Introduction to Soil Science

Rodelio T. Alejo Jr.

Instructor I
 SOIL – INTERFACE OF SYSTEMS

ATMOSPHERE
BIOSPHERE

PEDOSPHERE

HYDROSPHERE LITHOSPHERE
Atmosphere
a gaseous envelope
that surrounds a material of
sufficient mass and is held in
place by gravity.
it is where climate and
weather take place.
(Exosphere,
Thermosphere, Mesosphere,
Stratosphere, Troposphere)
 Biosphere
made up of the parts of Earth
where life exists. The biosphere
extends from the deepest root
systems of trees to the dark
environment of ocean trenches, to
lush rain forests and high
mountaintops.
 Hydrosphere
discontinuous layer of water at
or near Earth’s surface. It includes
all liquid and frozen surface
waters, groundwater held
in soil and rock, and atmospheric
water vapor.
 Lithosphere
is the solid, outer part
of the Earth, including the
brittle upper portion of the
mantle and the crust.
 Atm‹ Vegetation
isphere

Carbon binding
Roots
Nutrients
Wind Organic mattgr
Heat HCO
Raic Nutrients pores
Light Water

Weathering
Nutrient
release Fertilit
Texture
Colour Bedrock
Martin Sanda - B673
martin.sanda fsv.cvut.cz
Concept of Soil
• Soil as a Natural Body
The father of soil science V.V. Dokuvchaev and his students in USSR in 1879, lay
down the fundamental principles of soil science, according to them soils are
formed from rocks and minerals which undergoes weathering process. Also,
according to the, soils are the surface mineral and organic formations, always
more or less colored by humans.

• Soil as a medium for plant growth

The concept of soil according to Brady and Weil (1999) proves that soil was
mainly used as a medium for plant growth. Soil serves as a support and
anchorage for plant roots. Moreover Justus Von Leibig in 1840 put forward the
theory that plants assimilate mineral nutrients from soils in his well-known
publication “Chemistry applied to Agriculture and Physiology”. From this, he is
considered as Father of agricultural chemistry.
Definition of Soil
• Brady and Weil (1999) defined soil as a natural dynamic
body composed of mineral and organic materials and
living forms in which plants grow. Soil is considered to be
natural because it originated from the weathering of
rocks and minerals. It is considered as dynamic
because the characteristics of soil are continuously
changing. They vary both horizontally and vertically on
the surface of the earth. Soil is considered as a body
because it has 3 dimensions: length, width and
thickness or breadth.
Definition of Soil
"all the fragmented mineral material at or near the surface of the
earth, the moon, or other planetary body, plus the air, water, organic
matter, and other substances which may be included therein"
(Spangler and Handy, 1982)
Other ways to define soil:

 Geologic definition: Loose surface of the earth as distinguished from solid bedrock; support of plant life not
required
 Traditional definition: material which nourishes and supports growing plants; includes rocks, water,
snow and air
 Component definition: Mixture of mineral matter, organic matter, water and air
 Soil Taxonomy definition: Collection of natural bodies of the earth’s surface, in places modified or even
made by man or earthy materials, containing living matter and supporting or capable of supporting
plants out of doors.
 As a portion of the landscape: Collection of natural bodies occupying portions of the earth’s surface that
support plants; and that have properties due to the integrated effect of climate and living matter,
acting upon parent material, as conditioned by relief, over periods of time.
Importance of Soil
1) Soil supports the growth
of plants
2) Soil properties are the
principal factor controlling
the fate of water in the
hydrologic system
3) Soil functions as nature’s
recycling system
4) Soil provides a habitat for
the soil organisms
5) Soil is an engineering medium
 SOIL COMPOSITION
FOUR MAJOR
CONSTITUENTS

1. mineral matter
2. organic matter
3. soil solution
4. soil air
Soil Composition | Solid Phase
MINERAL MATTER
Consists of primary materials (the original
minerals in the parent rock) and secondary
minerals (those synthesized during the process
of soil formation).
 Minerals
 naturally occurring inorganic substance(s) which has fairly definite chemical composition and
definite
physical properties.

• Primary Minerals
• minerals that persist from original rocks and appear prominently in
the soil. These are the primary materials, the original minerals in
the parent rock. These occur mostly in the coarser fractions: rocks,
gravels, sands and silts.
• Secondary Minerals
• minerals which originate from the chemical weathering of the least
resistant primary minerals. Secondary minerals are those
synthesized during the process of soil formation. These minerals
dominate in the clay fraction or structure.
 Sand, Silt, and Clay
Closc•up

O.oSmm-2mm

sand

10x

0.OO2mm-0.OSmm

Silk
Soil Composition | Solid Phase
ORGANIC MATTER
• 2 to 5% in most mineral soils
• Extremely complex material which
probably contains the rest of the
organic compounds found in nature
Soil Composition | Solid Phase
Soil Composition | Liquid Phase
SOIL SOLUTION
• mainly water solution as salts and gases
• concentration of salts usually ranges from
100 to 1000 ppms, of dry soil
• Sulfates, chlorides and bicarbonates of Ca,
Mg, K and Na are present
 €. €. .+ r
Ca, Mg, K , Al, H*, Na

Clay Particles
Root Hairs
Soil Composition | Gaseous Phase
SOIL AIR
• air is needed in the soil for root respiration
as well as the activity of microorganisms
in soil
• Soil texture, structure, porosity, etc affects
aeration
 Oif AtMOS@h0f6

H, 79,2 79 0
O 20.6 20.9
C z 0•25 0.03

Scuriic: Ru«1«l, E. J., and App]9yaz d, A. I9 1 S,

Tbe atmnsphcrc uf thc x‹›il, it» «cI›igv»i\inn and
cau¥«s uf vcriatin‹t. /. A;yr. Sc/. 7:ITB.
Soil Composition | Pore Spaces
Types of Pores

1. Transmission Pores - also called Macropores. Transmission pores are the large pores which
enable root growth, air movement and water movement. They are visible to the naked eye,
indeed even with a x5 hand lens, and range between 30 to 60 µm. Coarse textured, sandy
soils, and well- structured soils with a lot of biological activity, have a large proportion of
pores in this size class.

2. Storage pores –also called Micropores. They retain water (ie. they do not drain under the
force of gravity) which is then available for use by plant roots and soil organisms. The
proportion of these pores in a soil controls the plant available water capacity. They (along with
even smaller pores). . They have diameters between 0.2 and 60 µm. The volume of a soil
occupied by them might range from <10% in a loamy sand to >20% in a good loam.

3. Residual Pores – pores that hold water so tightly that it cannot be extracted by roots or
soil organisms – they are less than 0.2 µm in diameter. Fine textured or clayey soils have the
larger proportion of their pores in this class. A heavy clay might well have 25 % of its volume
as residual pores.
Soil Science Definition

Science that deals with the scientific study

of the soil –its genesis or origin, formation
and development, characteristics or
properties, functions in relation to crop
production and other uses, problems,
protection, conservation and classification
Two Approaches in the Study of Soil

Pedological approach (Pedologist)

Pedological approach soil is consider as a natural entity, a biochemically
weathered and synthesized product of nature. It does not focus on
immediate practical use but rather soil is examined and classify as they
occur in their natural environment.

Edaphological approach (Edaphologist)

Edaphology is the study of the soil from the stand point of higher plants.
It
conceives of the soil as natural habitat of plant and it considers the
various
properties of soils as they relate to plant growth and production.
Soil Science Field of Specialization
Soil Fertility is the study of the capacity of the soil
to supply nutrient elements to plants. It deals with
the form, amount, transformations, and availability
of plant nutrients that are essential for plant
growth.

Soil Microbiology is the study of the microorganisms

living in the soil, the characteristics of the different
groups of microorganisms and their role in the
physical and biochemical changes occurring in the
soil.
Soil Chemistry is the study of the chemical
properties of the soil, the original rocks and
minerals that constitute the parent materials from
which soils come from, their chemical nature, and
reactions, and the description of the chemical
processes that transform nutrient elements in the
soil and in the soil solution.

Soil Physics is the study of the physical nature of

the soil, its characteristics, properties, and/or
reactions which are caused by physical forces.
Soil Conservation and Management is the study of
how to protect the soil from degradation brought
about by soil erosion, crop removal, chemical
deterioration and other cultivation practices that
affect the fertility and productivity of the soil.

Soil Survey and Classification is the study of the

physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of
the soil, its profile and horizons, their origin,
formation, and development and taxonomic
classification.
Land Use is the study of the patterns
of utilization and/or allocation of
lands for general or specific purpose
such as agriculture, forestry, built-up
or settlement, wetlands, barelands,
grasslands, orchards and other
 Elemental
Composition of
Earth’s Crust
CRUST
The outermost “skin” of Earth with
variable thickness.

–Thickest under mountain ranges (70 km – 40

miles).
–Thinnest under mid-ocean ridges (3 km – 2 miles).
 Two Types of Crust
Continental crust – Underlies the continents.
– Avg. rock density about 2.7 g/cm3.
– Avg. thickness 35-40 km.
– Felsic composition (feldspar and quartz)
– Avg. rock type = Granite

Oceanic crust – Underlies the ocean basins.

– Density about 3.0 g/cm3.
– Avg. thickness 7-10 km.
– Mafic composition (olivine, pyroxene, amphibole,
and biotite)
– Avg. rock type = Basalt/Gabbro
Granite

Granite is a light-colored
plutonic rock found
throughout the continental
crust, most commonly in
mountainous areas. It
consists of coarse grains of
quartz (10-50%), potassium
feldspar, and sodium
feldspar.
Basalt and Gabbro
Gabbros are equivalent in composition to basalts.
The difference between the two rock types is their
grain size. Basalts are extrusive igneous rocks that
cool quickly and have fine-grained crystals.
Gabbros are intrusive igneous rocks that cool
slowly and have coarse-grained crystals.
 Two Types of Crust
Continental crust Oceanic crust
0 km

50

150
Density of Crust
 Crust Composition
98.5% of the crust is comprised of just 8 elements.

Oxygen is (by far!) the most abundant element in the

crust.
–This reflects the importance of silicate (SiO2-
based) minerals.
–As a large atom, oxygen occupies ~93% of
crustal volume.
 Crust Composition
100
Element Symbol Percentage Percentage Percentage
90
by weight by volume by atoms
Oxygen 46.6 93.8 60.5
70 Silicon Si z7.7 o.9 zo.s
Aluminum
8.1 0.8 6.2
g Iron Fe
0.5 1.9
Calcium Ca 3.6 1.9
50 Sodium 2.8 1.2 2.s
Potassium 2.6 1.5 1.8
40 Magnesium 2.1 0.3 ].4
All others 1.5 0.01 3.3

Si AI Fe Ca Na K Mg
Oxygen Silicon Aluminum Calcium Sodium Potassium Magnesium All Others
 ESSENTIAL
ELEMENTS IN
SOILS
 Criteria of essentiality:
1. A deficiency of the element makes it
impossible for the plant to complete the
vegetative or reproductive stage of its life.

2. The deficiency symptom of the element in

question can be prevented or corrected
only by supplying the element.

3. The element is directly involve in the nutrition

of the plant.
There are 18 essential
nutrient elements
• The elements can be grouped into categories
according to their source and scarcity in relation to
plant needs:
Elements derived from the Atmosphere and Water:
Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O)
Elements derived from the Soil:
Macro-nutrients
Primary: Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium
Secondary: Calcium, Magnesium, Sulfur
Micronutrients
Iron, Boron, Manganese, Zinc, Copper,
Chlorine, Molybdenum, Nickel, Cobalt
FORMS IN WHICH ELEMENTS OCCUR IN SOIL

Unavailable form
is the form in which the element is combined
as a part of a compound and is not accessible to
plant absorption until the compound is
“decomposed”.

Exchangeable form
is the form in which the element exists as a
cation or anion adsorbed (surface attraction) on the
surface of organic compounds or clay minerals. The
exchangeable ions are partly available to plants.
FORMS IN WHICH ELEMENTS OCCUR IN SOIL
Ionic form
is assumed to be most available form.
Element Symbol Available Form
Carbon C
Hydrogen H CO2, H2O, H2, O2, HCO3
Oxygen O
NH4+, NO3-
Nitrogen N
H2PO4- , HPO4=, PO4=
Phosphorus P
Potassium K K+
Calcium Ca Ca++
Magnesium Mg Mg++
SO4=, SO3=
Sulfur S
FORMS IN WHICH ELEMENTS OCCUR IN SOIL

Element Symbol Available Form

Iron Fe Fe++, Fe+++
Manganese Mn Mn++, Mn+++
Zinc Zn Zn++
MoO4=
Molybdenum Mo
Chlorine Cl Cl-
BO3-3
Boron B
Nickel Ni Ni++
Copper Cu Cu+, Cu++
Cobalt Co Co++
WEATHERIN
Rodelio T. Alejo, Jr.
CA, Instructor I
Soil Formation
Weathering
• Physical and chemical breakdown of rocks and minerals.
• Two types:
Physical weathering - breaking of rocks and
minerals into smaller pieces without any change in the
chemical composition.
Chemical weathering - involves change in
chemical composition of rocks and minerals which results
to simpler products.
 Physical weathering
Breakdown of rocks into various fragments caused by vari

No change in chemical composition or

no element is added nor subtracted
• SOIL is formed from
the WEATHERING of
ROCK

• PHYSICAL WEATHERING

• FRACTURING due to
expansion and contraction
• Frost Wedging - freezing
and thawing of water
• Heating and cooling
1. ABRASION
Abrasion- When ice,
water, or wind
causes sediments to
have collisions
physical weathering
results.
Wind abrasion is
similar to sandblasting
and slowly weathers the
rock down.
Frost Wedging
2. Root Growth/Lichens
3. Exfoliation
4. Erosion
• EROSION or wearing down of rock
• Water
• Wind
 Chemical Weathering
Involves change in chemical composition of
The process
rocks causeswhich
and minerals internal structure
results of original
to simpler
rock to be destroyed to form new minerals
products.
with crystal structure which are stable
 1. Hydration
Hydration
minerals absorb water and chemicallychange
the composition of the material
water molecules bind with a mineral

Ex. granite contains mica.

Mica has a weak chemical
composition and absorb water.
Turns into clay
5Fe2O3 + 9 H2O Fe10O15 • 9 H2O
 2. Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis
water
KAlSi molecule splitHAlSi
3O8 + H2O
into3O
H8 and
+ K +OH
OHcomponent and
H
replaces a cation from the minerals structure
 3. Dissolution
WATER
Is unique and dissolves most minerals and
metals in our environment (universal
solvent).

CaSO4 •H2O + 9 H2O Ca + SO4 + 4 H2O

 4. Carbonation
Carbonation – When CO2 and
water form H2CO3 (carbonic
acid). Carbonic acid hastens
chemical weathering

H2CO3 + CaCO3 Ca + 2 HCO3

 5. OXIDATION
Oxidation – Oxygen combines with minerals to
form oxides.
(iron + oxygen = Rust)

Oxidation weakens the bedrock making it softer.

4 FeO + O2 + 2H2O 4 FeO•OH
Stages of Weathering
During soil formation, primary minerals weather
• First Stage: decomposition of
at varying rates
readily
weather able minerals
• Mobile ions are lost. Chloride and Sulfates followed
by Na and K are substantially removed.
• Little removal of Ca and Mg or destruction of silicate
minerals
• The surface soil is usually acidic and subsoil are
commonly basic
Stages of Weathering
• Latter stages, the relatively resistant
minerals
• Loss of Ca and other basic cations
• In cases where organic acids are prominent, basic
compounds resistant to decomposition are extensively
attacked and removed
• Ca, Mg, Fe and Al constituent of silicate minerals
results in the formation of quartz and new minerals
• Entire soil profile becomes acidic.
Representative Minerals and Soils Associated with

Weathering Stage Soil Orders

Early stage Soils dominated by thes
1. Gypsum soils over the world, but
2. Calcite, dolomite, apatite desert regions where lim
3. Olivine, pyroxene, horneblende chemical weathering to
4. Biotite
5. Feldspar: orthoclase, albite , anorthite Aridosols and Entisols
Intermediate Stages Soils dominated by the
6. Quartz those of temperate reg
7. Muscovite grass or trees
8. Vermiculite, illite
9. Montmorillonite Inceptisols, Mollisols, Alf
Vertisols
Advanced Stages Weatherd soils of the w
10. Kaolinioite equatorial regions char
11. Gibbsite
12. Hematite, goethite, liminite Ultisols and Oxisols.
13. Anatase
The Soil
Profile
A soil is considered
to have formed as a
result of the
interaction of a parent
material, climate, and
living organisms as
influenced by relief or
topography through
time (S/s = f (cl, o, r,
p, t . . . ).
 In general, soils acquire
their properties over long
periods of time measured in
hundreds and thousand
years. The modern soil we
see, therefore, owes its
properties to the
(1) composition of the surficial layer
present when the current array of
environmental factors started their effect, and
 (2) the modifications resulting from the
effect of these factors over time.
 The soil profile is the
vertical section of the soil
showing the different layers
called horizons. Horizons
are delineated based on
color differences,
i.e. a horizon that exhibit a color
different from the other is considered
as an independent horizon.
 Simonson (1959)
discussed the
general concepts of (1) gains, (2)
losses,
(3) translocations, (4)
transformations, thus, by inferring
the initial state of materials
accumulated in a profile and observing
the present state of a soil, the overall
net changes of soil development and
combinations and rates of processes
could be estimated. This will also help
in the proper description of the
individual horizons which are
grouped
into master, transition, and subdivision
horizons.
Due to the gradational
nature of soils, arbitrary
limits must be placed
on the size of soil
bodies used for
description as well as
for classification. For
descriptive purposes,
the size is limited to that
of the pedon which is
the smallest unit or
volume that can be
called a soil.
 A pedon should be no larger
than is necessary to show the
nature of a soil profile.
By definition, it is
restricted to an area of
between 1 sq. m and 10 sq.
m , the actual size depending
on the character of the profile
under consideration.
The
Master
Horizons
Theoretically,
there are five master
horizons in a profile as
follows:
 O - a layer dominated by
organic material forming at
the surface of a mineral soil.
A - a mineral horizon
that formed at the surface or
below an O horizon and
characterized by an
accumulation of humified OM
and have properties resulting
from cultivation, pasturing or
similar kinds of disturbance.
 E – mineral horizon in which the main
feature is loss of silicate clay, Fe, Al, or some
combination of these, leaving a concentration of
sand and silt particles of quartz or other
resistant minerals.

B – horizon that formed below an A,

E or O and are dominated by CO3, gypsum or
silica alone or in combination; evidence of
removal of CO3 concentrations of sesquioxides,
alterations that forms silicate clays, formation
of granular, blocky or prismatic structure, or
combination of these.
 C – horizon or layer
excluding hard bedrock that
are little affected by
pedogenic processes and lack
properties of O, A, E, or B
horizons.

R – hard bedrock
(strictly not a horizon) to
include granite, basalt, etc
and indurated limestone or
sandstone that is sufficiently
coherent to make hand
digging impractical.
Transition horizons
Properties of an overlying
or underlying horizons are
superimposed on
properties of the other
throughout the transition
zone.
Examples: OA, AO, AB, BA, EB,
BE, BC, (there’s no CB
transition horizons)
Transition horizons
OA horizons is described
as a transition horizon
between O and A where the
properties are more similar
to O horizon. Therefore,
in writing the symbol
for transitional horizon,
what is written first is the
horizon where the
properties have more
similarities.
Transition horizons
If there are distinct parts that are
characteristic of one master horizon and
are recognizable and enclose are parts
characteristic of second recognizable
master horizon, then the symbol is
written as below.
Examples: O/A, A/O, A/B, B/A, E/B,E/B,
B/C
• O/A horizon is one where the
properties observable are distinct
enough to be similar with O and other
parts or portions are similar to A.
Subdivision Horizon
horizons are
subdivided if the
layer is thick enough
(40cm or more) and
the numbering will
start a new from one.
Examples: Ap1, Ap2; Bt1,
Btg1, Btg2; B1, B2
SubordinateDistinctio
nsBetween Master
Horizons
Distinct properties observed during description are
indicated in the master horizon where these are
observed using symbols (suffix letters) as follows:

• a- (sapric) highly decomposed organic material

• c- concretions or hard non-concretionary nodules of
Fe, Al, Mn or Ti cement
• e- organic material of intermediate decomposition
• g- strong gleying in which Fe has been reduced or
removed
•
•
•
• i- slightly decomposed OM
• p- plowing or other disturbance of the surface layer
• n- accumulation of sodium
• t- accumulation of silicate clay
Subordinate Distinctions
Between Master Horizons
A figure Suffix indicates subdivisions of a horizon. The numbering is
done consecutively (e.g. Bt1, Bt2; C1)..