A group is a number of interacting individuals having a com-
munity of interests. These two criteria of groups must be satisfied
in order to derive the benefits of collecting information in a group
setting.
Interaction
In the group situation a person is asked an opinion about some-
thing-a product, a distribution system, and advertisement, a tele-
vision program, or perhaps a candidate for office. In contrast to
"Discussion panels," "re- the individual interview in which the flow of information is
spondent-oriented inter- unidirectional, from the respondent to the interviewer, the group
views," "consumer confer- setting causes the opinions of each person to be considered in
ences," and "focused group group discussion. Each individual is exposed to the ideas of the
interviews" have enjoyed others and submits his ideas for the consideration of the group.
increasing popularity in at- This assumes, of course, that social interaction occurs at some
overt level. If the group members do not interact with one another,
tempting to solve market-
but each member directs his remarks to the moderator, this is not
ing problems. This article a group. It might better be described as multiple or serial inter-
describes the mechanics of
inter- viewing, since the advantages of the group setting are precluded.
conducting group It is the interviewer's responsibility to stimulate the group
views and also some of its
members to interact with each other rather than with him.
consequences.
The title of the article, Community of Interest
"The Group Depth Inter- The establishment of group cohesiveness is dependent in large
view," reflects a situation in part on the second criterion of "groupness," namely, sharing a
which informationis sought common interest.
from a number of interact-
1Suggested sources: H. H. Lerner and H. C. Kelman,"GroupMethods
ing individualsat the same in Psychotherapy, Social Work, and Adult Education,"Journal
of
time, using a combination Social Issues, Vol. 8, Whole issue No. 2, 1952, pp. 1-88; W. Mangold,
of probing and direct-in- Gegenstand und Methode des Gruppendiskussionsverfahrens: Aus
der Arbeit des Instituts fur Sozialforschung, (Frankfurt am Main:
quiry techniques. Europaische Verlagsanstalt), pp. 176.

61

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62 Journal of Marketing,
2Marketingr, July,
July, 1962

This common interest should, of course, be rele- way they behaved toward each other in the group.
vant to the topic under discussion. A number of A purchasing decision is frequently a social act
individuals may be very different in national ori- in that the items are considered in the context of
gin, religious beliefs, political persuasion, and the what others think of the product, and what others
like; but if they share a common identity relevant will think of them for having purchased it. The
to the discussion (shoe buyers, drug manufactur- group creates or recapitulates the marketing situa-
ers, purchasers of luxury items), a group can form. tion, depending upon the point at which the deci-
This involves some risks that can be minimized sion process is intercepted. Here the process of
by thoughtful selection of group members. For the decision is exposed in the sharing of experi-
example, in a discussion of a home-decorating prod- ences, rumors, and anecdotes that go on in a
uct, the inclusion of one or two low-income people group discussion about a product, service, person,
in a group of wealthy individuals may serve to or event. Here we are concerned with the process
inhibit the free expression of the attitudes of all. of the purchasing decision, not just in the static
How may these two characteristics of a group end-result of that process. Effective marketing re-
be exploited in eliciting useful information, and in quires understanding of this decision process.
what way is this information different from that 3. A third advantage of group interviewing is
produced by individual interviewing? that it provides some idea of the dynamics of atti-
1. First, the interaction among group members tudes and opinions. The flexibility or rigidity with
stimulates new ideas regarding the topic under which an opinion is held is better exposed in a group
discussion that may never be mentioned in indi- setting than in an individual interview. Within
vidual interviewing. When a group member does the two hours of the typical group session, an
bring, up a new idea, however tangential, the group opinion that is stated with finality and apparent
as a whole is given the opportunity to react to it deep conviction can be modified a number of times
in a variety of ways that indicate its interest to by the social pressures or new information that
the group. may be provided by the group. As the discussion
The idea can be readily and enthusiastically taken proceeds, some group members modify their initial
up by the group and ultimately accepted or rejected. reaction, some defend their positions even more
The idea can be discussed without a decision being rigorously, some admit confusion. In this way, the
reached, with considerable confusion expressed in group setting offers some idea of the dynamics of
the process. The idea can be discussed briefly and opinion-its initiation and modification, and its in-
then dropped not to be mentioned again. Some- tensity and resistance to change. This pattern of
times, and most significant of all, it can be studi- modification in opinion is often as rewarding with
ously ignored and avoided, despite the moderator's regard to understanding motives as the one initially
reiteration of the idea. This behavior, when accom- stated.
panied by indications of anxiety, such as lighting 4. Discussion in a peer group often provokes con-
cigarettes, shuffling uneasily in seats, clearing siderably greater spontaneity and candor than can
throats, and so on, suggests that a particular idea be expected in an individual interview. This is its
has provoked sufficient psychic discomfort and fourth advantage. The interviewer is frequently
threat as to require its rigorous avoidance in open an "outsider," regardless of how skillful he or she
discussion. may be. In the group setting it is not unusual for
2. These possible reactions to a new idea may group members, after an initial period of orienta-
also demonstrate a second value of group inter- tion, to ignore completely the presence of the
viewing-the opportunity to observe directly the moderator. For example, in a group of small-
group process. In the individual interview, respond-
ents tell how they would or did behave in a par-
ticular social situation. In the group interview, * ABOUT THE AUTHOR. Alfred E.
respondents react to each other, and their behavior Goldman is Director of Research De-
is directly observed. velopment with National Analysts, Inc.,
of Philadelphia. Dr. Goldman received
For example, a housewife who hesitantly and his B.S. and M.A. degrees from the City
timidly describes how she cleans her floors suggests College of New York, and his Ph.D. in
the tenuousness with which she herself regards clinical psychology from Clark Univer-
these procedures. In one group, the timid admission sity.
Since 1950 he has been associated
by one housewife that she hated washing floors and with various state and federal clinics
did so only when forced to by fear of social rejec- and hospitals where he was particularly
tion brought immediate and firm support from other interested in group psychotherapy and research. He was
group members. They then verbally "turned on" Assistant Professor of Psychology at Northeastern University
the two group members who washed floors more and Research Associate in the School of Public Health of
Harvard University. In 1956 he was Director of Psychological
frequently and meticulously. Here the attitudes of Research at Norristown State Hospital. He has published
women toward washing floors was reflected in the various articles in psychological and psychiatric journals.

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 The Group Depth Interview 63
63
business managers, several of them admitted blatant anxieties that the moderator could mention only
acts of petty dishonesty at the expense of their at considerable risk to continued rapport.
customers. It seems unlikely that this would have Thus, by virtue of the interaction and common
been admitted to an individual interviewer. relevant interests of its members, the group offers
Because of the demands on their time, physicians more and qualitatively different information than
are unusually difficult to interview at length. Yet can be obtained from the sum of its individual
in group discussions with other physicians, two human parts.
hours does not seem to tax their interest or co- Depth
operation. Physicians who appear impatient, con- The use of the word "depth," in the name given
strained, cautious, or curt when interviewed alone, this technique, implies seeking information that
seem considerably more garrulous, frank, and at is more profound than is usually accessible at the
times argumentative when in a group with other level of interpersonal relationships. While a re-
physicians. spondent may be the best authority on what he
Candor is permitted not only because the mem- did, he is often an unreliable source of informa-
bers of the group understand and feel comfortable tion as to why he did it. His response reflects what
with one another, but also because they draw social he wants you to believe, and also what he himself
strength from each other. The group provides sup- wants to believe. Retroactive distortion helps him
port to its members in the expression of anxiety- to maintain a self-concept of a wise, judicious
provoking or socially unpopular ideas. buyer motivated by reason rather than feeling.
An example may illustrate this. At the beginning Much of our daily behavior is motivated by sub-
of a 2/2 hour session, a group of jobbers individ- liminal stimuli (sensory impressions of which the
ually expressed loyalty to, and appreciation of, their individual is only minimally aware). Depth inter-
suppliers. After an hour, most of these same group viewing seeks to bring these motives to light. Tech-
members joined in the expression of a pervasive nically these motives are preconscious, and are dis-
and deeply felt antagonism toward their manu- tinguished from unconscious motives by the more
facturers-attitudes which they had not previously profound depth of repression of the latter.
expressed for a variety of reasons, including fears A study of the factors that determine which
of economic reprisal by the jobber. of several supermarkets were used by shoppers
In another instance, members of a minority group in a particular neighborhood illustrates the defini-
at first vehemently denied favoritism in buying tive and lasting reaction to subliminal stimuli. Some
from members of their own group. Later, following of the women in each of four group sessions were
a profound and emotional discussion of racial and adamant in their intention not to shop in one of
religious intolerance, all admitted that they pre- the markets, although they did not appear able
ferred to buy from a salesman of their own ethnic to express their reasons in a clear or consistent
group. By virtue of its community of interests, the manner. Some mentioned a vague feeling that the
group permitted exposure of feelings not ordinarily market in question was somehow messy or even
given casual or public expression. dirty. Yet, upon further exploration, these same
5. A fifth advantage is that the group setting women agreed that the shelves were neatly stacked,
is emotionally provocative in a way that an indi- the personnel clean, the floors swept, the counters
vidual interview cannot be. A group composed of well dusted. They could not point out anything to
housewives ranging in age from 25 to 45 may support their charges of uncleanliness. Further,
serve to illustrate how the group can provoke re- they readily agreed that the store they did shop
actions which elicit interesting and useful insights in was more messy than the one in which they
into the motives of its members. This discussion refused to shop. A casual reference by one of the
focused on how these women felt about their weight, women to a peculiar odor evoked immediate recog-
and what effect this had on their diets. At one nition from the others. This occurred spontaneously
point in the discussion, the youngest and most in several of the groups and led to the consensus
slender woman in the group said, "Weight isn't a that it was a "bloody"or "meaty" odor. This process
problem for me yet, but I imagine that for older of "consensual validation" suggested that this vague
women like yourselves it would be." Immediately,
impression of untidiness stemmed not from any-
perceiving the unintended offense to the other group thing that could be seen, but rather from this faint
members, she explained, "Well, as you get older, yet pervasive and offensive odor. Later this infor-
you get fatter." This attempt at diplomacy fell mation served to bring to the attention of the
somewhat short of soothing the injured self-
management an ineffective exhaust-and-drainage
concepts of some of the other women, but it did system in the supermarket's meat room.
serve to provoke quite profound feelings toward In seeking "depth" material we do not make
"getting old" and how these feelings were expressed the assumption that we can in some way get the
in their eating habits. Thus, a member of the
respondent to express unconscious motives directly.
group confronted the other group members with A thing is repressed, that is, remanded to the

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64 Journal of Marketing, July, 1962

care of the unconscious, if it is too threatening to in the most effective way by whatever devices at
the self-concept to allow into consciousness. Gen- his disposal.
erally there is little that a moderator can do, or The Mechanics of Moderating
ethically should do, to provoke the overt expression
of such threatening material. What is usually done The best way to describe group depth interview-
is to infer the nature of these impulses from who ing is in terms of the specific mechanics of mod-
says what, in what sequence, to whom he says it, erating the group. Many of the techniques consid-
and how he says it. ered here have been suggested by those used in
However, there are certain conditions under which group psychotherapy. Although psychotherapy has
the moderator may wish to explore some facets on a radically different primary goal, it shares with
an unconscious motive. By focusing on the motives group interviewing the goal of eliciting informa-
of one group member, the others are frequently tion which the group member himself finds difficult,
or impossible, to produce.
provoked to react to the repressed motive, even if
that motive is never made quite explicit. For ex- All sessions are tape recorded, with the recorder
ample, in a discussion of an easy-to-prepare "in- placed in full view. For training purposes and client
stant" food, one woman made the following slip- observation a one-way vision mirror is used. All
of-the-tongue: "Especially when I'm in a hurry, I group members are paid, to compensate them for
like foods that are time-consuming." The context of the expense of traveling to where the session is
the preceding discussion, which centered upon the conducted, and to attract people other than the
role that food preparation plays in the housewife's merely curious.
concept of herself, made it quite clear that the Rapport
eagerness with which this woman embraced "in- The most important factor in producing usable
stant" foods was not without psychic conflict. In information from the group depth interview is the
this case, the moderator inquired into the error
relationship between the moderator and the panel
without interpreting to her the feeling of guilt
members, and that among the panel members them-
that this slip may have revealed. It did serve, how- selves.
ever, to stimulate other women to discuss this prob- The first job of the moderator is to structure
lem more openly. the roles of all of the participants. The purpose of
Probing for unconscious material should be under- the session, how long it will last, and the manner
taken with extreme caution. The danger, in most in which it will be conducted are all explained in
cases, is not that any appreciable damage will be as comfortable and friendly a way as possible. Good
done to a reasonably stable personality; the normal
rapport is crucial in establishing the candidness
protective mechanisms will adequately protect the needed; and this is facilitated when the language
ego from ill-advised assaults by the moderator. of the moderator is not too discrepant from that of
Rather, the danger of unskilled probing is repre- the majority of the group. For example, when the
sented by the risk of completely alienating the
group is composed of young, poorly educated sub-
offended group member, and thereby limiting the
jects of marginal socio-economic level, "they won't
cooperation and spontaneity of the whole group. dig you if you bug 'em with a lot of high-falutin'
In these situations, the professional psychologist
jazz."
with clinical experience is more likely to avoid such
pitfalls. Verbal Activity
The verbal activity or passivity of the moderator
Interview is determined by the nature of the group and its
The word "interview" has the least precise mean- goals. With alert and articulate people the modera-
ing of the three elements of the term, group depth tor can assume a more passive role-passive, not
interview. An interview implies an interviewer, inert. In an especially talkative group, or at the
rather than a moderator. The role of moderator other extreme, with a very quiet group, a more
requires using the group as the device for eliciting active role will be required of the moderator, either
information. The moderator guides the discussion, to inhibit or provoke more discussion.
keeping it within fruitful bounds, but rarely par-
ticipates in it himself. When he can lead a group Relevancy
member to ask a question of the group, the mod- One of the most important things that the mod-
erator will not question them himself. erator does is to keep the discussion within relevant
An interviewer, especially with a structured ques- limits. Here he must be very careful not to rule
tionnaire, is frequently restricted to a direct ques- out that which is apparently unrelated, but may
tion-and-answer approach, while the moderator has reveal relevant unconscious motives. A general dis-
the greatest possible flexibility and freedom in pur- cussion of grandma and grandpa and the "good old
suing motivational "pay dirt" and may seek to ex- days" may have extensive significance in marketing
ploit unique characteristics of a particular group such things as upholstery fabric or canned foods.

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The Group
The Group Depth Interview
Depth Interview 65
65

Sensitivity to unconscious processes is, of course, Serial Association

important here and a clinical background is help- In evaluating the effectiveness of advertising
ful, although not essential. copy, controlled serial association may be used.
Prior to exposure of the first ad, the group mem-
Projective Questions
The researcher who pursues those motives of the bers are trained in the difficult job of saying words
buying decision of which the consumer is unaware freely one after the other. In this way, they can
must give particular thought to developing various learn to respond to the test ads with some spon-
"projective" techniques which expose these motives. taneity.
The answer to a projective question enables the For example, to evaluate the impression of the
respondent to express needs which he cannot or product conveyed to women by a pictorial advertise-
does not wish to admit. These, of course, must be ment in a magazine, group members were shown
individually designed to fit the particular market- the advertisement and requested to associate ideas
ing problem. For example, in the selection of kinds with it. It became readily apparent that this ad
of housing materials, material design, or fabric suggested licentious intrigue and adventure. While
pattern, the following question was found to be the symbolic meaning of the ad served to attract
very effective: "What kind of family would find and hold the attention of the reader admirably well,
this pattern appealing, and why?" the dynamic meaning it attached to this particular
Different reactions to various designs may also product apparently was not the most advantageous.
be provoked by asking the group what well-known
Deprivation Questions
person each pattern suggests to them. In this way,
a design that suggests Jayne Mansfield may be Deprivation questions inquire into the relative
value of various products or services. A question
qualitatively differentiated from those which sug-
such as, "Which of the following canned foods
gest Liberace, Eleanor Roosevelt, or Marshall Matt
Dillon. Similar material may be provoked by stereo- would you miss most if it were no longer available
type photographs and the illustrative cases method. to you ?" is somehow more provocative than, "Which
canned food is most important to you?"
Illustrative Case Method
To explore personal habits, the illustrative case Deception
method is valuable. Several people are described A calculated "deception" is often effective in test-
who differ from each other according to the in- ing the limits of the respondent's convictions. A
tensity or consistency of some behavior. Then the rich source of information and attitudes is tapped
group members are asked to describe the other by the group's responses to the blatantly incorrect
characteristics of the person. For example, Miss A statement that all of ten very different fabrics are
uses underarm deodorant four times a day; Miss B made of the same synthetic fiber.
uses one only in the morning-what kind of people There are times when none of these methods
are they? Or Mr. A traded his Chevrolet in for a appears to stimulate any but the most mundane
Pontiac; Mr. B traded his Cadillac in for a small and obvious generalities. This, of course, may be
foreign car-what kind of people are they? Inten- significant in itself if it is not a facade behind
sive probing follows their responses in order to which reside motives that are not being expressed.
clarify what motivates Miss A or B, or Mr. A or B. Some other procedures that may be useful in these
difficult cases are false termination and playing the
Stereotype Photographs devil's advocate.
A related type of stimulus is represented by It is a rule of thumb in group psychotherapy that
stereotype photographs. These are pictures of men the most important material may be produced in
and women who typify a particular age, income, or the last few minutes of the session. In this way the
vocational group. Each of these variables, of course, person who would like to contribute something that
can be independently varied to suit the objectives may be embarrassing or threatening to him has
of the study. The appropriately selected photo- only a few minutes during which he must endure
graphs are exposed singly or all together, and a the discomfort. Also, he may deliberately inhibit
question might be asked, such as: "Which of these ideas that he feels are irrelevant to the discussion
women would be most likely to use instant tea?" proper.
The response is followed up with: "What is there Following this lead, especially in group inter-
about the woman you picked that makes you think views in which emotionally loaded material is in-
that?" Such answers as: "She looks as though she's volved, the session is "terminated" early by
always in a hurry and can't be bothered with brew- thanking the group members for being there and
ing tea," or, "Not that one! She looks rich enough inquiring as to whether there are any other com-
to afford the best; she would have her maid brew ments. Intensive probing into these "final" com-
tea," are quite revealing of attitudes toward a par- ments has been rewarding on a number of occasions.
ticular product. For example, a group interview devoted to the

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 66 Journal
Journal of Marketing,
Marketing, July, 1962
July, 1962
motives involved in drinking in taverns as opposed ing for this anyway?" is something like, "I'm
to drinking at home uncovered very little more than curious about why you ask," or "What's your hunch
mundane and superficial generalities. Following the about who is sponsoring this research?"
false termination, a group member casually com-
mented laughingly to his neighbor that he is hesi- Gesture.
tant to drink in a tavern because he holds his liquor The use of gestures should not be ignored in
poorly and is afraid of making a fool of himself conducting the group interview. A raised eyebrow
in public. Further probing of this theme with the can be an effective probe; leaning forward on the
man who initiated it, as well as others in the table may encourage more comment by a reluctant
or shy person; a shrug of the shoulder can parry
group, revealed the specific moral prohibitions
against drinking at a bar made by the group mem- many direct questions.
ber's father. More important, this "casual" com- Attention to the gestures of the group members
ment led to a quite meaningful discussion about the frequently tells more than what is said. Reserve,
variety and intensity of impulses and emotions that disgust, disdain, irritation, enthusiasm, and myriad
may be expressed in a tavern but are socially un- other emotional subtleties are conveyed by gesture.
Here is an example. In a discussion of a building
acceptable elsewhere. Anxiety, provoked by the
threat of such emotional expression, may be suffi- material, one woman, while describing her impres-
cient to limit drinking to the relative "safety" of sion of it, continually rubbed her thumb and fore-
the home. finger together. Here words expressed a mildly
Playing the devil's advocate requires that the favorable opinion, but the gesture revealed a fear
moderator take a very opinionated role. With the of which she was only slightly aware herself. De-
goal of provoking a reaction, the moderator may spite the fact that the material itself was very
himself express an extreme viewpoint on the topic rigid and hard, probing as to the meaning of her
under discussion. This is usually sufficient to move gesture revealed a fear that it would be "crumbly"
the discussion into more productive channels. The and soft.
same effect can be achieved without involving the Non-directive Comments
moderator, through the use of an accomplice who Non-directive comments often help to focus atten-
takes a pre-established and adamantly stated point tion on the emotion implicit in a discussion. A non-
of view.
directive comment such as, "You seem angry about
Naivete that," or, "That memory seems to give you pleas-
Sophisticated
ure," recognizes and accepts emotion, and at the
In most cases, however, the most effective pose same time encourages the group member to reflect
is that of sophisticated naivete. The group members further on his feelings in relation to the topic
are assigned the role of educating the unknowledg- under discussion. Most people need such encourage-
able moderator. He thus forces the group members ment to express strong feelings in a group setting,
to explain even the obvious-those unverbalized
particularly feelings of tenderness and sentimen-
habits of thought and action that are rarely subject
tality.
to scrutiny.
Here the moderator may make frequent use of Five Requirements of the Group Depth Interview
such probes as, "What do you mean?" "I'm afraid Five factors are required of the group depth
I didn't understand that" ... or, "Remember now, interview in order to serve its research objectives:
I'm not a buyer; so, would you explain that to me?" objectivity, reliability, validity, intensive analysis,
Such probing elicited the realization on the part of and marketing applicability. While the first four are
one dress buyer that in making selections for her required of any scientific research, the last is more
extensive clientele she had primarily four of her relevant to marketing studies. Any endeavor that
regular customers in mind. presumes to be marketing research cannot ignore
these guideposts of sound inquiry.
Parrying Direct Questions
There are occasions in which a direct question 1. Objectivity
may put the moderator "on the spot." Often these Avoidance of the bias of the interviewer and
questions cannot only be diplomatically dodged, but client indicates objectivity. Respondents are un-
at the same time they may be used to gain addi- usually sensitive to the attitudes and opinions of
tional information. When group members ask, as the group moderator; and if these are allowed to
they frequently do, about identity of the client, this manifest themselves without the moderator's aware-
may be used to open a discussion concerning the ness, it can grossly affect the nature of the data.
relative activity in consumer and scientific research To further objectivity, it is usually necessary to
of various companies and the interest of these com- disguise the identity of the client, and for the
panies in the needs of the consumer. An effective moderator to observe rigorous neutrality (except
gambit here in response to, "What company is pay- when being the devil's advocate). Objective sum-

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 Group Depth
The Group Depth Interview 67
67

mary of attitudes sometimes requires the use of intensively probed. A gradual shift in acceptance
some quantitative technique, such as a scaling de- of the radical change was observed over the three
vice, within the context of the group interview. week period. However, when those who had been
exposed to the product three times were combined
2. Reliability in the same group with people who had never seen
The degree to which the information produced the product, the effect was immediate and dramatic:
is representative of the population to which it is the quality and intensity of their attitudes reverted
generalized is called reliability. The question of to what they had been at the very first exposure.
reliability of the sample, or generaliation of the Since this kind of interaction duplicates what hap-
results, directs attention to the purpose of the pens in the market place, it produced a valuable
group depth interview. Its basic function is to indi- insight into this social-learning process and per-
cate "why" rather than "how many." That is, it mitted a more effective marketing decision to be
focuses on understanding the motives of behavior made.
rather than cataloging the number of individuals This study suggested that while there may be
who behave in a particular way. increasing acceptance of the styling innovation with
The group interview is particularly useful in the more exposure to it, this preference was not a stable
developmental phases of a research program. It one and could be reversed by contact with someone
establishes the range of attitudes without, how- who was seeing the radically styled appliance for
ever, asserting the representativeness of these atti- the first time. Here, it was decided that the style
tudes. Perhaps the major function of the group was too radical, and a more moderate style was
depth interview is to generate creative and fruitful elected.
hypotheses. It does not generally permit broad
generalization and thus, in most cases, it should 3. Validity
be followed by a probability survey to substantiate A source of continual concern to researchers is
these hypotheses. the validity problem, the assumption that a meas-
In certain cases, small-sample group interviews ure really measures what it purports to measure.
can produce generalizable results. For example, a The group situation attempts to get as close to the
group panel had represented in its members jobbers actual purchasing decision as possible.
who controlled 50% of all automotive parts dis- For example, the task given the group member
tributed in a particular city. The opinions they ex- in a problem which concerned purchase of pre-
pressed represented a considerable portion of the packaged bacon was actual selection from among
automotive parts jobber universe in that city. a number of samples the very bacon that she would
In special circumstances which limit a study to serve her family, and not merely enumerating the
a small sample for security reasons, the problem of criteria according to which she usually buys bacon.
sample representativeness may be academic. A Similarly, in a discussion of wine preference, the
manufacturer may need to limit a study to a small group members ordered and drank the wine of their
sample, in order to prevent too many people from choice.
knowing about a new product prior to its introduc- When the topic was that of selecting a garment
tion to the market. for themselves, women were asked to act out in
Group interviewing does not preclude quantita- detail, using a number of blouse samples, the act
tively adequate sampling; but in most cases it of buying one for themselves. Here the moderator
makes it very expensive. took the role of salesman.
Another kind of reliability problem is the repre- A problem involving the factors which are im-
sentativeness of the time sample. Purchasing deci- portant in home decorating was approached by hav-
sions for higher-priced items begin as vague, gen- ing groups of married couples go through the actual
eral ideas of the product and become progressively task of decorating a small-scale model home, using
more specific as decision-making proceeds. Inter- reduced-sized flooring materials, wallpaper prints,
secting this process at any one point in time may drapery fabrics, upholstery fabrics, and a wide
not adequately reflect its dynamic nature. The pur- variety of miniature furniture of various styles.
chasing decision can be viewed as a learning proc- Each couple decorated in the presence of other
ess that may be altered many times from the initia- couples, and each did so with a conscientiousness
tion of the need to the actual purchase of a product. that left little doubt that this task had considerable
One way in which this process may be investi- ego-involvement. These various devices tend to de-
gated may be illustrated by a problem involving the crease the discrepancy between attitude expression
assessment of consumer reaction to a radical styling and actual purchasing behavior.
innovation of a major appliance. Six groups of
eight members each were shown scale models of 4. Intensive Analysis
the appliances at three different sessions held at A fourth requirement of the group depth inter-
weekly intervals. At each session, attitudes were view is that the often voluminous data be inten-

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68 68 Journal ofMaretig,
Jurnl July, 1962
of Marketing, Jly,196

sively analyzed. Discussion material of this kind exercise" if its findings cannot be put to use in the
defies routine analysis. The method of analyses market place.
employed here is similar to that by which group A variety of marketing problems in which the
psychotherapy sessions are analyzed. group depth interview is applicable have already
Qualitative analysis of group-interview material been indicated. As noted above, the group depth
focuses on several kinds of data. At the most super- interview is most frequently useful and appropriate
ficial level are the opinions easily verbalized. They in the developmental and exploratory phases of re-
may at times give only some indication of the atti- search. Here it is used to make it more likely that
tudes that group members are willing to express the correct questions are asked in large sample
to others. Subconscious buying motives may be re- surveys to follow.
flected in such data as: what topics are discussed, The group depth interview is also helpful in
what kinds of people bring them up and with what cases where broad sampling is prohibited by secu-
degree of intensity, to whom they are said, and, rity requirements. For example, when used as a
perhaps most important, the temporal sequence in complement to new-product development, group ses-
which they are said. sions are conducted at several points in the process,
For example, a product that had enjoyed the to aid management in decisions which are not best
highest market share in a particular city for fif- left for a point later in the process. In this way,
teen years began to decrease in sales to members management has available consumer reactions be-
of a minority group. The drop in sales did not fore large investments of time and money are
appear to be attributable to changes in product, committed.
package design, or sales policy. In several group For example, development of a new food prod-
sessions, the following sequence of themes was dis- uct may begin with an exploration of several food
cussed: minority and national groups are becoming concepts in order to expose which of several alter-
more alert and militant all over the world; domina- native directions would serve the consumers' needs
tion by the more powerful majority must stop; best. Or, perhaps a manufacturer might wish to
sometimes members of minorities are dealt with know which of several kinds of materials are best
unfairly by the police; the company in question suited for a home building item before one of them
makes a good product and is the biggest manufac- is committed to intensive laboratory development.
turer of that product; other companies that also When one of these materials is selected by the
produce a good product are entering the field. These groups and is developed further, the graphic design
themes, in the context of the total group session, of the product also is explored by the group method.
In a final research phase the progressively refined
suggested an identification of the minority group
member with the smaller producer in opposition to and elaborated product may be discussed by var-
the large "powerful" company. To the extent that ious kinds of groups in order to help to guide ad-
their buying behavior was consistent with this vertising themes, promotional campaigns, and per-
haps distribution systems.
psychological identity, the "big" company was being The group depth interview has been used to
hurt.
explore attitudes about corporate images, public
relations, personnel-turnover rate, recruiting ap-
5. Marketing Applicability
peals, health problems, container design, political
The group depth interview is designed to solve issues, and many other marketing and social prob-
marketing problems. Even if a study satisfies the lems. The full potential of the method has yet to
other four requirements, it is just an "academic be realized.

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