Commercial Tomato Production Handbook

Commercial Tomato
Production Handbook
Foreword
This publication is a joint effort of the seven disciplines that comprise the Georgia Vegetable Team. It is comprised
of 14 topics on tomato, including history of tomato production, cultural practices, pest management, harvesting,
handling and marketing. This publication provides information that will assist producers in improving the profitabil-
ity of tomato production, whether they are new or experienced producers.
Tomatoes are an important crop for Georgia growers; however, successful tomato production is not easily achieved.
Tomato production requires highly intensive management, production and marketing skills, and a significant in-
vestment. Per acre cost of production is high, and yields can be severely limited by pest problems or environment.
Tomato production is complex. Expertise in the areas of cultural practices, soils and fertility management, pest
control, harvesting, post-harvest handling, marketing, and farm record keeping is crucial to profitable production.
In writing this publication, the authors have strived to provide a thorough overview of all aspects of tomato produc-
tion. However, chemical pest control recommendations are not included, as these change from year to year. For
up-to-date chemical recommendations, see the current Georgia Pest Management Handbook.
Table of Contents
History, Significance, Classification and Growth....................................... 3
Culture and Varieties.................................................................................. 4
Transplant Production................................................................................ 9
Production Using Plastic Mulch................................................................11
Irrigation................................................................................................... 13
Physiological Problems............................................................................ 15
Lime and Fertilizer Management............................................................. 17
Sprayers.................................................................................................... 22
Diseases.................................................................................................... 28
Insect Management.................................................................................. 31
Weed Control............................................................................................ 36
Harvest, Handling and Sanitation............................................................. 38
Marketing................................................................................................. 43
Production Costs...................................................................................... 46
History, Significance,
Classification and Growth
William Terry Kelley and George Boyhan
Extension Horticulturists
T he tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) is the

most widely grown vegetable in the United States.
Almost everyone who has a garden has at least one to-
for the fresh market. Global production exceeds 70
million metric tons. Tomatoes are the leading process-
ing vegetable crop in the United States.
mato plant. They can even be produced in window box California is the leading producer of processing
gardens or in single pots. Commercially, it is of equal- tomatoes in the United States. Indiana, Michigan and
ly great importance. From processing to fresh market, Ohio are other major producers. California and Florida
and from beefsteak to grape tomatoes, the variety and are the leading fresh market tomato producers in the
usefulness of the fruit is virtually boundless. United States. Ohio, Tennessee, Virginia and Georgia
Tomatoes are members of the Solanaceae family, produce significant amounts of fresh market tomatoes
which includes peppers, eggplant, Irish potatoes and as well.
tobacco. The tomato originated in the area extending Tomatoes have significant nutritional value. In
from Equador to Chile in the western coastal plain of recent years, they have become known as an impor-
South America. The tomato was first domesticated tant source of lycopene, which is a powerful antioxi-
in Mexico where a variety of sizes and colors were dant that acts as an anticarcinogen. They also provide
selected. The fruit was introduced to Europe in the vitamins and minerals. One medium ripe tomato (~145
mid-1500s. The first ones introduced there were prob- grams) can provide up to 40 percent of the Recom-
ably yellow since they were given the name pomodoro mended Daily Allowance of Vitamin C and 20 percent
in Italy, which means “golden apple.” Later the names of Vitamin A. They also contribute B vitamins, potas-
poma armoris and pomme d’amour were used in Italy sium, iron and calcium to the diet.
and France. These names are both translated as “love There are two types of tomatoes commonly grown.
apple.” Most commercial varieties are determinate. These
Tomatoes are members of the nightshade family “bushy” types have a defined period of flowering and
and, because of this, were considered for many years fruit development. Most heirloom garden varieties and
to be poisonous. Indeed, many crops in this family greenhouse tomatoes are indeterminate, which means
contain highly toxic alkaloids. Tomatine occurs in they produce flowers and fruit throughout the life of
toxic quantities in the tomato foliage but is converted the plant.
enzymatically to a non-toxic form in the fruit. Because Tomato is considered a tender warm season crop
of these beliefs, the crop was not used for food until but is actually a perennial plant, although it is culti-
the 18th century in England and France. Tomatoes vated as an annual. It is sensitive to frost and will not
were introduced to the United States in 1710, but only grow perpetually outdoors in most parts of the country.
became popular as a food item later in that century. Most cultivated tomatoes require around 75 days from
Even as late as 1900, many people held the belief that transplanting to first harvest and can be harvested for
tomatoes were unsafe to eat. several weeks before production declines. Ideal tem-
Use of the crop has expanded rapidly over the past peratures for tomato growth are 70-85 degrees F dur-
100 years. Today more than 400,000 acres of tomatoes ing the day and 65-70 degrees F at night. Significantly
are produced in the United States. The yearly produc- higher or lower temperatures can have negative effects
tion exceeds 14 million tons (12.7 million metric tons), on fruit set and quality. The tomato is a self-pollinating
of which more than 12 million tons are processed into plant and, outdoors, can be effectively pollinated by
various products such as soup, catsup, sauce, salsa and wind currents.
prepared foods. Another 1.8 million tons are produced-
UGA Cooperative Extension Bulletin 1312 | Commercial Tomato Production Handbook 3

Culture and Varieties
W. Terry Kelley and George Boyhan
Soil Requirements and hibitory effects on root growth can significantly reduce
tomato yields.
Site Preparation If a compaction pan exists just below or near mold-
Tomatoes can be produced on a variety of soil board plow depth, this hard pan can be disrupted by
types. They grow optimally in deep, medium textured subsoiling to a depth of 16 to 18 inches to allow the
sandy loam or loamy, fertile, well-drained soils. Avoid development of a more extensive root system. Subsoil-
sites that tend to stay wet. Also, rotate away from ing also helps increase water infiltration.
fields that have had solanaceous crops within the past If there is an abundance of plants or plant residues
3-4 years. Select sites that have good air movement (to on the soil surface, discing or mowing followed by
reduce disease) and that are free from problem weeds. discing is usually advised prior to moldboard plowing.
In field production, plants depend on the soil for This should be done 6 to 8 weeks ahead of planting to
physical support and anchorage, nutrients and water. bury residue and allow it to decay. Immediately prior
The degree to which the soil adequately provides these to plastic mulch installation or transplanting, perform
three factors depends upon topography, soil type, soil final soil preparation and/or bedding with a rotary til-
structure and soil management. ler, bedding disc or a double disc hiller in combination
For tomato production, proper tillage is crucial for with a bedding press or leveling board. This provides
adequate soil management and optimal yields. Land a crustless, weed-free soil for the installation of plastic
preparation should involve enough tillage operations mulch or the establishment of transplants.
to make the soil suitable for seedling or transplant Tomatoes are usually transplanted into plastic
establishment and to provide the best soil structure for mulch on raised beds. A raised bed will warm up
root growth and development. more quickly in the spring and therefore will enhance
The extent to which the root systems of tomato earlier growth. Since tomatoes do poorly in exces-
plants develop is influenced by the soil profile. Root sively wet soils, a raised bed facilitates drainage and
growth will be restricted if there is a hard pan, com- helps prevent waterlogging in low areas or in poorly
pacted layer or heavy clay zone. Tomatoes are consid- drained soils. Raised beds are generally 3 to 8 inches
ered to be deep rooted and, under favorable conditions, high. Keep in mind, however, that tomatoes planted
some roots will grow to a depth of as much as 10 feet. on raised beds may also require more irrigation during
The majority of roots, however, will be in the upper 12 drought conditions.
to 24 inches of soil. Since root development is severely
limited by compacted soil, proper land preparation
should eliminate or significantly reduce soil compac-
tion and hard pans. Cover Crops and Minimum Tillage
Tillage systems using the moldboard (“bottom” Winter cover crops help protect the soil from water
or “turning”) plow prepare the greatest soil volume and wind erosion. When incorporated into the soil as
conducive to vigorous root growth. This allows the de- “green manure,” cover crops contribute organic matter
velopment of more extensive root systems, which can to the soil.
more efficiently access nutrients and water in the soil. Soil organic matter consists of plant and animal
Discing after moldboard plowing tends to recompact residues in various stages of decay. Organic matter
the soil and should be avoided. improves soil structure (helps to reduce compaction
Compaction pans are present in many soils. They and crusting), increases water infiltration, decreases
are formed principally by machinery and are normally water and wind erosion, increases the soil’s ability to
located at or just below plow depths. Although com- resist leaching of many plant nutrients, and releases
paction pans may be only a few inches thick, theirin- plant nutrients during decomposition.The planting of
4 UGA Cooperative Extension Bulletin 1312 | Commercial Tomato Production Handbook

cover crops and subsequent incorporation of the green winddirection. When using a taller growing windbreak
manure into the soil enhances tomato production in such as rye, you can expect the windbreak to be ef-
Coastal Plains soils. Wheat, oats, rye or ryegrass can fective to a width of about 10 times its height. For
be used as winter cover crops. If these non-nitrogen instance, with a rye crop that is 3 feet high, the wind-
fixing cover crops are to be incorporated as green ma- breaks can be effective up to 30 feet apart.
nure, provide them with adequate nitrogen during their In general, close windbreaks give the best wind
growth. This increases the quantity of organic matter protection and help moderate the tomato plants’ mi-
produced and provides a carbon: nitrogen (C:N) ratio croenvironment and enhance earliness. Especially on
less likely to immobilize nitrogen during decomposi- sandy soils, windbreaks reduce damage from sand-
tion. blasting of plants and small fruit during early spring.
As a general rule, when non-leguminous organic Sandblasting can be more of a problem with plastic
matter having a C:N ratio exceeding 30 to 1 is incor- mulch, as the soil particles are carried easily by the
porated, a supplemental nitrogen application (usually wind across the field. Many growers spread small grain
20 to 30 pounds of nitrogen per acre) prior to incor- seed after the plastic mulch is applied to reduce sand
poration is recommended. The exact rate required will blasting. Windbreaks also conserve soil moisture by
depend on the C:N ratio, soil type and amount of any reducing direct evaporation from the soil and transpi-
residual nitrogen in the soil. Plow green manure crops ration from the plant. This can enhance plant growth
under as deeply as possible with a moldboard plow 4 throughout the season.
to 6 weeks prior to installing mulch or transplanting Regardless of the species selected to be used as
tomatoes. a windbreak, plant it early enough to be effective as
Planting tomatoes in reduced tillage situations has a windbreak by the time tomatoes are transplanted.
been tried with variable results in different parts of the Establishment of a windbreak crop during the fall or
country. Often cover crops can be killed with a burn early winter should ensure enough growth for an effec-
down herbicide. Then tomatoes are either transplanted tive windbreak by spring tomato planting time. Wheat,
directly into the cover, or a narrow strip is tilled and oats or rye all make good windbreak crops. Wind-
prepared for transplanting while leaving the residue breaks can be living or non-living. Tomato beds can be
between rows. While these residues can protect the established between the windbreaks by tilling only in
fruit from direct contact with the soil, currently the im- the bed area.
pediments outweigh the benefits for large-scale com- To minimize insect migration to the tomato crop,
mercial production. Leguminous covers can provide destroy windbreak crops by herbicides, mowing and/or
nitrogen to the crop and there are certainly soil conser- tillage before they lose their green color and begin to
vation advantages. die back.
The primary encumbrance to success in reduced
tillage systems is adequate weed and disease control.
The application of phosphates, potash and lime are Transplanting
also more difficult in these systems, so reduced tillage Seeding tomatoes directly into the field is not
is used only on a limited basis in commercial tomato recommended due to the high cost of hybrid seed and
production. With advances in weed and disease control the specific conditions required for adequate germina-
technology, this type of production may become more tion. Most tomatoes are transplanted to the field from
feasible in the future. greenhouse-grown plants. Direct seeding has other
disadvantages: (1) Weed control is usually much more
difficult with direct seeded than with transplanted
Windbreaks tomatoes; (2) direct seeding requires especially well
Crop windbreaks can aid in crop protection and made seedbeds and specialized planting equipment to
enhance early growth and yield. Frequency or intervals adequately control depth of planting and in-row spac-
between windbreaks is dictated by distance between ing; (3) because of the shallow planting depth required
tomato rows, spray or harvest alleyway intervals, for tomato seed, the field must be nearly level to
land availability and equipment characteristics. For prevent seeds from being washed away or covered too
instance, bed arrangements may be such that a wind- deeply with water-transported soil; and (4) spring har-
break is present between every set of four, six or eight vest dates will be at least 2 to 3 weeks later for direct
beds. Plant windbreaks perpendicular to the prevailing seeded tomatoes.
At 59, 68 and 77 degrees F soil temperature, prevent wicking moisture from the soil. Tomatoes
tomato seed require 14, 8 and 6 days, respectively, for growbest if nighttime soil temperatures average higher
emergence when planted ½ inch deep. than 60 degrees F.
Typically, 5- to 6-week old tomato seedlings are At transplanting, apply an appropriate fertilizer
transplanted into the field. As with most similar veg- starter solution (see fertilizer management section).
etable crops, container-grown transplants are preferred After transplanting (especially within the first 2 weeks)
over bare root plants. Container grown transplants it is very important that soil moisture be maintained so
retain transplant growing medium (soil-substitute) at- that plant roots can become well established.
tached to their roots after removal from the container
(flat, tray). Many growers prefer this type transplant Plant Spacing
because (1) they are less subject to transplant shock, Tomatoes can be planted in one of many different
(2) usually require little if any replanting, (3) resume arrangements that provide adequate space for plant
growth more quickly after transplanting, and (4) grow growth. Often the spacing is based on the type of trel-
and produce more uniformly. Tomato plants produced lising and equipment that will be used in the field. The
in a 1-inch cell size tray are commonly used for trans- within-row and between-row spacings are selected to
planting. Many growers will use a 1.5-inch cell tray for meet these limitations. The optimal plant population
transplant production in the fall when transplant stress per acre may also be influenced by plant growth habit
is greater. (compact, spreading), plant size at maturity (small,
Tomato transplants should be hardened off before medium, large), vigor of specific cultivars, climate,
transplanting to the field. Hardening off is a technique soil moisture, nutrient availability, management system
used to slow plant growth prior to field setting so and soil productivity.
the plant can more successfully transition to the less Generally, for production of determinate varieties
favorable conditions in the field. This process involves on plastic mulch, a minimum of 5 feet between rows
decreasing water for a short period prior to taking the is used with an in-row spacing of 18 to 24 inches. Six
plants to the field. Research shows that reducing tem- feet between rows is also a popular interval. To space
peratures too drastically to harden tomato transplants plants 22 inches apart in rows that are 5 feet apart
can induce catfacing in the fruit. requires 4,760 plants per acre. With 6-foot centers and
For maximum production, transplants should never 18 inches between plants, 4,840 plants are required per
have fruits, flowers or flower buds before transplant- acre. Usually a single row of tomatoes is planted down
ing. An ideal transplant is young (6 inches to 8 inches the center of each plastic mulched bed.
tall with a stem approximately ¼ inch to ⅜ inch in On bare ground, space rows 48 to 72 inches apart
diameter), does not exhibit rapid vegetative growth, with 18 inches to 24 inches between plants in the row.
and is slightly hardened at transplanting time. Rapid For indeterminate types of tomatoes, which produce
growth following transplanting helps assure a well es- larger plants, adjust spacing to decrease the population
tablished plant before fruit development. In most cas- accordingly.
es, it is more economically feasible to have transplants
produced by a commercial transplant grower than to
grow them on the farm. When purchasing transplants, Varieties
be sure the plants have the variety name, have been Select varieties on the basis of marketable yield
inspected and approved by a plant inspector, and they potential, quality, market acceptability, adaptability
are of the size and quality specified in the order. and disease resistance or tolerance. The selection of a
Set transplants as soon as possible after removing variety(ies) should be made with input from the buyer
from containers or after pulling. If it is necessary to of the crop several months in advance of planting.
hold tomato plants for several days before transplant- Other characteristics to consider include maturity, size,
ing them, keep them cool (around 55-65 degrees F if shape, color, firmness, shipping quality and plant habit.
possible) and do not allow the roots to dry out prior to There are a plethora of commercially available to-
transplanting. When setting plants, place them upright mato varieties, many of which will perform well under
and place the roots 3 to 4 inches deep. Setting plants Georgia conditions. Varieties will perform differently
at least as deep as the cotyledons has been shown to under various environmental conditions. Yield, though
enhance plant growth and early fruit production and ultimately important, should not be the only selection
maturity. Completely cover the root ball with soil to criteria. Tomatoes produced on plasticmulch with drip

irrigation will commonly average more than 1,500 portant, since varietal resistance is the most effective
25-pound cartons per acre. Select varieties that have control method at this time. Other resistance of sig-
yield potential that equals or surpasses this average. nificance should include Gray Leaf Spot and Tobacco
Plants also need to produce adequate foliage to Mosaic Virus.
protect fruit. Basically, a variety must be adaptable to All commercially important tomatoes grown in
the area, produce a competitive yield and be acceptable Georgia belong to the species Lycopersicon esculen-
to buyers. Disease resistance will be most important tum. Table 1 lists those varieties that have performed
with diseases for which there are no other good man- well in Georgia or in similar areas of the southeast-
agement options. Varieties produced in Georgia should ern United States. Notations in the disease resistance
be resistant to Fusarium wilt (Races 1 and 2) and column indicate either resistance or tolerance. Some
Verticillium wilt (Race 1). In recent years, resistance to varieties may not exhibit complete resistance to the
Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus has become equally as im- disease listed.
Table 1. Tomato varieties that have exhibited acceptable performance either in variety trials or in grower fields in Georgia.
Variety Days to Maturity Fruit Size Shape Disease Resistance
Large Round
Amelia 78 L, XL Oblate F123, ST, TSWV, V, FCR
BHN 444 80 L, XL Globe F12, TSWV, V
BHN 640 80 L, XL Globe F123, TSWV, V
Biltmore (trial) 80 L Deep Oblate F12, ST, ASC, V
Carolina Gold 78 L, XL Deep Oblate F12, V
Crista 78 XL, L Round F123, TSWV, V
Florida 47 R 75 VL Deep Oblate F12, GLS, ASC, V
Florida 91* 72 L Deep Oblate F12, GLS, ASC, V
Mountain Crest 75 XL, L Flat-Globe F12, V, FCR
Mountain Spring 78 XL Deep Oblate F12, St, V, FCR
Sebring 75 XL, L Deep Oblate F123, ST, FCR, V
Solar Fire* 75 L Flat-Round F123, ST, V
Solar Set* 75 M, L Flat-Round F12, ASC, GLS, V
Solimar 78 L Globe F12, ASC, GLS, V
Talladega (trial) 78 XL, L Globe F12, TSWV, V
Tygress (trial) 78 L Deep Oblate F12, V, GLS, TYLC
Cherry
Cherry Grande 65 Cherry Globe F1, ST, ASC, V
Mountain Belle 68 Cherry Round-Oval F1, V
Roma/Saladette
BHN 685 75 Roma Blocky Globe F123, TSWV, V
Plum Crimson 75 L, XL Saladette F123, V
Plum Daddy 75 Roma Elongated Roma F1, V
Puebla 72 M Elongated Cyl. F12, ST, ASC, V, BS
F = Fusarium Wilt; ST = Stemphylium; TSWV = Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus; V = Verticillium Wilt; FCR = Fruit Cracking;
ASC = Ascomycetes; GLS = Gray Leaf Spot, BS = Bacterial Spot; TYLC = Tomato Yellow Leaf Curl
* hot-set varieties

Staking and Pruning Tomato twine should be resistant to weathering
Most commercial determinate tomatoes are pro- and stretching and should not cut into the plants or
duced using short stake culture for trellising. This type fruit. It takes about 30 pounds of synthetic twine per
of culture produces fruits that are higher in quality acre for tomatoes. A simple tying tool can be made
and easier to harvest and enhances spray coverage. In from conduit or PVC pipe that is 2 to 3 feet long. The
this system, stakes approximately 4 feet long and ¾ twine is passed through the pipe to act as an extension
to 1 inch square are placed between every one or two of the worker’s arm. This limits the need to stoop over
plants depending on the tying system that is employed. at each stake to wrap the twine. A similar tool can be
Stakes are usually driven about 12 inches into the made from a wooden dowel or narrow wooden strip.
ground. An additional stake can be supplied at the ends With these, a hole is drilled about 1 inch from each
of each section to strengthen the trellis. end of the piece of wood and the string passed through
Stake plants immediately after planting to mini- each hole. This provides the same extension of the
mize damage to the root system and to have the trellis hand as the other method.
ready when needed. Plants are usually tied initially Determinate tomatoes often still require some level
when they are about 12-15 inches tall and should be of pruning. Pruning is the removal of suckers (axillary
tied prior to any plants lodging. The first string is usu- shoots). The degree to which pruning is needed will
ally placed about 10 inches above the ground. Subse- vary with the variety used but can impact yield and
quent tyings are placed about 6 inches above the previ- quality significantly. Plants that produce vigorous foli-
ous one. Determinate varieties may be tied as many as age that are not pruned will produce more, but smaller
three to four times. fruit. Pruning helps increase the size of the fruit. It can
The Florida weave system is one method of ty- also enhance earliness of the crown set, reduce pest
ing that is often used. In this system, a stake is placed pressure and enhance spray coverage. In general, prun-
between every other plant in the row. Twine is then ing will involve removal of one to all suckers up to the
used to tie the plants using a figure eight weave. The first fork (the sucker just below the first flower cluster).
twine is wrapped around the stake and is pulled tightly Growers should experiment with individual variet-
on one side of the first plant and then between the two ies to determine the degree of pruning needed. Often
plants and along the other side of the second plant. At the seed supplier can provide information on specific
the end of the row or section, the pattern is reversed varieties regarding pruning. Some varieties require
and, as the twine is wrapped around each stake, the only the removal of ground suckers (at the cotyledons)
twine is then placed on the other side of each plant or none at all. Overpruning can cause reduced yields
going back in the opposite direction along the row. and increased sunburn, blossom end rot and catfacing.
This system uses fewer stakes and encloses the plant More vigorous varieties may require the removal of
with the twine. Subsequent tyings often do not weave ground suckers plus two additional suckers. Remove
between plants but simply go along one side of the suckers when they are small (2 to 4 inches long).
plants going one way and the opposite side going the Removal of large suckers is more time consuming and
other direction. can damage the plant. Prune before the first stringing
Another system of tying involves placing a stake to facilitate the process, since the strings may be in
after every plant. The twine is then simply wrapped the way. A second pruning may be required to remove
around each stake and along one side of the plant suckers that were not large enough to remove easily
going along the row and around the other side of the during the first pruning and to remove ground suckers
plant coming back in the other direction on the oppo- that may have developed. Prune plants when the foli-
site side of the row. Regardless of the system used, the age is dry to reduce the spread of disease.
twine should be held with enough tension to adequate-
ly support the plants. If the twine is too tight, however,
it can impede harvest and damage plants and fruit.

Transplant Production
George E. Boyhan and W. Terry Kelley
T omato production in Georgia is an expensive, labor

intensive endeavor developed to produce high
quality fresh market fruit. Because of the cost involved
prove its characteristics. These can be purchasedready
mixed or you can formulate your own mix. The indi-
vidual components of peat moss, perlite, vermiculite,
and because early market fruit command higher prices, etc., can be purchased. Whether buying the individual
growers exclusively use transplants to produce toma- components or a ready-made product, it is advisable
toes. Tomato transplant production is a relatively easy to use finer textured media when starting seed. Check
but highly specialized function of production. Many with your supplier about media texture. Some media
growers have neither the greenhouse facilities nor the are specially made for this purpose. In addition, these
expertise to undertake transplant production; instead, media may have fertilizer and wetting agents mixed in.
they will rely on greenhouse growers to produce their Media with fertilizer is often referred to as charged.
transplants. For these growers to ensure a quality sup- Treated and/or coated seed may be used to produce
ply of transplants, they should contract early with their seedlings. Most seed is sold with a fungicide applied
greenhouse grower to secure plants of the variet(ies) to the seed. This will help prevent damping off dur-
they wish to grow. ing the germination process. In addition, various seed
Growers should expect to plant between 3,600 and coats are available, from polymer to clay coats. These
5,800 plants per acre in a staked tomato operation, are useful when using automated seeding equipment
depending on the plant spacing. Expect to produce to aid in seed singulation. Plant tomato seed ⅛ to ¼
about 4,000 transplants per ounce of seed with approx- inch deep. With an automated seeder, the seed will be
imately 3 ounces required to produce 10,000 seedlings. placed on the surface and will have to be covered, usu-
For example, to produce 10 acres of tomatoes with ally with a thin layer of vermiculite.
5,800 plants per acre would require 58,000 transplants After flats have been filled and the seed planted,
and would require about 18 ounces of seed (rounding they are often wrapped with plastic pallet wrap or
up to 60,000 plants). Many seed companies no longer placed in germination rooms (rooms with temperature
sell seed by weight but by count and will supply the and humidity tightly controlled) for 48-72 hours to
germination rate as well. In such a case, the count and ensure even moisture and temperature for optimum
germination rate can be used to estimate the amount of germination. The optimum germination temperature
seed to plant to produce the desired number of plants. for tomatoes is 85 degrees F, at which tomato seedlings
For example, to produce 58,000 seedlings from seed should emerge in about 5-6 days. See Table 2 for soil
with 90 percent germination would require 64,445 temperatures and number of days to germination.
seed (58,000 divided by 0.90).
Tomato seedlings are usually produced in trays or Table 2. Soil temperature and days to germination.
flats that are divided into cells. Tomatoes require a cell Soil Temperature (ºF) 60 68 77 85 95
size of approximately 1 inch square to produce a high
Days to Emergence 14 8 6 5 9
quality, easily handled transplant. These trays or flats
are available in a number of different configurations
and sizes. They may be purchased as flats and inserts, If charged media is used, there will be no need
polystyrene trays or, more recently, as one-piece rigid for fertilizer for the first 3 to 4 weeks of production.
polyethylene plastic trays. Growers should make sure After that, use 150-200 ppm of a suitable water soluble
the trays or flats used can be handled with their trans- fertilizer once per week (Table 3). With media that has
planting equipment. no premixed fertilizer, begin fertilization as soon as the
Media for production is usually peat based with plants emerge. Growers may wish to use as little as 50
various additives such as perlite and vermiculite to im- ppm of a suitable water soluble fertilizer with every

irrigation. Tomatoes will require approximately 5 to Take care when transplanting into black plastic
7 weeks to produce a good quality transplant. Cooler so the plants do not touch the plastic. The plastic can
temperatures will slow growth, so greenhouse tem- absorb enough heat to injure and kill plants. A drench
peratures should be kept above 60 degrees F at night to of about 0.5 pint of a suitable starter solution should be
accelerate growth. applied to each plant. Examples of suitable solutions
Prior to transplanting, tomatoes should be hard- include mixing 3 pounds of 11-34-0 or 18-46-0 fertil-
ened off. This is the process of reducing water and/ izer in 50 gallons of water. Most transplanting equip-
or lowering temperature. Do this several days prior to ment will have a tank to hold the solution and will
transplanting. A good way to achieve this is to move automatically dispense the solution to each plant.
the plants outside the greenhouse to a protected loca- Carefully monitor plants for the first few days to
tion (some shade), or open the sides of the greenhouse a week after transplanting to ensure survival. Note
if possible. Reduce the amount of water the plants any problems with dry soil, clogged irrigation, plants
receive, but don’t allow the plants to wilt. Hardening touching the plastic, etc., and take corrective action.
plants is critically important to ensure survivability.
Unhardened plants are much more vulnerable to envi- Table 3. Amount of water soluble fertilizer to mix 100
ronmental extremes. gallons of fertilizer solution.
A good quality transplant will be a sturdy, compact Fertilizer ppm of nitrogen
plant with a root mass that completely fills the cell. Source 50 100 150 200
Water plants prior to transplanting. Tomatoes can be weight (oz.)
transplanted deeper than they grew in the greenhouse 20-20-20 3.3 6.7 10.0 13.4
container and, in fact, it is desirable to do so. Roots 15-0-15 4.4 8.9 13.4 17.8
will form on the stem that is below the ground.

Production Using Plastic Mulch
W. Terry Kelley
Extension Horticulturist
T he use of plastic mulch in the commercial produc-

tion of staked tomatoes is almost universal in the
southeast. Plastic mulch is used to promote earliness,
Summer planted tomato crops for fall production
cannot tolerate excessively high soil temperatures.
They should be planted on white plastic, which reflects
reduce weed pressure, and to conserve moisture and some surface heat and does not warm the soil as much.
fertilizer. Most often drip irrigation is used in conjunc- For spring production, however, white is not recom-
tion with plastic mulch. There are both advantages and mended since maximum soil warming is needed. In
disadvantages to producing crops under this system. lieu of using white plastic, many growers use a dilute
Advantages: Plastic mulch promotes earliness by white paint sprayed over the bed to lighten the plastic
capturing heat, which increases soil temperatures and and reflect heat for fall production.
accelerates growth. Black plastic will prevent the es- Recently, metalized mulches have become popular.
tablishment of many in-row weeds. Mulch will reduce These plastic mulches have a thin film of metal that
fertilizer leaching from tomato beds and will conserve is applied with a vacuum which produces a reflective
moisture by reducing soil surface evaporation. effect. Research has shown that these mulches can help
Furthermore, where fumigants are used, plastic reduce the incidence of Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus
mulch provides a barrier that increases fumigant effi- infection on tomatoes by repelling thrips. However,
ciency. Plastic mulch also keeps fruit cleaner by reduc- these mulches do not warm the soil as well as black
ing soil spatter. When using drip irrigation particularly, mulches, resulting in reduced plant growth early in the
disease is often reduced as the foliage stays drier and, spring. Often, these plastics are produced with a black
again, soil is not splashed onto the plant. strip down the middle with the shoulders metalized.
Disadvantages: Specialized equipment is required This allows for heat retention to get the earliness effect
to lay plastic mulch, which means increased variable while producing the reflective effect needed to repel
costs for custom application or the purchase of this thrips and reduce TSWV. Recent research has also
equipment. Yellow and purple nutsedges are not con- shown that metalized mulches also retain fumigants
trolled by black plastic mulch, and suitable fumigants/ better and may allow for use of reduced rates.
herbicides must be applied if nutsedge is a potential Virtually Impermeable Films (VIF) are used in
problem. The cost of plastic removal and disposal is an some parts of the world to reduce fumigant release into
additional expense. the atmosphere. These films are as yet not routinely
In most instances, plastic mulch culture has in- available in the U.S., are more expensive and, depend-
creased yields and returns sufficiently to offset these ing on the fumigant, can increase the preplant interval.
potential disadvantages. Although biodegradable plastic mulches are pres-
ently available, they have not been proven to be benefi-
Types of Plastic cial. Since most growers want to get two, three or four
One to 1¼ mil black plastic is the cheapest and crops using the same plastic, biodegradable plastics
traditionally has been most often used in spring tomato break down too quickly to allow this. When perfected,
production. Embossed plastic has a crimped pattern in these materials have the potential to greatly reduce the
the plastic that allows the mulch to stretch and contract cost of plastic removal and disposal. Growers using a
so it can be laid snug to the bed. This can be important, biodegradable plastic mulch for the first time should
particularly in multiple cropping operations where, for test it on a small area until its effectiveness under their
example, spring tomatoes may be followed by fall cu- conditions is proven.
cumbers. The embossed plastic is less likely to bedam-
aged by wind and other environmental factors, thus
increasing the potential for use on multiple crops.

Bed Preparation larger beds (4 feet wide or greater), it is advisable to
Bed height and width depend on several factors incorporate all phosphorus and micronutrients into the
including soil type, bedding equipment, available bed before installing plastic. If drip fertigation is not
plastic, etc. Standard bed heights range from 4 to 8 used, apply all the nitrogen and potassium preplant as
inches. Bed width is also dictated by equipment and well.
grower preference. Current top widths of beds range If narrower beds are used, preplant application of
from 28 to 36 inches. Ordinarily plastic mulch must all the needed fertilizer may cause fertilizer salt tox-
be 20 to 24 inches wider than the bed width preferred, icity. Sidedressing is required, therefore, by a liquid
so it will cover the sides of the bed and can be tucked injection wheel, through drip irrigation, or a banded
under the soil to anchor the plastic. The plastic must application outside the tucked portion of the bed.
fit firmly over the bed to minimize wind movement Most tomatoes are planted where fertigation with
and facilitate planting. Mulch must be covered at the drip irrigation is used. In these cases all the phospho-
ends of each bed to prevent wind from getting under rous (P) and micronutrients, and one-third to one-half
the plastic and fumigant from escaping. Any available of the nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) should be incor-
opening, such as a tear or uncovered tuck, that allows porated into the bed before the plastic is laid. Apply
wind entry will cause problems. the remaining N and K through weekly fertigations
Use trickle or drip irrigation with plastic mulch beginning just after transplant establishment. The rate
for maximum efficiency. It is still important, however, of application of these fertigations will change with the
to have optimum soil moisture during plastic applica- stage of the crop.
tion. The use of overhead irrigation requires punch-
ing additional holes in the plastic to facilitate water Planting into Plastic Mulch
entry, which compromises the integrity of the plastic Tomatoes are transplanted with a tractor mounted
and reduces its effectiveness in controlling weeds and implement that uses a water wheel to punch holes in
minimizing leaching of nutrients. the plastic at the appropriate interval. A person (or
Land preparation for laying plastic is similar to that persons) riding on seat(s) mounted behind the water
described in the prior chapter on culture and varieties. wheel(s) places a transplant into the newly formed
The site should still be deep turned and rototilled. Usu- hole and covers the rootball. An alternate approach
ally a hipper is used to form a high ridge of soil down used by many producers is use of a water wheel or
the middle of the bed to assure the bed pan is filled similar device to punch holes, with a crew of people
with soil. This creates a firm, full bed. The bed pan walking the field and hand setting plants. The plants
should leave a bed with a slight crown in the middle are then watered with a water wagon following the set-
that slopes slightly to each side. This prevents water ting crews.
from standing on the plastic or being funneled into the If a fumigant is used for soil sterilization, it will
holes and waterlogging the soil. Generally, fumigant be necessary to wait the prescribed time period before
is applied as the bed pan passes and plastic is installed punching holes into the plastic to ensure good fumi-
just behind the pan. Drip tape is installed at the same gant activity and avoid phytotoxicity. If an appropriate
time, just in front of the plastic, and should be buried 1 waiting period is not observed, some soil fumigants
inch below the surface to prevent “snaking” under the can destroy tomato transplant roots and cause stunting
plastic and to reduce rodent damage to the tape. Drip or plant death.
tape buried deeper will be difficult to remove and will Other types of transplant methods are available
not wet the upper portion of the root zone. Soil mois- as well. Carousel type planters are sometimes used,
ture should be good at the time plastic is installed to which will punch a hole in the plastic and set the plant
ensure a good, firm bed. all in one operation. This equipment requires fewer
people to operate since only one person is needed per
Fertilizer Management Under Plastic row. These implements are often slower and usually
Apply any needed lime 2 to 3 months ahead of someone has to walk behind the planter to make sure
plastic mulch installation. Preplant fertilizer applica- plants are covered well.
tionwill vary with bed size and planting scheme. On

Irrigation
Kerry Harrison
Extension Engineer
I rrigation is essential to produce consistent yields of

high quality tomatoes in Georgia. Rainfall amounts
are often erratic during the growing season, and to-
however,significant differences in initial cost, fuel cost
and labor requirements.
Any sprinkler system used on tomatoes should be
matoes are often grown in sandy soils with low water able to deliver at least an inch of water every 4 days.
holding capacity. This combination of factors makes In addition, the system should apply the water slowly
supplemental irrigation necessary for commercial enough to prevent run-off. In sandy soils, the appli-
tomato production. cation rate should be less than 3 inches per hour. In
Irrigation studies in the southeast show that irriga- loamy or clay soils, the rate should not exceed 1 inch
tion increases annual tomato yields by an average of per hour.
at least 60 percent over dryland production. Quality Sprinkler systems with a high application unifor-
of irrigated tomatoes is also much better. Irrigation mity (center pivot, linear move and permanent set) can
eliminates disastrous crop losses resulting from severe be used to apply fertilizer. This increases the efficiency
drought. of fertilizer utilization by making it readily available to
Tomatoes are potentially deep rooted, with signifi- the plant and reduces leaching.
cant root densities up to 4 feet deep. In Georgia soils,
however, the effective rooting depth is generally much Drip Irrigation
less. Actual root depths vary considerably depending Drip irrigation has become the standard practice
upon soil conditions and cultural practices. The effec- for tomato production. Although it can be used with or
tive rooting depth is usually 12 to 18 inches with half without plastic mulch, its use is highly recommended
of the roots in the top 6 inches. It is important not to with plastic mulch culture. One of the major advantag-
allow these roots to dry out or root damage will occur. es of drip irrigation is its water use efficiency. Studies
Moisture stress in tomatoes causes shedding of in Florida indicate that drip irrigated vegetables require
flowers and young fruit, sunscalding and dry rot of 40 percent less water than sprinkler irrigated vegeta-
fruit. The most critical stages for watering are at trans- bles. Weeds are also less of a problem, since only the
planting, flowering and fruit development. rows are watered and the middles remain dry. Some
Several types of irrigation may be used success- studies have also shown significant yield increases
fully on tomatoes in the southeast. Ultimately, the type with drip irrigation and plastic mulch when compared
chosen will depend on one or more of the following with sprinkler irrigated tomatoes. The most dramatic
factors: yields have been attained by using drip irrigation and
• Availability of existing equipment plastic mulch, and supplementing nutrients by inject-
• Field shape and size ing fertilizers into the drip system (fertigation).
• Amount and quality of water available Drip tubing may be installed on the soil surface or
• Labor requirements buried up to about 1.5 inches deep. When used in con-
• Fuel requirements junction with plastic mulch, the tubing can be installed
• Cost at the same time the plastic mulch is laid. Usually one
line of tubing is installed on each bed. A field with
Sprinkler Irrigation beds spaced 5 feet center to center will require 8,712
These systems include center pivot, linear move, feet of tubing per acre (one tube per bed). The output
traveling gun, permanent set and portable alumi- rate of the tube is specified by the user. For discussion
num pipe with sprinklers. Any of these systems are purposes, however, you can determine the per acre
satisfactory if they are used correctly. There are, water capacity by multiplying the output rate of the

tube (per 1000’) by 8.712 (i.e., on a 5’ bed spacing a stage of crop growth, temperature, relative humidity,
4.5gpm/1000’ output rate tube will require 39.2 gpm solar radiation, wind velocity and plant spacing. Trans-
per acre water capacity). plant tomatoes into moist soil and irrigate with 0.3 to
The tubing is available in various wall thicknesses 0.5 inch immediately after transplanting to settle the
ranging from 3 mils to 25 mils. Most growers use thin soil around the roots.
wall tubing (10 mils or less) and replace it every year. Once a root system is established, maintain soil
Heavier wall tubing can be rolled up at the end of the moisture to the 12-inch depth. The sandier soils in
season and reused; however, take care in removing it south Georgia have an available water holding capac-
from the field and store it in a shelter. Labor costs for ity of about 1 inch per foot of soil depth. You should
removing, storing and reinstalling irrigation tubing are not deplete more than 50 percent of the available water
often prohibitive. before irrigating; therefore, when you use 0.5 inch, it
Excellent results have been achieved by injecting should be replaced by irrigation. Soils having a higher
at least half of the fertilizer through the drip system. clay content may have water holding capacities as high
This allows plant nutrients to be supplied to the field as 2 inches per foot. In these soils you can deplete as
as needed. This method also eliminates the need for much as 1 inch before irrigating. This means net ap-
heavy fertilizer applications early in the season, which plication amounts should be between 0.5 and 1.0 inch
tend to leach beyond the reach of root systems or cause per irrigation. The actual amount applied should be 10
salt toxicity problems. Only water soluble formulations to 20 percent higher to account for evaporation losses
can be injected through the drip systems. Nitrogen and and wind drift. The irrigation frequency will depend
potassium formulations tend to be more water soluble on daily evapotranspiration. In general, for sprinkler
than phosphorous and, consequently, are more easily irrigated tomatoes during peak water use periods,
injected. These nutrients also tend to leach quicker and sandy soils should receive 0.6 inch two or three times
need to be supplemented during the growing season. a week, and clay soils should receive 1.25 inches about
Thoroughly flush drip systems following each fertilizer every 5 days.
injection. Irrigation can best be managed by monitoring the
Water used in a drip irrigation system should be amount of moisture in the soil. This can be done with
well filtered to remove any particulate matter that soil moisture blocks. For best results on tomatoes,
might plug the tubing. Test the water for minerals that maintain soil moisture below 30 centibars. Drip irriga-
could precipitate and cause plugging problems. tion systems need to be operated more frequently than
sprinkler systems. Typically, they are operated every
Scheduling Irrigation day or every other day. Do not saturate the soil with
The combined loss of water by evaporation from water, especially when using plastic mulch. Plastic
the soil and transpiration from plant surfaces is called mulch will tend to keep the soil from drying out and
evapotranspiration (ET). Peak ET rates for tomatoes tomatoes grow poorly in waterlogged soil.
are about 0.2 inch per day. Factors affecting ET are

Physiological Problems
George Boyhan and W. Terry Kelley
S everal physiological problems can affect tomatoes.

Most of these are due to specific adverse environ-
mental conditions. Growers can do some things to help
Blossom Drop
Although tomatoes are warm season vegetables,
they require relatively moderate temperatures to set
minimize their impact, but in many cases not much fruit. Nighttime temperatures above 70 degrees F. will
can be done. In addition, many of these conditions are cause blossom drop, which in turn will reduce yields.
not well understood, so corrective action is not always This problem is solved by planting at that time
possible. of year when night temperatures will be below this
threshold during flowering and fruiting. Transplant-
Blossom-End Rot ing dates for south Georgia would be from March 1 to
Blossom-end rot is a calcium deficiency that occurs April 30 in the spring and from July 15 to August 15
at the blossom end of the fruit. It is characterized by in the fall. In north Georgia this would be from April
black, necrotic, sunken tissue at the blossom end. Fruit 15 to June 15 in the spring and it is not recommended
with necrotic tissue is unsalable and the damage cannot that tomatoes be grown in the fall. In addition to plant-
be corrected. Although the tissue is calcium deficient, ing date, there are “hot set” tomatoes available. These
preplant applications of calcium or postplant applica- tomatoes have been bred to set fruit under higher tem-
tions to correct the disorder often have no effect. peratures (see Table 1 on page 7 for varieties). For fall
Blossom-end rot develops very early in fruit for- planted tomatoes, hot set types are recommended.
mation when fruit is smaller than a fingernail, which is
a critical time for calcium deposition in newly forming Fruit Cracking
tissue. Calcium is relatively immobile in plants. Once Tomato fruit are prone to cracking under certain
it becomes part of the plant tissue in one location, it circumstances. There are two different types of crack-
cannot be easily moved to new developing tissue. Fur- ing — radial and concentric — both of which occur
ther, calcium moves in the water stream of the plant’s at the stem end. Radial cracking is more common and
vascular tissue. So during hot ,dry conditions with high usually occurs during periods of high temperatures (at
transpiration, calcium uptake may be high but may or above 90 degrees F.) and prolonged rain or wet soil
not be moving laterally into forming fruit. This results when fruit will rapidly expand and often crack. This is
in deficiency in these developing tissues even though particularly prevalent after a long period of dry weath-
there is sufficient calcium present in the soil and avail- er. This type of cracking is also more prone to occur if
able to the plant. There is evidence indicating that uns- fruit are exposed to intense sunlight. Finally, fruit load
taked and unpruned plants are less likely to have this may also be a factor, with a light load more prone to
problem, but in Georgia most tomatoes are staked and cracking.
pruned for ease of harvest and quality of fresh market Maintaining even moisture conditions, avoiding
fruit. excessive pruning, and having a heavy fruit load will
To a certain extent, this problem can be alleviated help prevent this problem. Variety selection can also
with even moisture during plant growth. Wide swings help alleviate this problem. Varieties are available that
from wet to dry conditions as well as overwatering are resistant to cracking. Generally, cracking suscepti-
tend to aggravate this problem. Exogenous applica- ble varieties will crack when fruit are still in the green
tions of calcium as foliar sprays have been suggested stage, whereas resistant varieties often don’t show
to alleviate this problem. Any such application would cracking until later, when the fruit is turning color.
have to occur prior to visible symptoms when fruit are Concentric cracking is also caused by rapid
just forming, but there is little evidence this is an effec- growth, but generally occurs when there are alternat-
tive practice. ing periodsof rapid growth followed by slower growth.
This can occur with wet/dry cycles or cycles of high caused by sunscald, where the area affected is exposed
and low temperatures. Generally this type of crack- to intense sunlight and heat resulting in a breakdown
ing occurs as fruit near maturation. Even moisture of the tissue. Sunscald may also appear as hard yellow
throughout the growing period will help alleviate this areas on the fruit that are exposed. Maintaining good
problem. Also avoid fertilization spikes that encourage foliage cover during fruit development and avoiding
cyclic growth. excessive pruning will minimize this problem.
Catfacing Graywall or Blotchy Ripening

Catfacing is characterized by distorted growth at And Internal Browning
the blossom end of fruit, often with rough calloused Several different factors may contribute to these
ridges. Catfacing generally occurs when fruit are conditions. Internal browning may be caused by a
formed during cool or humid weather that favors the virus (tobacco mosaic virus; see the disease section
corolla adhering to the developing fruit. The adhesion on page 25). Silverleaf whitefly has also been associ-
of these flower parts causes the distortion that appears ated with uneven ripeness in tomatoes (see section on
as the fruit matures. Usually catfacing is most evident insects on page 29).
during the first harvest with fruit that was set during Graywall and blotchy ripening may occur together
cooler temperatures. Planting later and using varieties and may be caused by a bacteria. The outer wall will
resistant to catfacing will help prevent this from occur- appear gray and be partially collapsed. Internally there
ring. are necrotic areas within the walls of the fruit. Factors
Zippering may be related to catfacing, only the associated with this condition include high nitrogen,
damage occurs in straight lines from the blossom end low potassium, low temperatures, excessive soil mois-
to the stem end. The line may have a calloused or ture and soil compaction. Addressing these factors may
corky appearance. reduce the incidence of this disorder.
Puffiness Internal White Tissue

Fruit may appear normal or nearly so but, when Occasionally, a tomato will exhibit white tissue in
cut, the locules appear empty. There is little or no fruit the crosswalls when cut. This is rarely seen when fruit
gel or seeds present. This usually occurs when fruit are harvested at the mature green stage, but it can be a
develop under conditions that are too cool or too hot problem with vine ripe fruit. It is unclear what causes
(below 55 degrees F or above 90 degrees F.), which in- this, but adequate potassium fertilizer appears to re-
terferes with normal seed set. Tomatoes are self-fertile duce the problem.
but require some disturbance of the flower in order for
the pollen to be shaken onto the stigma. This can occur
from insects or wind, or during the normal handling of Rain Check
plants (staking and pruning). Wet, humid and cloudy Rain check is the formation of tiny transverse
weather may interfere with insect pollination and the cracks on the fruit. These cracks may heal, forming
pollen may not shed as readily. Cool weather will slow a rough texture on the fruit; generally these fruit are
the growth of pollen tubes. In addition, excess nitrogen unmarketable.
appears to be a factor with this condition. As with many of these disorders, it is unclear what
Little can be done to alleviate this problem other causes this, but it is associated with rain events. Heavy
than planting at the proper time of year. Hot set variet- rains following dry periods are times when this is
ies appear to be less susceptible to this problem. most likely to occur. This phenomenon may be re-
lated to other types of cracking and may be alleviated
with growing conditions that don’t encourage wet/dry
Sunscald cycles.
Tomato fruit may develop a papery thin area on
the fruit that will appear tan or white in color. This is

Lime and Fertilizer Management
W. Terry Kelley and George E. Boyhan
L ime and fertilizer management should be tailored

to apply optimal amounts of lime and nutrients at
the most appropriate time(s) and by the most effec-
magnesium in addition to calcium. Since many soils,
and particularly lighter Coastal Plain soils, routinely
become deficient in magnesium, dolomitic limestone is
tive application method(s). Fertilizer management is usually the preferred liming material.
impacted by cultural methods, tillage practices and
cropping sequences. A proper nutrient management Fertilizer Management
program takes into account native soil fertility and re-
sidual fertilizer. Therefore, the first step in an appropri- and Application
ate fertilizer management program is to properly take a Recommending a specific fertilizer management
soil test 3 to 5 months before the crop is to be planted. program universal for all tomato fields would result
in applications that are inefficient and not cost effec-
tive. In addition to crop nutrient requirements and soil
Soil pH types, fertilizer recommendations should take into con-
Adjusting the soil to the appropriate pH range is sideration soil pH, residual nutrients and inherent soil
the first consideration for any fertilizer management fertility. Therefore, fertilizer recommendations based
program. The soil pH strongly influences plant growth, on soil test analyses have the greatest potential for pro-
the availability of nutrients, and the activities of mi- viding tomatoes with adequate but not excessive fertil-
croorganisms in the soil. It is important to keep soil pH ity. Applications limited to required amounts result in
in the proper range in order to produce the best yields optimum growth and yield without wasting fertilizer or
of high quality tomatoes. Soil tests results indicate soil encouraging luxury consumption of nutrients, which
pH levels and also provide recommendations for any can negatively impact quality or cause fertilizer burn.
needed amounts of lime required to raise the pH to the Recommendations based on soil tests and comple-
desired range. mented with plant tissue analyses during the season
The optimum pH range for tomato production is should result in the most efficient lime and fertilizer
6.2 to 6.8. Most Georgia soils will become strongly management program possible. Valid soil sampling
acid (pH 5.0 or less) with time if lime is not applied. procedures must be used to collect the samples sub-
Continuous cropping and application of high rates of mitted for analyses, however. To be beneficial, a soil
nitrogen reduce pH at an even faster rate. Lime also sample must reliably represent the field or “manage-
adds calcium and, with dolomitic lime, magnesium to ment unit” from which it is taken. Soil samples that
the soil. are improperly collected, compiled or labeled are of
Calcium has limited mobility in soil, so broadcast dubious benefit and may actually be detrimental. If
and thoroughly incorporate lime to a depth of 6 to 8 you have questions about soil sampling, please contact
inches. This will also neutralize soil acidity in the root your local county extension office for information.
zone. To allow adequate time for neutralization of soil In addition to lime application, preplant applica-
acidity (raising the pH), lime should be applied and tions and in-season supplemental applications of
thoroughly incorporated 2 to 3 months before seeding fertilizer will be necessary for good crop growth and
or transplanting. However, if application cannot be yield. In general, preplant applications are made prior
made this early, liming will still be very beneficial if to installation of plastic mulch. Research shows that
applied and incorporated at least 1 month prior to seed- broadcasting over the entire field is usually less effec-
ing or transplanting. tive than banding. An acceptable alternative to field
The two most common liming materials avail- broadcasting and one that is most often used with
able in Georgia are calcitic and dolomitic limestone. plastic mulch production is the “modified broadcast”
Dolomiticlimestone also contains 6 to 12 percent method, wherethe preplant fertilizer containing a
portion of the nitrogen and potassium, and any recom- Phosphorus and Potassium
mended phosphorous and micronutrients, are broadcast
in the bed area only. Recommendations
For example, on a 72-inch wide bed, a swath (24 Table 4 indicates the pounds of fertilizer nutrients
inches to 48 inches wide) of fertilizer is uniformly ap- recommended for various soil P and K levels accord-
plied centered over the bed and incorporated by roto- ing to University of Georgia soil test ratings of residual
tilling. Additional applications are then made through phosphorus (P2O5) and potassium (K2O).
the drip irrigation system. In bareground culture, All the recommended phosphorus should be incor-
preplant applications are followed by one to three side- porated into the bed prior to plastic mulch installation
dressed applications. The general crop requirements or, for bare ground production, applied during or near
and application timings for the various nutrients are transplanting. As previously discussed, approximately
discussed below. ½ pint of a starter solution should be applied to each
transplant.
For early growth stimulation in bare ground cul-
Starter Fertilizer Solutions ture, pop-up fertilizer should be banded 2 to 3 inches
Fertilizer materials dissolved in water and applied to the side of the plants and 2 to 3 inches below the
to the soil around plant roots at or just after transplant- roots. Around 100 to 150 pounds per acre of a pop-up
ing are called starter solutions. When proper formula- fertilizer promotes earlier growth, particularly in cool/
tions and rates are applied, they can promote rapid root cold soils. A good pop-up fertilizer has approximately
development and early plant growth. Starter solutions a 1 to 3 N to P ratio. It should be relatively high in
for tomatoes should contain a high rate of phosphorus phosphorus and low in potassium.
(approximate ratio of 1 Nitrogen:3 Phosphorus:0 Po- One-third to one-half of the potassium should
tassium is common) and should be mixed and applied either (1) be incorporated into the bed prior to install-
according to the manufacturer’s directions. Common ing plastic mulch, or (2) be applied in two bands, each
starter solutions consist of 3 pounds of a formulated located 2 to 3 inches to the side and 2 to 3 inches be-
material (such as 10-34-0, which weighs approximate- low the level of plant roots for bare ground production.
ly 11 lbs./gallon) mixed in 50 gallons of water. Ap- The remainder of the recommended potassium should
proximately ½ pint of the starter solution is normally be applied through the drip system according to the
applied per plant. schedule in Table 5 or, for bare ground culture, in one
In addition to supplying phosphorus, which may to three applications as needed. It can be banded in an
be inadequately available (especially in cold soils in area on both sides of the row just ahead of the develop-
the early spring), the starter solution supplies water ing root tips. The maximum number of applications is
and firms the soil around roots. This helps eliminate usually more effective on sandy soils.
air pockets that can cause root drying and subsequent
plant or root damage. A starter solution is no substitute
for adequate rainfall or irrigation after transplanting, Nitrogen Recommendations
however. Typical Coastal Plains soils require a total of 150
Be careful to mix and apply starter fertilizer ac- to 200 pounds of nitrogen (N) per acre. Extremely san-
cording to the manufacturer’s recommendations. If dy soils may need additional N or an increased number
the starter solution is too highly concentrated (mixed of applications. Piedmont, Mountain and Limestone
too strong), it can kill plant roots and result in dead or Valley soils usually require only 100 to 150 pounds of
stunted plants. When mixing and applying from a large N per acre for tomato production.
tank, mix a fresh solution only after the tank becomes Nitrogen rates actually needed will vary depending
empty. This helps prevent the gradual increase in con- on rainfall, soil type, soil temperature, irrigation, plant
centration that will occur if a portion of the previous population, duration of the harvest season, and method
mix is used for a portion of the water component in and timing of applications. Excessive N applications
subsequent batches. If a dry or crystalline formulation can delay maturity, cause rank vine growth at the ex-
is used, be sure it is thoroughly mixed and agitated in pense of fruit set, and reduce shipping quality of fruit.
the tank, since settling can result in streaks of highly For typical Coastal Plains soils, one-third to one-
concentrated application that can stunt or kill plants. half of the recommended nitrogen should either (1) be
incorporated into the bed prior to plastic installation
or, (2) with bare ground culture, applied in two bands,

each located 2 to 3 inches to the side and 2 to 3 inches nitrogen source often significantly reduces the severity
below the level of plant roots. Apply the remaining of BER.
recommended N through drip irrigation according to
the schedule in Table 5. On bare ground, one to three Magnesium, Sulfur, Zinc
side dressed applications (possibly four to five applica-
tions for extended harvest period on very sandy soil) and Boron Recommendations
are needed. It can be banded in an area on both sides If the soil test indicates magnesium is low and if
of the row just ahead of the developing root tips. For lime is recommended, apply dolomitic limestone. If
heavier Piedmont, Mountain and Limestone Valley magnesium is low and lime is not recommended, apply
soils, one to two applications are usually sufficient. 25 pounds of elemental magnesium per acre. Apply
Approximately 50 percent of the total applied N a minimum of 10 pounds of sulfur per acre and, if
should be in the nitrate form. High rates of ammo- soil test indicates low, apply 1 pound of actual boron
niacal nitrogen may interfere with calcium nutrition per acre and 5 pounds of actual zinc per acre. These
and result in an increased incidence of blossom-end nutrients should be supplied in the preplant fertilizer
rot (BER). Side dressing with calcium nitrate as the application.
Table 4. Phosphorous and potassium recommendations for tomato production.

Phosphorous and Potassium Recommendations (lbs/ac)
Low Medium High Very High
Phosphorous Ratings
Recommended P 200 150 100 50
Potassium Ratings
Recommended K 200 150 100 50
P - Represents pounds of P2O5 recommended per acre; K - Represents pounds of K2O recommended
per acre.
Note: If soil testing is done by a lab other than the University of Georgia Soils Testing Laboratory, the
levels recommended above may not apply because of potentially different methodology and definition
of fertility ranges among labs.
Table 5. An example fertilizer injection schedule for a Coastal Plains soil that is low
in potassium. The schedule is for a 14-week crop. Extended harvests will
require additional injection applications.
Total Preplant Crop Stage in Weeks (lbs/A/day)
Nutrient (lbs/A) (lbs/A) 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-10 11-12 13-14
Nitrogen 225 50 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 2.0 1.0
Potassium 225 50 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 2.0 1.0

Foliar Application of Fertilizer need for them and only in quantities recommended for
The fact that plants can absorb some fertilizer ele- foliar application. Application of excessive amounts
ments through their leaves has been known for some can cause fertilizer burn and/or toxicity problems.
time. Leaves of many vegetable plants, however, are Foliar applications of calcium nitrate or calcium
not especially well adapted for absorbing nutrients chloride (one to three weekly applications beginning
because of a waxy cuticle. In some instances, plants at first bloom or at first sign of BER) may reduce the
that seem to benefit from foliar uptake are actually incidence of blossom-end rot (BER), but there is little
benefitting from nutrient spray that reaches the soil and evidence indicating this is an effective practice. If at-
is taken up by roots. tempted, the recommended rate is 3 to 4 pounds in 100
The effectiveness of applying macronutrients such gallons of water per acre.
as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium to plant leaves Two to three foliar applications of water soluble
is questionable. It is virtually impossible for tomato boron (approximately 1 to 2 ounces by weight of actu-
plants to absorb enough N, P or K through the leaves al boron per application) at weekly intervals coinciding
to fulfill their nutritional requirements; furthermore, it with flowering has in some instances enhanced fruit
is unlikely that they could absorb sufficient amounts of set. A commercial formulation that contains both boron
macronutrients to correct major deficiencies. Although and calcium (2 to 3 ounces by weight of calcium per
nitrogen may be absorbed within 24 hours after appli- application) may be applied. Follow manufacturer’s
cation, up to f4 days are required for potassium uptake, directions when applying any commercial calcium/
and 7 to 15 days are required for phosphorus to be boron formulations.
absorbed from foliar application.
The crucial question is whether or not foliar N, Plant Tissue Analysis and
P or K actually increases yield or enhances quality. Petiole Sap Analysis
Although some growers feel that foliar fertilizer should Plant tissue analysis or petiole sap analysis is an
be used to supplement a soil applied fertilizer program, excellent tool for measuring the nutrient status of the
research findings do not support this practice. If proper crop during the season. Particularly with fertigation, it
fertilizer management of soil applied nutrients is used, is simple to adjust fertilizer injection rates according
then additional supplementation by foliar fertilization to the analysis results. Sufficiency ranges for tissue
is not usually required. analysis are in Tables 6 and 7 and are for first flower
Foliar nutrients are often expected to cure a variety stage and first ripe fruit stage, respectively, with the
of plant problems, many of which may be unrelated sample taken from the most recently mature leaf. Fresh
to nutrition. They include reducing stress induced sap can be pressed from the petioles of tomato plants
blossom drop, aiding in healing frost or hail damaged and used to determine nitrogen and potassium nutri-
plants, increasing plant resistance to various stresses tional status. Sufficiency ranges for these are listed in
and pests, etc. Nutrients are only effective as long as Table 8.
they are supplying a nutritional need, but neither soil-
applied nor foliar-applied nutrients are panaceas.
Quite often after frost or hail occurs, tomato grow- References
ers apply foliar nutrients to give the plants a boost to Maynard, Donald M., and George J. Hochmuth. 1997.
promote rapid recovery. If a proper fertilizer program Knott’s Handbook for Vegetable Growers 4th Edi-
is being used before foliage damage, tomato plants tion. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York.
don’t need additional fertilizer. What they do need is
time and the proper environment for the normal recov- Olson, S.M., D.N. Maynard, G.J. Hochmuth, C.S.
ery processes to occur. In addition, the likelihood of Vavrina, W.M. Stall, M.T. Momol, S.E. Webb, T.G.
significant nutritional benefits from a foliar application Taylor, S.A. Smith, and E. H. Simmone. 2005. To-
of fertilizer to plants that have lost most of their leaves mato Production in Florida in Vegetable Handbook
(or have a large proportion of their leaves severely for Florida 2005-2006. Edited by S.M. Olson and
damaged) is questionable. E.H. Simmone. Univ. of Florida IFAS Extension.
Foliar application of sulfur, magnesium, calcium Gainesville, Fla. pp. 357-362.
and micronutrients may help alleviate deficiencies.
They should be applied, however, only if there is a real

Table 6. Plant tissue analysis ranges for various elements for tomato sampled at the first flower stage with most recently
mature leaves.
N P K Ca Mg S Fe Mn Zn B Cu Mo
Status Percent Parts per Million
Deficient < 2.8 0.2 2.5 1.0 0.3 0.3 40 30 25 20 5 0.2
Adequate 2.8-4.0 0.2-.04 2.5-4.0 1.0-2.0 0.3-0.5 0.3-0.8 40-100 30-100 25-40 20-40 5-15 0.2-0.6
High > 4 0.4 4 2 0.5 0.8 100 100 40 40 15 0.6
Table 7. Plant tissue analysis ranges for various elements for tomato sampled at the first ripe fruit stage with most recently
mature leaves.
N P K Ca Mg S Fe Mn Zn B Cu Mo
Status Percent Parts per Million
Deficient < 2.0 0.2 2.0 1.0 0.25 0.3 40 30 20 20 5 0.2
Adequate 2.0-3.5 0.2-0.4 2.0-4.0 1.0-2.0 0.25-0.5 0.6-0.6 40-100 30-100 20-40 20-40 5-10 0.2-0.6
High > 3.5 0.4 4 2 0.5 0.6 100 100 40 40 10 0.6
Table 8. Sufficiency ranges for petiole sap tests for tomato at various stages
of crop development.
Fresh Petiole Sap Concentration
Crop Development Stage NO3 - N K
First Flower Buds 1000-1200 3500-4000
First Open Flowers 600-800 3500-4000
Fruits 1-inch Diameter 400-600 3000-3500
Fruits 2-inch Diameter 400-600 3000-3500
First Harvest 300-400 2500-3000
Second Harvest 200-400 2000-2500

Sprayers
Paul E. Sumner
Extension Engineer
T he equipment used for applying liquid insecticides,

fungicides, herbicides and foliar fertilizers are
classified as sprayers. Basically, there are two types of
tank mix. Most boom sprayers have a tank agitator to
maintain uniform mixture. The agitation (mixing) may
be produced by jet agitators, volume boosters (some-
sprayers recommended for spraying tomatoes — hy- times referred to as hydraulic agitators) and mechani-
draulic and air-curtain boom. The key to maximum cal agitators. These can be purchased separately and
coverage with insecticide and fungicides is the ability put on sprayers. Make sure an agitator is on every
of the air within the plant canopy to be replaced with sprayer. Some growers make a mistake of not operat-
pesticides. ing the agitator when moving from field to field or
The air-curtain booms (Figure 1, page 23) are when stopping for a few minutes. Always agitate con-
designed with an external blower fan system. The tinuously when using pesticides that tend to settle out.
blower creates a high velocity of air that will “entrain”
or direct the spray solution toward the target. Some Nozzles
sprayers provide a shield in front of or behind the Nozzle tips are the most neglected and abused part
conventional spray pattern, protecting the spray from of the sprayer. Since clogging can occur when spray-
being blown off-target. ing, clean and test nozzle tips and strainers before
The concept of this approach is to increase the ef- each application. When applying chemicals, maintain
fectiveness of pest-control substances, provide better proper ground speed, boom height and operating pres-
coverage to the underside of leaves, promote deeper sure.
penetration into the crop canopy, make it easier for This will ensure proper delivery of the recom-
small droplets to deposit on the target, cover more mended amount of pesticide to the plant canopy.
acres per load, and reduce drift.
Studies conducted by the USDA Agricultural Re-
search Service in Stoneville, Mississippi, have shown Herbicides
that the air-assisted sprayers tended to show improved The type of nozzle used to apply herbicides is
insect control in the mid to lower canopies. The air one that develops large droplets and has no drift. The
stream tended to open the canopy and help spray par- nozzles used for broadcast applications include the
ticles penetrate to a deeper level. Mid- to lower-canopy extended range flat fan, drift reduction flat fan, turbo
penetration and coverage is importantwhen working flat fan, flooding fan, turbo flooding fan, turbo drop
with insecticides and fungicides, but may not be as flat fan and wide angle cone nozzles. Operating pres-
critical when applying herbicides. sures should be 20 to 30 psi for all nozzles except drift
The hydraulic boom sprayers (Figure 2, page 23) reduction and turbo drop flat fans, flooding and wide
get their name from the arrangement of the conduit angle cones. Spray pressure more than 40 psi will cre-
that carries the spray liquid to the nozzles. Booms or ate significant spray drift with flat fan nozzles. Operate
long arms on the sprayer extend across a given width drift reduction and turbo drop nozzles at 40 psi. Oper-
to cover a particular swath as the sprayer passes over ate flooding fan and wide angle cone nozzles at 15 to
the field. Each component is important for efficient 18 psi. These nozzles will achieve uniform application
and effective application. of the chemical if they are uniformly spaced along the
Most materials applied by a sprayer are a mixture boom. Flat fan nozzles should overlap 50 to 60 per-
or suspension. Uniform application demands a uniform cent.
Continued on Page 27

Sprayers
Figure 1. Air-assisted boom sprayer. Figure 3. Use one nozzle over the row up to 8 inches, then change to three nozzles for
optimum coverage of the tomato plant.
Figure 2. Hydraulic boom sprayer. Figure 4. Add more pairs of nozzles as the plants grow taller and thicker.
Diseases
Figure 5. Leaf lesions caused Figure 6. Chlorotic leaves Figure 7. Fruit lesions from Figure 8. Bacterial wilt causes
by bacterial spot. caused by bacterial spot. bacterial spot. rapid wilting.
Figure 9. Bacterial stream- Figure 10. Plants on left Figure 11. TSWV ring-spots on Figure 12. Dark streaks caused
ing from infected plant cut and stunted by TSWV. foliage. by TSWV.
placed in water.
Figure 13. Chlorotic spots Figure 14. Small plant is se- Figure 15. “Mouse-eared” ap- Figure 16. Marginal leaf chloro-
caused by TSWV. verely stunted by TYLCV. pearance of leaves on plants sis associated with TYLCV.
infected with TYLCV.
Figure 17. Leaf lesions from Figure 18. Complete yellowing Figure 19. Vascular discolor- Figure 20. Southern stem blight
early blight. and wilting from Fusarium wilt. ation from Fusarium wilt. mold and reproductive structures
on stem.

Insect Management
Figure 21. Adult thrips. Figure 22. Adult winged aphid. Figure 23. Adult flea beetle. Figure 24. Hornworm larva.
Figure 25. Cabbage looper Figure 26. Winding mines in Figure 27. Adult spider mites Figure 28. Speckled leaf
larva. leaf created by leafminers. and eggs (highly magnified). caused by spider mites.
Figure 29. Sweetpotato whitefly Figure 30. Late instar fruit- Figure 31. Early instar fruit- Figure 32. Late instar beet
nymphs on the underside of a worm larva. worm larva. armyworm.
leaf.
Figure 33. Beet armyworm egg Figure 34. Yellowstriped army- Figure 35. Southern green stink Figure 36. Southern green stink
mass hatching. worm larva. bug adult. bug nymph (late instar).
Figure 37. Leaffooted bug Figure 38. Tomato pinworm

adult. larva and damage (calyx of fruit
removed).

Harvest, Handling and Sanitation
Figure 39. Field heat retained Figure 40. Infiltration of pathogens into a tomato. Figure 41. Partial submersion of tomatoes
in packed tomatoes can speed in a dump tank.
up the breakdown of fruit.
Figure 42. Using ORP meter Figure 43. FDA regulations Figure 44. Testing pH regularly Figure 45. Commercial tomato
to measure chlorine activity in require that portable toilet and will help maintain the maximum sizing rings.
wash water. hand washing facilities be avail- disinfectant activity of chlorine in
able within ½ mile of working wash or cooling water.
field crews. [Photo courtesy of
Trevor Suslow, UC-Davis]
Figure 46. Barcoding facilitates Figure 47. Commercial forced Figure 48. Blotchy coloring,
traceback and sanitizing of reus- air cooling system. surface pitting and black mold
able plastic containers. decay are evidence that these
tomatoes were stored at too low
a temperature.

Marketing
Figure 49. Georgia Tomato Area Planted, Harvested and Yields, Figure 50. Georgia Tomato Production and Average Seasonal
1983-2004. [Source: Georgia Agricultural Statistics Service/USDA, Prices, 1983-2004. [Source: Georgia Agricultural Statistics Service/
2002 Census of Agriculture Georgia Profile. Also see http://www. USDA, 2002 Census of Agriculture Georgia Profile. Also see http://
nass.usda.gov/ga/] www.nass.usda.gov/ga/]
Figure 51. U.S. Import Value of Tomatoes: Selected Countries Figure 52. U.S. Average Tomatoes Retail Prices by Month: 2000-
and the World ($1,000). [Source: ERS/ USDA Vegetables & Melon 2003. [Source: ERS/USDA Vegetables & Melon Outlook/VGS-298,
Outlook/VGS-2003, July 2003.] August 21, 2003]
Figure 53. U.S. Monthly Tomatoes F.O.B. Shipping-Point Prices:

00-03. [Source: ERS/USDA Vegetables & Melon Outlook/VGS-296,
April 17, 2003]

Continued from Page 22 of plants (Figures 3 and 4, page 23). Opposing nozzles
should be rotated clockwise slightly so that spray
cones do not collide. This will guarantee that the spray
Insecticides and Fungicides is applied from all directions into the canopy. As the
When applying insecticides and fungicides, use plant increases in height, add additional nozzles for
solid or hollow cone type nozzles. The two patterns every 8 to 10 inches of growth. In all spray configura-
that are developed by solid or hollow cone nozzles can tions, the nozzle tips should be 6 to 10 inches from the
be produced by different tip configurations. One type foliage. Properly selected nozzles should be able to
tip, disc-n-core, consists of two parts. One part is a apply 25 to 125 gallons per acre when operating at a
core (swirl plate) where the fluid enters and is forced pressure of 60 to 200 or higher psi. Usually, more than
through tangential openings. Then a disc-type hard- one size of nozzle will be needed to carry out a season-
ened stainless steel orifice (opening) is added long spray program.
Another type of tip that produces the same patterns
is of one-piece construction (nozzle body). Liquid is Calibration
passed through a precision distributor with diagonal Calibrate sprayers often. Calibration should be
slots that produce swirl in a converging chamber. The conducted every 8 to 10 hours of operation to ensure
resulting pattern of both tip configurations is either sol- proper pesticide application. A good calibration proce-
id or hollow cone. Even fan and hollow cone nozzles dure to follow is in Calibration Method for Hydraulic
can be used for banding insecticide or fungicides over Boom and Band Sprayers and Other Liquid Applica-
the row.Nozzle Arrangements tors, University of Georgia Cooperative Extension
When applying insecticides and fungicides, it is Circular 683.
advantageous to completely cover both sides of all This circular is available through local county ex-
leaves with spray. When spraying tomatoes, use one tension offices and on the web at: http://pubs.caes.uga.
or two nozzles over the top of the row (up to 8 inches edu/caespubs/pubcd/C683/C683.htm.
wide). Then as the plants start to grow and bush, adapt
the nozzle arrangement for the various growth stages

Diseases
David B. Langston, Jr.
Extension Plant Pathologist
P lant diseases are one of the most significant limit-

ing factors to tomato production in Georgia. The
hot, humid climate coupled with frequent rainfall and
from commercial production to avoid contamination
from production fields or vice versa.
Unlike pepper, tomatoes have little to no com-
mild winters favor the development of many pathogens mercially available cultivars resistant to bacterial spot.
and the diseases they cause. Rotate away from fields where tomatoes have been
grown within the past year and use practices that de-
Bacterial Diseases stroy volunteer plants that could allow the disease to
Bacterial spot is the most common and often the be carried over to a subsequent crop. Cull piles should
most serious disease affecting tomatoes in Georgia. be located away from production fields or transplant
This disease is caused by the bacterium Xanthomo- houses. Copper fungicides used in conjunction with
nas axonopodis pv. vesicatoria. Bacterial spot lesions maneb will suppress disease losses if applied on a
can be observed on leaves, stems and fruit and occurs preventive schedule with a sprayer that gives adequate
during all stages of plant growth. Leaf lesions usually coverage. Other bacterial-spot suppressive treatments
begin as small water-soaked lesions that gradually be- are also available.
come necrotic and brown in the center (Figure 5, page Bacterial wilt causes rapid wilting.Bacterial wilt,
23). During wet periods the lesions appear more water- caused by Ralstonia solanacearum, is a devastating
soaked. Lesions generally appear sunken on the upper bacterial disease of tomatoes world-wide. This bacte-
surface and raised on the lower surface of infected rium can last in the soil for several years and has been
leaves. During periods of favorable weather, spots can responsible for taking whole fields out of production.
coalesce and cause large areas of chlorosis (Figure 6, Bacterial wilt is recognized by a rapid wilting of the
page 23). Premature leaf drop is the ultimate result tomato plant, often while the plant is still green (Figure
of leaf infection. Fruit lesions appear as small, round, 8, page 23). Wilted plants will eventually die. A quick
dark brown to black spots (Figure 7, page 23). diagnostic tool is to cut a lower stem of a suspected in-
The bacterium is primarily seed-borne and most fected plant and place it in a clear vial or glass of water
epidemics can be traced back, directly or indirectly, to and watch for the opaque, milky bacterial streaming
an infected seed source. Infected seedlings carry the that comes from the cut area (Figure 9, page 23).
disease to the field, where it spreads rapidly during Bacterial wilt is not easily controlled by fumiga-
warm, wet weather. Workers working in wet fields can tion or chemical means. There are few commercially
also be a major source of disease spread. available cultivars with resistance to bacterial wilt. The
All tomato seed planted for transplants, or direct best control tool is to rotate away from infested fields
seeded field grown tomatoes, should be tested by a for several years.
reputable seed testing company. Transplants should Bacterial speck, caused by Pseudomonas syringae
beinspected for bacterial spot lesions before being sold pv. tomato is more of a problem of the cooler growing
or planted in the field. regions in north Georgia but rarely has been a problem
Prevention is the best method for suppressing in south Georgia. Leaflet lesions are very small, round
losses to bacterial spot. Purchase seed from companies and dark brown to black. During favorable weather the
that produce the seed in areas where the disease is not lesions can coalesce and kill larger areas of leaf tis-
known to occur. Hot water seed treatment can also be sue. Bacterial speck causes oval to elongated lesions
used, and tomato seed can be soaked in water that is on stems and petioles. Tomato fruit may have minute
122 degrees F for 25 minutes to kill the bacterium. specks with a greener area surrounding the speck. Con-
Transplant production should take place in areas away trol measures are similar to bacterial spot.

Virus Diseases with greatly reduced leaves that take on a mouseeared
Virus diseases have been a severe limiting factor in appearance (Figure 15, page 23). Tomato leaflets of
tomato production in Georgia for several years. Most infected plants may also have a distinct marginal chlo-
virus diseases cause stunting, leaf distortion, mosaic rosis (Figure 16, page 23).
leaf discoloration, and spots or discoloration on fruit. This disease is often brought in on infected trans-
The distribution of virus-infected plants is usually ran- plants and then spread by whiteflies, so transplant
dom with symptomatic plants often bordered on either inspection is a must. Identifying infected plants soon
side by healthy, non-symptomatic plants. Virus diseas- after transplanting and removing them will help pre-
es are almost always transmitted by insect vectors, and vent secondary spread. Preventive, systemic insecti-
the severity of a virus disease is usually tied to the rise cide applications may prevent disease spread as well.
and fall in the populations of these vectors from season
to season and within a given season. Fungal Diseases
Some virus diseases are seed and mechanically Early blight caused by Alternaria solani is the
transmitted. Only the viruses that have been the most most common fungal disease of tomato foliage in
problematic on tomato in Georgia will be covered in Georgia. Leaf symptoms appear as round to oblong,
this section. dark brown lesions with distinct concentric rings
Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) is one of the within the lesion (Figure 17, page 23). Lesions are
most common viruses affecting tomato in the south- generally surrounded or associated with a bright yel-
eastern United States. This virus is transmitted by low chlorosis. Stem lesions are slightly sunken, brown
thrips and can affect tomato at any stage of develop- and elongated with very pronounced concentric rings.
ment. The extensive host range of TSWV in weeds Fruit may become infected around the calyx, and a vel-
allows for a continual source of inoculum for infection. vety spore mass can often be observed on fruit lesions.
As with any virus disease, however, early infections The disease is introduced by wind or rain-splash and is
tend to cause more yield losses than those occurring carried over to subsequent crops on infested debris.
later in plant development. TSWV causes plant stunt- Wet, humid weather favors disease development.
ing (Figure 10, page 23), ringspots (Figure 11, page In the field, the fungus spores are spread mainly by
23) and bronzing on infected plants. Tomato fruit pro- wind. Unless controlled, it causes severe defoliation.
duced on infected plants may be misshapen, have dark Resistant varieties are available to avoid losses to early
streaks (Figure 12, page 23) or have chlorotic spots blight. Rotation and deep turning are important for
(Figure 13, page 23). TSWV in Georgia tomato has reducing initial inoculum. The disease is easily con-
been suppressed through the use of metalized plastic trolled with chemical sprays. Spray programs used for
and other colored mulches as well as resistant varieties. bacterial leaf spot will suppress early blight, but the-
Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) is a very com- Figure 9. Bacterial streaming from infected plant cut
mon disease of tomato and can be very devastating and placed in water.addition of chemicals specifically
where it occurs. This virus is transmitted by aphids and targeted at early blight should be incorporated into the
can be maintained in several weed species that sur- spray program.
round production fields. The characteristic symptoms Late blight caused by Phytopthora infestans. This
for CMV are severely stunted, distorted and strapped is probably one of the best known tomato diseases
(faciated) leaves, stems and petioles. Symptoms of worldwide, but it is a rare in Georgia except for oc-
CMV often resemble phenoxy herbicide injury. Few casional epidemics observed in north Georgia. This
options are available for suppressing losses to CMV, disease causes dark, water-soaked, greasy lesions on
but destruction of weed hosts that harbor the virus will stems and foliage. A whitish-gray, fuzzy sporulation
aid help suppress disease spread. can be seen on the undersides of leaf lesions and di-
Tomato yellow leaf curl virus (TYLCV) is a very rectly on stem lesions during periods of high moisture.
serious virus disease that has only recently caused A soft rot of fruit can also be observed.
losses in Georgia. This is a virus that is whitefly- Phytopthora is a fungal-like organism that is in a
transmitted and is only a problem in years when separate kingdom than the fungi. It is a water-mold,
white-fly populations are high. Infected plants appear oomycete organism that has a mobile swimming-spore
to be severely stunted and little to no yield can be stage as part of its life cycle. The pathogen is carried
obtained from these plants (Figure 14, page 23). Plant by wind to non-infested areas, where it remains in
symptoms appear as severely stunted individual plants the soil and on infested plant debris until favorable
weather and a new host crop coincide to create a new field is the best control measure, followed by the use of
epidemic. Warm days and cool nights coupled with resistant varieties. Several races of this disease occur,
adequate moisture favor the spread and infection of the however, and resistance must be specific to the race of
late blight pathogen. Fusarium that is in the field in question.
Plant resistance to this disease is available but Southern stem blight caused by Sclerotium rolfsii.
does not play a major role in disease control. Destroy- This is a common destructive disease of tomatoes in
ing plant debris and rotating away from fields with a Georgia. Since most tomatoes are rotated with peanuts,
history of the disease is a must. Preventive fungicide soybeans and other susceptible crops, the disease has
sprays are generally relied on heavily where this dis- become a major problem. The fungus attacks the stem
ease occurs as a yearly problem. of the plant near or at the soil line and forms a white
Septoria leaf spot (Septoria lycopersici) and mold on the stem base. Later in the season, small,
Target spot (Corynospora cassiicola) are foliar fungal round brown bodies appear in the mold (Figure 20,
diseases of some importance in Georgia but are not page 23). Infected plants wilt and slowly die. Vascular
generally a problem with the current spray regime that discoloration can be observed on stem tissues above
is targeted at early blight and bacterial spot. the lesion.
Fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum The severity of the disease can be lessened by fol-
f.sp. lycopersici. Fusarium wilt is a soilborne disease lowing good cultural practices: rotation, litter destruc-
of tomatoes that is generally a problem in specific tion and deep turning with a moldboard plow are the
fields where the pathogen has been introduced. The best cultural defenses against this disease. Fumigation
disease is initially brought into a field on infested seed, as well as at-plant and drip-applied fungicides are also
plant stakes, transplants or infested soil on equipment. effective in reducing losses to southern stem blight.
Symptoms usually appear during hot weather and
after fruit set has begun. Symptoms appear as a yel- Nematodes
lowing and wilting on one side of the plant at first, Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp) can cause
usually during the hottest part of the day, followed by serious economic damage to tomatoes. These tiny
the eventual complete yellowing and wilting of the worms live in the soil and feed on the roots of toma-
plant (Figure 18, page 23). Entire death of the plant is toes. Not only do they cause physical damage that
the final result. Vascular discoloration is often ob- interferes with the uptake of water and nutrients, but
served on stems above the soil line (Figure 19, page they allow the establishment of other diseases.
23). Nematode infected plants are generally stunted
This fungus can stay in the soil in a resting state with pale green to light yellow foliage. Symptoms may
for several years, and rotation away from these fields be temporarily masked by supplying additional fertil-
for 5-7 years will lessen the severity but will not com- izer and water. Soils infested with root-knot nematodes
pletely eliminate the disease. Fumigation really only should be avoided or treated with fumigant or chemi-
delays disease onset and may lessen the total disease cal nematicides before tomatoes are planted.
incidence. Preventing the disease from getting into the

Insect Management
Alton N. Sparks, Jr.
Extension Entomologist
I nsect pests can damage tomato throughout the grow-

ing season, but severity varies with location and
time of year. While many insects that feed on tomato
heavyweeds. Greatest damage is often found in wet
areas of fields but can also be concentrated on field
margins where cutworms are moving in from adjacent
are only occasional pests in Georgia, a few species are areas.
common pests and occur every season. The severity Cutworms are generally considered a seedling pest,
of damage to tomato by insect pests is largely due to but they may also feed on foliage and fruit of mature
abundance of the pests, which is related to environ- plants. Use preventive insecticide treatments on fields
mental conditions. With most insects, outbreaks are with a history of cutworms or on tomato fields follow-
difficult to predict, and it is even more difficult to pre- ing grass sod. Where preventive treatments are not
dict if control measures will be required. A knowledge used, use directed sprays for cutworm control when 5
of insect habits, careful pest monitoring and timely use percent of the seedlings have been damaged or de-
of effective control measures will enable growers to stroyed and cutworms are still present. All directed or
avoid or at least reduce the damage they suffer. Tomato foliar sprays used for cutworm control should be ap-
is well suited for insect pest management. plied late in the day when cutworms are active.
Because a variety of insects may attack tomato, Other insects attacking the main stem of seed-
scheduled sprays are frequently considered for insect lings. Several occasional pests may cause damage
management. Scouting two to three times per week, similar to cutworms. White grubs (immature stage of
however, allowing for early detection of infestations May beetles and June beetles) may cut off plants, but
and timely application of pest specific control mea- they will typically cut plants slightly below the soil
sures, is the most cost-effective management strategy. line as compared to cutworms, which will usually cut
Possible exceptions to this are the management of at or slightly above the soil line.
thrips, which vector Tomato Spotted Wilt Virus, or Vegetable weevils, crickets and grasshoppers may
fields with a history of specific pest problems that re- also attack the main stems of seedlings. Generally
quire preventive control or are difficult to manage with these pests do not cut off plants except for the smallest
curative treatments. transplants. They tend to feed up and down the main
When insecticidal control is determined to be nec- stem, removing the softer outer tissue, and can com-
essary, use the Georgia Pest Management Handbook pletely girdle the plant. This damage generally causes
to aid in selecting the correct insecticide for control of plant death and, at the least, makes the plant suscep-
specific insect pests described in the following text. tible to lodging and seedling diseases.
Three-cornered alfalfa hopper may also attack
Seedling Pests seedlings. This pest has piercing-sucking mouth parts
Cutworms. Young tomato transplants may be cut and does not remove plant tissue. It will circle small
down just above the soil surface by cutworms. While stems while feeding, producing a “girdle” on the stem,
this damage is readily apparent, the insects are difficult which interferes with water and nutrient translocation.
to detect during the day as the larvae typically hide in This weakened area makes the plant susceptible to
the ground. Detection of the insects and verification lodging.
of the pest problem is most easily accomplished when Thrips. Thrips may be present in tomato fields
larvae are feeding at night. throughout the growing season, but they are more
The majority of cutworms pass the winter in the prevalent in the spring. Prior to plants blooming,
soil as full-grown larvae, and cutworm damage can tobacco thrips generally dominates the population
be particularly abundant in fields where grass sod was since this species readily feeds and reproduces on
the previous crop or in previously fallow fields with foliage. Flower thrips species populations can increase

dramatically once blooming and pollen availability Establishment of aphid colonies on tomato is
increases. Flower thrips populations may increase prior often reduced by wet weather, but during cool, dry
to the crop blooming if outside sources of pollen are weather,large numbers of aphids may develop quickly.
plentiful.Plant injury is caused by both nymphs and Feeding by these pests causes newly formed leaves to
adults (Figure 21, page 24) puncturing leaf and floral be crinkled and malformed. Aphid populations can be
tissues and then sucking the exuding sap. This causes assessed by examining terminals and the undersides of
reddish, gray or silvery speckled areas on the leaves. leaves. Treatments for aphids in early spring plantings
With severe infestations, these areas can interfere with may be postponed until distinct colonies of immature
photosynthesis and result in retarded growth. Heavy aphids are found on greater than 10 percent of the
infestations during the bloom stage may cause damage plants. Aphids in late summer plantings are usually
to developing fruit through egg laying. This damage controlled by treatments for whiteflies.
appears as dimples with necrotic spots in the center Colorado Potato Beetle. Colorado potato beetles
and may be surrounded by a halo of discolored tis- occasionally occur in damaging numbers in tomato
sue. Occasionally thrips aggregate on fruit well hidden fields. They lay orange-yellow eggs in groups of a
from sprays. This may result in russeting damage from dozen or more on the undersides of leaves; these eggs
continual feeding during fruit development. While are often mistaken for lady beetle eggs. Injury to toma-
thrips can cause direct damage to foliage and fruit, toes is due to actual consumption of foliage and stems
their role as vectors of tomato spotted wilt (TSWV) is by the chewing adults and larvae. Young plants may be
of primary concern in Georgia. completely defoliated.
To prevent direct damage, make applications of In tomato-growing areas where spraying for insect
insecticides when 20 percent of plants show signs of control is a regular practice, insecticides have reduced
thrips damage, or when 5 or more thrips per bloom the population so that it is no longer a serious problem.
are found. Thrips are very small, so close observation In some areas, however, the control of this insect still
is necessary. Thrips may be monitored in a variety of demands attention. Colorado potato beetles can occur
ways including various methods of beating plants to in large numbers and are generally uniformly distrib-
dislodge thrips from foliage into a collection device uted over a local area. Because of their short life cycle
(Styrofoam cup, white tray, sticky trap). An effective and high reproductive capacity, treatments are needed
in-field survey method for thrips in blooms is to place as soon as beetle eggs or larvae are found. Because this
several blooms in a vial of alcohol and count the thrips is a rare pest, determine its presence by scouting.
as they die and settle to the bottom. Flea Beetles. The name flea beetle applies to a
Where TSWV is of concern, grow virus resistant variety of small beetles with enlarged hind legs, which
varieties. For management of TSWV in susceptible jump vigorously when disturbed. Their injury consists
varieties, UV-reflective plastic mulch, or metalized of small, rounded or irregular holes eaten through or
mulch, has proven useful in suppression of thrips into the leaf. The most common flea beetles are about
populations and virus incidence. Insecticides also are 1/16 inch long and nearly a uniform black in color
frequently used in a preventive manner where TSWV (Figure 23, page 24).
is of concern. Flea beetles may attack tomatoes at any time dur-
ing the growing season but are often most numerous
Foliage Feeders and of greatest concern early in the season. Apply
Aphids. Aphids or plant lice are small, soft-bodied insecticides for control of flea beetles when flea beetles
insects that may feed on tomato plants from time of become numerous and defoliation is greater than 10
planting until last harvest. Aphids cluster in shaded percent. Flea beetles generally do not require control
places on leaves, stems and blossoms. While winged once plants are beyond the 5 leaf stage.
migrants (Figure 22, page 24) move from field to field Hornworms. Hornworms are large, green caterpil-
spreading virus diseases, host plant resistance in toma- lars with white diagonal markings. They reach a length
toes has helped minimize this problem. Large popula- of 3 inches. The most distinguishing characteristic of
tions of aphids on young plants can cause wilting and hornworms is the slender horn projecting backward
stunting but rarely occur. At harvest, infestations can from the rear of the body (Figure 24, page 24). Horn-
represent a contamination both through their presence worms may feed on green fruit, but they primarily feed
and through production of honeydew, which gives rise on the foliage of tomato plants and may cause enough
to sooty mold. defoliation to allow sun scald of fruit. The adult moths

deposit spherical translucent eggs, singly, on the un- infested with spider mites are initially lightly stippled
dersides of leaves. Apply treatments for horn-Figure with paleblotches (Figure 28, page 24). In heavy infes-
22. Adult winged aphid.worm control when one larva tations, the entire leaf appears light in color and dries
is found on 4 percent of the plants examined. up, often turning reddish-brown in blotches or around
Cabbage Looper. The most common looper in the edge and may be covered with webbing.
tomatoes in Georgia is the cabbage looper (Figure 25, Greatest damage to tomatoes occurs during dry,
page 24). Loopers are foliage feeders and damage to hot weather, which is favorable for development of
fruit is rare. Larvae chew irregular holes in leaves. extremely large mite populations. Spider mites are also
Leaf damage is of concern only when large numbers generally considered a secondary pest, with damaging
of larvae attack small plants or if feeding is extensive populations frequently occurring after application of
enough to open the canopy to expose fruit to sunburn. broad spectrum insecticides.
Mature plants can tolerate multiple larvae per plant To check for spider mites, observe plant foliage
without significant loss. for characteristic damage. Look on the undersides of
Looper eggs are laid singly on plants and can be leaves for mites. Pay close attention to field borders
confused with tomato fruitworm eggs; however, looper and weedy areas. Mites frequently get started and
eggs are flatter than fruitworm eggs and have finer reach their highest density along field margins adjacent
ridges radiating from the top of the egg. Looper lar- to roads where the plants are covered with dust.
vae are easily identified by their habit of arching their In general, apply treatments for mite control when
backs into a loop as they crawl. Loopers are frequently mites become numerous and their damage appears
controlled by insecticide applications applied for other excessive. Some of the newer acaricides, however,
caterpillar pests. are slow acting or effective only on selective stages of
Leafminers. Adult leafminers are tiny, shiny, black mites. If these acaricides are used, a more preventive
flies with yellow markings. Adult female flies lay eggs approach to management is required. Where a history
within the leaves, and white to pale yellow larvae with of mite problems exists, this preventive approach may
black mouthparts mine between the upper and lower be justified in tomatoes, which are favored hosts of
leaf surface for about 5 to 7 days before dropping to spider mites.
the ground to pupate. As the larvae grows and con- Whiteflies. Adult whiteflies are tiny (about ⅛ inch)
sumes more leaf tissue, the winding mine increases in insects with white wings, a yellow body and piercing-
diameter. Leafminer infestations usually are first de- sucking mouthparts. Adults are found on the underside
tected as these slender, white, winding trails caused by of leaves, where they feed and lay eggs. While adults
the larvae (Figure 26, page 24). The leaves are greatly can cause direct damage by feeding, typically the
weakened and the mines may serve as points where nymphs are the more damaging stage. The scale-like
decay and disease may begin. With severe infestations, nymphs (Figure 29, page 24) also occur on the under-
heavy leaf loss may lead to sun scald of fruit. side of leaves and all but the first instar are sessile.
Several parasites attack this pest and can keep Whiteflies, particularly the sweetpotato or silver-
leaf-miner populations under control. Leafminers leaf whitefly, can be a severe pest in tomatoes grown in
rarely pose a serious threat to tomato production in the fall. Because this pest does not overwinter well in
Georgia except in fields where their natural enemies south Georgia, tomatoes grown in the spring typically
are reduced by early, repeated insecticide applications. are harvested before whitefly populations reach dam-
Begin treatments for leafminer control when popula- aging levels. The sweetpotato whitefly can cause direct
tions reach an average of five mines/leaf with at least damage in the fall, when populations are large enough
25 percent of the mines containing live larvae. to cause defoliation, and can produce enough honey-
Spider Mites. Spider mites appear to be devel- dew and sooty mold to be a contamination problem at
oping into a more consistent pest in south Georgia. harvest. At much lower densities, however, this pest
They generally feed on the underside of leaves, but causes irregular ripening of fruit and can transmit se-
can cover the entire leaf surface when populations are vere viral diseases, including tomato yellow leaf curl.
high. The minute eight-legged mites appear as tiny, Whiteflies typically are not a problem in tomatoes
reddish, greenish or yellow moving dots on the under- grown in the spring. Preventive treatments with sys-
sides of leaves (Figure 27, page 24). Because of their temic soil-applied insecticides are generally necessary
size, the first detection of spider mite infestations is for tomatoes grown in the fall, and may require addi-
usually damage to the leaves. Leaves of tomato plants tional foliar treatments.

Fruit Feeders lar to thebeet armyworm, with eggs laid in masses,
Tomato Fruitworm (corn earworm). Among the early instars feeding gregariously on foliage, and
most serious pests of tomatoes is the tomato fruitworm later instars feeding on foliage or fruit. The Southern
or corn earworm, particularly in the summer and fall. armyworm is more prevalent than the Yellowstriped
The larvae vary greatly in color from a light green to armyworm, but both are occasional pests. Larvae of
brown or nearly black and are lighter on the underside both species have two lines of dark triangular marks
(Figure 30, page 24). They are marked with alternat- on their backs and a longitudinal white to yellow line
ing light and dark stripes running lengthwise on the along each side (Figure 34, page 24). Yellowstriped
body. Early instar larvae have stout hairs, which gives armyworm seldom reach population densities that
them a somewhat spiny appearance as compared to the require treatment, but can be difficult to control. Large
smooth skin of most other caterpillars found on toma- outbreaks of southern armyworm can occur, but this
toes (Figure 31, page 24). pest is easily controlled with insecticides. Insecticides
Eggs are laid singly on the terminals or close to targeted at other caterpillar pests likely prevent more
flowers or small fruit. The eggs hatch in 3 to 5 days, frequent damage by southern armyworm.
and the larvae can attack buds and fruit shortly after Tarnished Plant Bugs. Tarnished plant bugs are
hatching. If fruiting structures are not available, the sucking bugs that primarily attack the young flower
larvae can feed on foliage. The larva are rather restless buds causing them to abort. Young flower buds turn
and shift from one fruit to another so a single caterpil- yellow to black after tarnished plant bug feeding.
lar may spoil several fruit without eating the equivalent Infestations may be heavy in spring plantings and fruit
of a single fruit. This movement does benefit control set can be poor if the bugs are not controlled.
efforts, as the caterpillars are exposed to insecticide Both nymphs and adults feed on tomato. The
applications as they move among fruit. Several gen- nymphs are difficult to find unless high numbers are
erations of tomato fruitworm may develop each year. present. Scouting for the adults is relatively simple.
Apply treatments for tomato fruitworm control when Visually examine plants and treat if one adult per six
1 percent of fruit are infested with larvae or if eggs are plants is found.
easily found. Stink Bugs and Leaffooted Bugs. Several spe-
Beet Armyworms. Beet armyworm (Figure 32, cies of stink bugs can damage tomatoes. Stink bug
page 24) appears to be becoming a more consistent adults are generally medium sized shield-shaped bugs
pest. Historically, it is considered a secondary pest, with broad “shoulders” and a bluntly rounded abdo-
with large populations usually occurring only after men (Figure 35, page 24). They also have a triangu-
multiple applications of broad spectrum insecticides. lar shaped shield on their backs. The most common
This pest is now a fairly consistent pest in the summer species in tomatoes are either a uniform green color
and fall, however. (southern green stink bug) or tan to brown with light
Beet armyworms feed on both the foliage and fruit colored undersides (various species of brown stink
of tomato plants. Eggs are laid in masses on the un- bugs). Stink bug nymphs are more oval shaped (Figure
dersides of foliage. Young larvae remain near the site 36, page 24) and vary greatly in color. Eggs are some-
of hatching (Figure 33, page 24), feeding in groups what barrel-shaped and are deposited on end in tightly
that cause characteristic foliar damage referred to has packed clusters. Leaffooted bugs are brown, medium
“hits.” After feeding on foliage for a few days, medium sized bugs which get their common name from the
sized larvae (3rd instar) may migrate to the fruit. They flattened leg segment of the hind leg, which gives this
may tunnel into the fruit under the calyx or eat directly segment a leaf-like appearance (Figure 37, page 24).
through the fruit wall. Stink bugs and leaffooted bugs have needle-like
Because beet armyworms start as foliage feed- mouthparts with which they puncture plant tissue and
ers, treatments can be delayed until hits are detected remove sap. The greatest damage results from feeding
but should be applied prior to third instar. In practice, on fruiting structures. Severity of the damage to fruit
treatments are generally begun with first detection of varies greatly with the developmental stage of the fruit.
egg masses or hits. Damage early in fruit development can lead to severe
Other Armyworms. Both Southern armyworm deformities and abscission, while damage near har-
and Yellowstriped armyworm are commonly encoun- vest may result in small dark spots at the feeding site.
tered defoliators of tomatoes. Their behavior is simi- These insects may also introduce bacteria and yeast

as they feed, or may simply provide a site of entry for near the stem or may bore into the core of the fruit.
disease organisms, resulting in fruit decay. Stink bugs The feeding creates narrow blackened tunnels and
have become more of a problem in Georgia in recent exposes fruit to decay. It is difficult to sort out infested
years. fruit, and larvae present at harvest may create a con-
Tomato Pinworm. Tomato pinworms are small tamination problem. Adults can be monitored with
moths with a somewhat speckled appearance. Damage pheromone traps, and pheromones have been used for
is caused by the caterpillar, which appears smooth- mating disruption.
skinned with a purplish appearance in older larvae In Georgia, this is not a consistent pest; cultural
(Figure 38, page 24). Larvae usually begin feeding in controls, scouting and judicial use of pesticides is
leaf mines before moving to fruit but may enter fruit recommended. Problems with pinworm frequently
soon after hatching. In leaves, larvae mine for the first arise from use of infested transplants; use of locally
two in-stars, then form leaf folds in which the last two produced “clean” transplants is recommended to
instars are completed. The most important damage oc- avoid transplanting pest problems with the crop. Close
curs when larvae enter fruit. Larvae may enter fruit of scouting of the crop for leafmines and frass around
any maturity. Larvae generally bore into fruit under the the calyx should detect populations before they reach
calyx, and the entry holes are difficult to detect. Once damaging levels. In most cases in Georgia, this pest is
larvae have been feeding for a while, brown granular likely controlled by insecticide applications targeting
frass can often be seen at the edge of the calyx. Lar- other lepidopterous species.
vae may feed shallowly beneath the skin of the fruit

Weed Control
A. Stanley Culpepper
Extension Agronomist — Weed Science
E ffective weed management is one of many criti-

cal components of successful tomato production.
Weeds compete with tomato plants for light, nutrients,
hoeing and hand pulling of weeds. Most of Georgia’s
tomatoes are produced on mulch, limiting the practi-
cality of most mechanical control methods. Of course,
water and space as well as interfere with harvesting hoeing and hand pulling of weeds are quite common.
practices. Additionally, weeds can harbor deleterious For those growers producing tomatoes on bare
insects and diseases. If weeds are left uncontrolled, ground, mechanical control practices such as cultiva-
severe infestations can reduce yield at least 50 percent tion and primary tillage are very beneficial for manag-
even when tomatoes are produced on plasticulture. ing weeds.
Weeds that usually cause problems in tomatoes are
summer annual weeds including yellow and purple Mulching
nutsedge, morningglory, purslane species, nightshade, The use of polyethylene mulch increases yield and
pigweeds and annual grasses. earliness of vegetables. Mulches act as a barrier to the
One of the most effective tools for suppressing growth of many weeds. Nutsedge, however, is one
weeds in tomatoes is a healthy, vigorous crop. Good weed that can and will penetrate through the mulch.
crop management practices that result in rapid tomato Additionally, weeds that emerge in the transplant hole
canopy development help minimize the effects of will greatly reduce yield and quality of the crop, so
weeds. fumigants and/or herbicides are often used in conjunc-
tion with mulch.
Cultural Control Methods
Weeds can be controlled effectively through Fumigants
cultural practices that result in rapid tomato canopy es- Currently, methyl bromide is the fumigant of
tablishment thus providing an undesirable environment choice in tomato production because it is extremely ef-
for weed growth. Cultural practices may include the fective in controlling diseases, nematodes and weeds,
following: (1) plant seeds or transplants free of weeds; and most growers are comfortable applying this fumi-
(2) plant healthy and vigorously growing plants; (3) gant. Unfortunately, methyl bromide is being removed
good seedbed preparation; (4) proper fertilization and from the market place. The University of Georgia has
watering; (5) follow recommended row spacing; and been and continues to conduct many research trials to
(6) manage diseases and insects. find a suitable alternative to methyl bromide.
Site selection also can play a significant role in Contact your local extension office for up-to-date
weed management. Rotation away from fields infested information on alternatives to methyl bromide. In gen-
with troublesome weeds such as nutsedge may mini- eral, fumigants are restricted-use chemicals and must
mize the presence of these weeds and allow the use of be handled carefully by a certified applicator. Apply all
alternative crops and control methods. Additionally, to fumigants in full compliance with label recommenda-
prevent the spread of weeds from field to field during tions and precautions.
harvest, clean equipment and personnel when moving
from heavily infested areas. This precaution can be
of significant consequence in preventing or minimiz- Developing a Herbicide Program
ing the introduction of new weed species into “clean Before selecting herbicides, growers should know
areas.”Mechanical Control Methods what weeds are present or are expected to appear, the
Mechanical control methods include field prepa- soil characteristic (such as texture and organic matter
ration by plowing or discing, cultivating, mowing, content), the capabilities and limitations of the various
herbicides, and how best to apply each herbicide.

Weed Mapping: The first step in a weed man- to the surface of the soil or incorporated into the soil.
agement program is to identify the problem; this task is Lack of moisture or rainfall following application
best accomplished by weed mapping. Develop surveys of soil-applied herbicides often results in poor weed
each fall to provide a written record of the species control.
present and their population levels. Many herbicides applied in Georgia offer residual
Proper weed identification is necessary since weed weed control, which is beneficial in the crop where the
species respond differently to various herbicides. For herbicide was applied. Before applying any herbicide
assistance in identifying weeds, contact your local in a crop, however, review the herbicide label and
county extension office. obtain the needed information on rotation restrictions.
In-Season Monitoring: Monitor fields peri- Many herbicides applied in peanut, cotton, tobacco and
odically to identify the need for postemergence her- other vegetable crops can cause significant crop injury
bicides. Even after herbicides are applied, continue to tomato planted the following year.
monitoring to evaluate the success of the weed man- For herbicide recommendations, contact your local
agement program and to determine the need for addi- extension office or view the most recent Georgia Pest
tional control measures. Management Handbook.
Herbicides: Properly selected herbicides are ef- Stale Seedbed: Herbicide options in the tomato
fective tools for weed control. Herbicides may be clas- crop are limited. The use of a stale seedbed approach
sified several ways, depending on how they are applied prior to planting tomato on bareground or prior to
and their mode of action in or on the plant. Generally, transplanting tomato into mulch can be extremely use-
herbicides are either soil-applied or foliage applied. ful.
They may be selective or non-selective, and they may A stale seedbed approach is one where the weeds
be either contact or translocated through the plant. For are allowed to emerge and then treated with a non-se-
example, paraquat (Gramoxone) is a foliage applied, lective herbicide (glyphosate or paraquat usually) prior
contact, non-selective herbicide, while metolachlor to planting. Be extremely careful when applying her-
(Dual) usually is described as a soil-applied translo- bicides over the top of mulch prior to planting because
cated, selective herbicide. some herbicides cannot be successfully removed from
Foliage-applied herbicides may be applied to mulch and may cause severe crop injury once the crop
leaves, stems and shoots of plants. Herbicides that is planted. Both glyphosate and paraquat, however, can
kill only those parts of plants which the spray touches be applied over mulch as long as a rain-fall or irriga-
are contact herbicides. Those herbicides taken into tion event of at least 0.5 inch occurs after applying
the plant and moved throughout the plant are translo- these herbicides but before planting.
cated herbicides. Paraquat (Gramoxone) is a contact
herbicide, while glyphosate (Roundup) or sethoxydim
(Poast) are translocated herbicides.
For foliage-applied herbicides to be effective, they
must enter the plant. Good coverage is critical, and The author would like to thank Alan C. York (N. C.
these products often require the addition of some type State University) and Bill Stall (University of Florida)
of adjuvant. Soil-applied herbicides are either applied for their contributions to this publication.

Harvest, Handling and Sanitation
William C. Hurst
Extension Food Scientist
Field Maturity are transported to a centralized packinghouse where
Fresh tomatoes are the number one crop in terms the fruit is washed, sized and packed out. Some grow-
of farm gate value among all the vegetables grown ers avoid use of bulk bins because of potential damage
and harvested in Georgia. Tomatoes should only be to the fruit and field pack tomatoes into boxes. Some
harvested when they reach the mature-green stage. If growers also combine the two approaches, with field
tomatoes are harvested any earlier, the fruit will fail to packing of “pinks” (tomatoes that have begun chang-
ripen normally. Since the mature-green state is difficult ing color) and bulk harvesting of mature green toma-
to judge externally, growers will often take a repre- toes.
sentative sample of fruit from their fields and cut it Good harvesting management is needed to pick
open for internal examination. A typical mature-green high quality tomatoes. Care must be taken when
tomato will have a jelly-like matrix in all locules, and harvesting “breaker” stage fruit because the riper the
seeds will be sufficiently developed so as not to be cut tomato, the more susceptible it is to bruising. Harvest
when the fruit is sliced with a sharp knife. crews should carefully place fruits into picking con-
While a few large commercial tomato operations tainers instead of dropping them. Research has dem-
harvest mature-green tomatoes that will be ripened onstrated that a drop of more than 6 inches onto a hard
later with ethylene gas, most Georgia growers wait un- surface can cause internal bruising that is not evident
til about 10 percent of their field reaches the “breaker” until after the tomato is cut open.
(pinking at the blossom end) stage of maturity before Bruising is characterized by water-soaked cellular
harvesting. Tomato quality at harvest is primarily breakdown of the cross-wall and locular (seed cavity)
based on uniform size and freedom from growth or area. External bruising will be caused if pickers hurl
handling defects. Appearance is a very important qual- or dump tomatoes too vigorously from the picking
ity factor. Tomatoes should have a waxy gloss; small bucket into unpadded bulk bins. Bins should never
blossom-end and stem-end scars that are smooth; pres- be over-loaded because excessive tomato weight will
ence of a brown corky tissue at the stem scar; uniform cause bruise damage due to compression. Harvested
color and minimum size for the variety; and an absen- tomatoes must be shaded to minimize heat-up while
ceof growth cracks, catfacing, zippering, sunscald, in- waiting for pallet bin dumping at the packinghouse.
sert injury, hail damage, mechanical injury or bruising. Research hasshown that bulk bin tomatoes held in the
Size is not typically a factor of grade quality, but hot sun for just one hour can be as much as 25 degrees
it may strongly influence commercial buyers’ expecta- F warmer than fruit held in the shade. Field heat can
tions. Georgia growers strive to harvest only large and speed up breakdown after packing (Figure 39, page
extra-large tomatoes. 25).
Pickers should do preliminary grading to remove
decayed fruit from the plants as they harvest the field.
Harvesting This will prevent cross-over disease contamination to
Fresh market tomatoes are harvested by hand in otherwise healthy, sound fruit. Wet tomatoes should
Georgia. The harvesting operation varies somewhat never be harvested, because surface moisture increases
among growers. Mature-green harvested tomatoes field heat accumulations in the load and enhances dis-
are placed into polyethylene picking buckets that are ease development.
carried to a flat-bed trailer where the fruit is dumped All picking buckets should be cleaned and sani-
into plastic bulk bins. Each bin holds between 800 and tized at the end of each harvest day to prevent the
1,200 pounds of fresh fruit, and the trailer is positioned potential accumulation of disease organisms from
in the field so pickers only have to walk a minimal infecting sound fruit picked the next production day.
distance to reach a bin. Once all bins are loaded, they Rinse buckets with water to remove soil and field

debris, then wash them in a sanitizing solution consist- particularly when dirty. Tomatoes below about 60 de-
ing of 5 oz. of household bleach (5.25 percent sodium grees F scuff more easily than warm fruit. Scuffing and
hypochlorite) mixed in 5 gallons of water. scarring are followed by pitting and browning, because
the injured tissue dries out.
Postharvest Handling Tomatoes may be bruised any time between field
The importance of care in handling tomatoes be- and kitchen by being (1) thrown into picking box or
tween the time of harvest and shipping to market can- bin; (2) pressed out of shape in a bin loaded too deep-
not be overemphasized, since about half of the cost of ly; (3) dumped too vigorously from box or bin onto
tomato production is in the grading, cooling and pack- sorting belt, or dropped too far from sorting belt to
ing of the product. Bulk bins of harvested tomatoes shipping container; (4) squashed during stacking, load-
are taken from the field to the packing house, where ing or in transit; (5) handled roughly during sorting in
they are mechanically unloaded in a water dump tank the ripening room or during prepacking; (6) dumped
or concrete pit. Water jets convey the fruit by flume into bulk retail display; or (7) squeezed in the hand of
onto an inclined dewatering roller belt with soft bristle the customer or between harder items in the grocery
brushes that remove field debris. The fruit is then bag.
dried, pre-graded, color sorted and sized before being External bruising mainly occurs before the fruit is
jumble-packed into 25-pound fiberboard cartons. packed, which allows the removal of most of the dam-
Georgia tomatoes typically are not waxed before aged fruit at origin. Internal bruising, however, occurs
shipping. mainly during or after packing. The riper the fruit, the
Mechanical damage (i.e., cuts, punctures, bruises, more readily it bruises. Degree of bruising under given
scars, scuff marks and discolored areas) accounts for conditions is not related to size, weight or mass of fruit
more defects at the shipping point and in the market in any one cultivar, however, although the latter do dif-
than all other defects combined. Of these, bruises are fer in their susceptibility to bruising.
the most common and serious, comprising about half Mechanical injury can be prevented, or at least
of all mechanical damage. Bruised tomatoes may be reduced, only by careful analysis of each step during
flattened or indented and soft; the locules either are handling and by devising ways to minimize throw-
dry or, if gelatinous tissue is present, it may be thick ing, dropping or squeezing the fruit. Where drops are
and stringy from continuous pressure or watery from unavoidable, padding with 1-inch thick foam rubber
severe impacts. substantially reduces injury. Avoid drops of 6 inches
When tomatoes are physically injured during han- or more, whether the fruits hit a solid object or each
dling, disease organisms can easily invade the flesh, other. Dumping fruit into water instead of directly onto
setting up decay. As shown in Table 9, decay due to a belt can help reduce bruising.
bruising was the greatest contributor to tomato loss in Scuffing and scarring can be minimized by keeping
marketing channels (Ceponis and Butterfield, 1979). boxes, bins and belts clean and by packing fruit firmly
Tomatoes are scuffed and scarred when they rub but not too tightly. A loose pack allows fruits to rotate
against rough surfaces, such as bin boxes, pack-out and rub against each other in transit, which leads to
cartons, dirty sorting belts, or even against each other, scuffing injury.
Table 9. Wastage of fresh tomatoes in Greater New York retail stores and in consumer samples (1974-1977).
Location of loss and Causes of loss (% by weight)
type of packaging Bruise decay Physical injuries Physiological disorders Total
Retail
Prepackaged 4.2ab* 1.5a 0.6a 6.3a
Loose 3.8b 2.0a 0.9a 6.7a
Consumer
Prepackaged 6.5a 1.1a 0.3a 7.9a
Loose 3.8a 0.7a 0.2a 4.7b
* Numbers followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 5% probability level.

Dump Tank Management chlorine is effective as a water sanitizer. However,
Recent attention by regulators, buyers and the in- the amount of free chlorine in the water decreases as
dustry has focused on the issue of infiltration of poten- volume of leaves, stems, soil, and other organic matter
tial food-borne pathogens, such as Salmonella, through increase in the dump tank. Water pH also must be con-
the stem scar or harvest wounds on fresh-market trolled — ideally between 6.0 and 7.5 in pH — to help
tomatoes or other fruits and vegetables during sub- keep the free chlorine (hypochlorous acid) in its avail-
mersion in water dump or flotation tanks and flumes. able form. Research has demonstrated that the free
This concern has been prompted primarily by two chlorine concentration should be held between 100 and
outbreaks of Salmonella in 1990 and 1993 linked to 150 ppm in tomato dump tank and wash waters.
the consumption of fresh tomatoes from a single South A number of chlorine test kits on the market can
Carolina packinghouse. More recently, Salmonella was be used to measure free (available) chlorine, but none
identified as the pathogenic agent responsible for large can differentiate between hypochlorous acid and hy-
multi-state food-borne disease outbreaks atretail and pochlorite ions, both considered in the available form,
food service outlets in 2002 and 2004, respectively. in the water. Test kits measure both of these forms of
The same strategy for prevention of infiltration chlorine as a concentration of available form. Only the
of plant pathogens leading to postharvest disease and hypochlorous acid, however, is actively sanitizing the
decay can be employed to inhibit the internalization water.
of food-borne disease pathogens. Research has shown So what you really want to measure is only the
that dump tank and/or flume water should be heated available and active form of chlorine (hypochlorous
above the fruit pulp temperature to prevent air spaces acid) sanitizing the water, not the total concentration of
of the fruit tissue from contracting. This constriction chlorine (hypochlorous acid + hypochlorite ions) that
causes a vacuum, which draws pathogenic microorgan- is present in the water. A newly developed method to
isms in the water through the stem scar and into the perform this task currently is in use in tomato packing
internal seed cavity, where they are protected from the operations. It is called the Oxidation Reduction Poten-
action of sanitizers (Figure 40, page 25). tial (ORP) system.
Investigations at packing houses have led to the How does it work? First, a given dose of chlorine is
recommendation that postharvest immersion water added to water, some of which produces hypochlorous
should be maintained at temperatures of 10 degrees acid (HOCl). This substance is what is called a strong
F (6.6 degrees C) above the highest tomato pulp to oxidizing agent. What does it do? It causes a chemical
prevent water and microorganism uptake. Personnel reaction called oxidation to occur. Oxidation is de-
involved with the dumping operation should not guess fined as the transfer of electrons from one substance to
at the temperatures; use a calibrated thermometer to another. So HOCl oxidizes human pathogen microbes
check both the fruit pulp temperature and water tem- present in the water, causing them to lose electronsfrom
perature. Although commercial practices vary, a com- their membranes. This in turn interrupts their metabolic
mon set point to maintain for water temperature is 104 functions, causing their death. Since there is a physical
degrees F (40 degrees C). Also, avoid the necessity and transfer of electrons between substances, a very weak
cost of having to heat water by providing shade to in- voltage arises, called the electrical potential, and this
coming bins of tomatoes in the pre-grade staging area. can be quantified with a voltmeter.
Pathogen infiltration can also occur by the pressure The ORP produced by the oxidizing action of
of tomatoes being submerged too deeply for too long HOCl is measured in millivolts (mV) which are dis-
in wash tanks or flumes (Figure 41, page 25). As a played using an ORP meter as shown in Figure 42,
general recommendation, tomatoes should not be sub- page 25. The stronger the ORP signal (hypochlorous
merged in wash water more than 12 inches per layer of acid activity), the higher is the number displayed on
fruit for longer than 1 minute. the meter and the faster the death rate of pathogens.
Although chlorination of dump tank and flume wa- Based on research at the University of California-Da-
ters does not disinfect contaminated tomatoes or those vis, the lowest target ORP value to achieve pathogen
that have infiltrated pathogens through the stem scar, it kill is a minimum of 650 mV. Most importantly, since
does help to keep the water sanitized by reducing the ORP measures sanitizer activity versus concentration,
number of organisms capable of inoculating healthy this value gives you a more accurate, direct measure of
fruit.In dump tank water, chlorine exists in both the how well the human pathogens in your wash water are
available and unavailable forms. Only free (available) being killed.

Sanitation that chlorinated water cannot sterilize fresh produce,
Maintaining good sanitation throughout harvest- the rationale for adding chlorine is to keep the number
ing and handling tomatoes is extremely important. of human pathogens from concentrating in the water
Human pathogens (those causing food-borne illness) and cross-contaminating every piece of product that
can be transmitted by direct contact from infected passes through it. Maintaining consistent and proper
employees or animals, or through contaminated equip- levels of chlorine in wash/cooling water is critical.
ment and water. Once a tomato is infected, pathogens Chlorination can be accomplished by several
are difficult or impossible to remove without some methods: using a gas injection system, adding bleach
form of heat treatment (i.e., cooking, pasteurization). (sodium hypochlorite), or dissolving calcium hy-
Of course, fresh tomatoes are normally consumed pochlorite tablets. Monitor chlorination levels in the
raw. Employees are the number one source of human water frequently during operation with a free-chlorine
pathogens, so training field and packing house workers test kit or ORP meter.
in proper hygiene techniques is critical.Portable toilets Since pH also has a drastic effect on chlorine’s
equipped with handwash stations must be available, ability to disinfect, maintain the pH of wash/cooling
well stocked and used by all harvest crew members water between 6.0 and 7.5 to reduce the amount of
(Figure 43, page 25). Field containers (picking buck- chlorine needed to maintain the recommended avail-
ets, bins) and harvest aids (knives, gloves) must be able (free) chlorine levels (Figure 44, page 25). Exces-
cleaned and sanitized on a daily basis. Likewise, train- sive use of chlorine, though, can cause “gassing off”
ing, monitoring and enforcement of employee hygiene (objectionable chlorine odor), can irritate workers’
practices, such as proper hand washing after using the skin, is corrosive to equipment, and increases sanita-
toilet, among packing shed employees must be docu- tion costs.
mented to reduce the risk of human pathogen contami- Both chlorine levels and pH measurements must
nation to fresh produce. be documented on a quality control form in order to
For many years packing sheds were not considered comply with third party audits.
food handling businesses and, aside from sweeping
floors to remove waste material and blowing debris off Grading and Packing
equipment with an air hose, sanitation was minimal Federal grade standards for field-grown tomatoes
to non-existent. Just one source of human pathogen include U. S. No. 1, U. S. No. 2, U.S. Combination
introduction, however, at any point, can potentially and U.S. No. 3. Most buyers will accept only the
contaminate all tomatoes passing through the line. equivalent of U. S. No. 1 grade or higher. Tolerances
The packing shed sanitation program should in- for U. S. No. 1 grade state that tomatoes should have
clude the following: no more than 15 percent total defects (maturity, color,
• a Master Sanitation Schedule for cleaning all areas shape), including 10 percent serious damage (scarring,
that do not come into contact with produce (i.e., bruising, sunburn, discoloration) and 5 percent decay
drains, overhead structures, coolers, etc.) on a (blossom-end rot) in any lot of tomatoes examined.
regular basis; Some buyers expect higher quality than these limits.
• written specific standard operating procedures Georgia tomatoes are graded and packed at the
(SOPs) for cleaning and sanitizing all product con- breaker stage of maturity, based on size. Federal color
tact equipment and monitor to be sure the proce- classification requirements define “breakers” as when
dures are followed; there is a definite break in color from green to
• implementation of a pest control and animal exclu- tannish-yellow, pink or red on not more than 10
sion program. percent of the external tomato surface.
Tomatoes must be graded to achieve uniform
All water used for washing fresh tomatoes in the shape, color and size. Tomatoes are sized by passing
field (field-packed) or at the packing shed, as well as them over a series of perforated belts with holes cor-
Figure 44, page 25. Testing pH regularly will help responding to the maximum allowable diameter for the
maintain the maximum disinfectant activity of chlo- particular size (Table 10; Figure 45, page 25). Georgia
rine in wash or cooling water.water for hydrocooling, growers typically pack only 5 x 6, 6 x 6, and 6 x 7
should be sanitized. The most commonly used sanitizer numeric sizes into jumble-packed fiberboard cartons to
is some form of chlorine. While research has shown a net weight of 25 pounds.

Table 10. USDA size classifications for field harvested tomatoes.
Classification Minimum Diameter1 Maximum Diameter2 Carton Size/Arrangement3
Small 2-4/32 in. (5.4 cm) 2-9/32 in. (5.79 cm) 7x7
Medium 2-8/32 in. (5.72 cm) 2-17/32 in. (6.43 cm) 6x7
Large 2-16/32 in. (6.35 cm) 2-25/32 in. (7.06 cm) 6x6
Extra Large 2-24/32 in. (7.00 cm) ——— 5x6
1
Will not pass through a round opening of the designated diameter when tomato is placed with the greatest trans-
verse diameter across the opening.
2
Will pass through a round opening of the designated diameter in any position.
3
Designates number of rows of tomatoes in top layer.
In recent years major retailers such as WalMart, fans and extra refrigeration capacity needed. However,
Kroger, etc., have requested growers to pack their proper utilization of forced-air coolers significantly en-
produce in reusable plastic containers (RPCs) because hances quality and shelf life. Once pre-cooled, colored
containers offer more durability and versatility, can and ripe tomatoes must be held between 50-55 degrees
be properly sanitized, and contain bar codes for easy F and 95 percent relative humidity for a 7-10 day shelf
traceback purposes (Figure 46, page 25). life. Pre-cooling tomatoes before loading into tran-
Containers must provide good ventilation, with sit trailers is critical. Truck coolers are not designed
at least 5 percent of any container side being open so to remove field heat from tomatoes. They have only
as not to restrict air movement through the container. enough refrigeration capacity to maintain temperature
Avoid packing in second-hand or used containers, once tomatoes are cooled. Tomatoes loaded in a transit
which are unacceptable to buyers. Shipping containers trailer at 90 degrees F will likely arrive at the market at
must not be under- or over-filled since this will result 90 degrees F. Tomatoes will be soft and overripe and
in short weights and bruise damage to the tomatoes buyers will not accept them.
upon stacking. Use eye appealing, reinforced contain- Tomatoes are subject to chilling injury when held
ers giving the name and address of the packer and at temperatures below 50 degrees F if held longer than
having the size or weight of the product clearly marked 2 weeks, or at 45 degrees F if held longer than 6-8
on the package. days. The consequences of chilling injury are failure
to develop full color and flavor, blotchy, irregular
Cooling and Shipping color development, surface pitting, increased decay
Since the tomato is a tropical fruit, it is adversely (especially black mold caused by Alternaria spp.),
affected by exposure to refrigeration temperatures and browning of seeds (internal) (Figure 48, page 25).
(less than 50 degrees F) during storage. While several Tomatoes are also susceptible to water loss through
cooling methods can be used, “forced air” cooling is the stem scar. Shriveling becomes evident with as little
recommended. Tomato cartons and RPCs are placed in as three percent loss in weight if held at less than 85
parallel rows in front of exhaust fans in specially de- percent relative humidity.
signed refrigerated rooms. A canvas covering is spread Tomatoes are moderate to heavy ethylene produc-
over the top containers, draping to the floor as shown ers. Ethylene is a natural ripening gas produced by cer-
in Figure 47, page 25. When the exhaust fans are tain fruits and vegetables that can cause physiological
turned on, a negative air pressure is produced, which and pathological disorders in ethylene-sensitive com-
in turn pulls the cold air through the containers and is modities. Shipping “mixed loads” of tomatoes with
then lifted up toward the refrigerated units for recool- other sensitive commodities such as cucumbers, pep-
ing. This circular process allows faster cooling of the pers, lettuce, and other leafy greens can cause quality
product. Once tomatoes are cooled to the appropriate problems (i.e., loss of chlorophyll, accelerated decay)
storage temperature, a solenoid switch turns the fans in these commodities and should be avoided.
off and the room becomes a storage cooler. Forced
air cooling is more advantageous than room cooling Resources
because field heat is removed more rapidly, permitting Ceponis, M.J., and Butterfield, L.E. “Losses
longer shelf-life of the product. in fresh tomatoes at the retail and consumer levels in
Forced-air coolers are slightly more expensive to greater New York area.” Journal of the American Soci-
build than conventional room coolers because of the ety for Horticultural Science 104:751-754. 1979.
Marketing
Esendugue Greg Fonsah
Extension Economist
M arketing tomatoes or any horticultural product is

more than just selling. Marketing includes plan-
ning, production, harvesting, packaging, transporta-
The most unpredictable trend is tomato yield.
According to Georgia Agricultural Statistics Service,
yields were pretty constant from 1983 to 1987. There-
tion, distribution, warehousing and pricing. To be suc- after, yield escalated exponentially from 110 cwt per
cessful, marketing must be responsive to consumers’ acre in 1987 to 365 cwt per acre in 1992 (Figure 49).
demands. Simplistically, it must be customer oriented. Although the yield took a nose dive to 280 cwt per
To add to the multifaceted problems, marketing acre in 1993, the increasing trend continued until 1996
skills are required and prior determination or knowl- when yields stood at 420 cwt per acre, the best ever re-
edge of one’s targeted market is a necessary condi- corded. Even though an increasing trend was recorded
tion. Is it direct marketing, marketing to retail outlets, from 1998 to 2003, the worst yield of 170 cwt per acre
specialty food stores or wholesalers? Do you need any was recorded in 2004. This drastic drop in yield was a
promotion? Is any specific harvest time required? All result of several hurricanes (Frances, Ivan) and tropical
these and more questions need to be addressed. Do storms that destroyed most of the vegetable farms in
consumers demand quality, freshness, “reasonable” southern Georgia (Fonsah, 2005).
prices or all of the above?
Production and
Georgia Area Planted Average Seasonal Prices
and Harvested and Yields Georgia tomato production has risen from 203,000
Tomatoes are an important horticultural crop for cwt in 1983 to over a peak of 1.7 million cwt in 2001.
Georgia in particular and the United States at large. Other relatively good production years were 1994,
According to the Georgia Farm Gate and Georgia Ag- 2002 and 2003. The drastic drop in production in
ricultural Statistics Service reports, respectively, this 2004 was a result of several hurricanes (Ivan, Frances,
crop ranked 13th and 18th in the 2003 and 2004 Geor- Charley, etc.), and tropical storms that caused serious
gia Agricultural Commodity Rankings, respectively. damage on most of the Georgia farms. On the other
Furthermore, Georgia is the 7th largest fresh tomato hand, although there has been a great improvement,
producing state nationwide. Georgia tomato production average seasonal prices per cwt has been a rollercoast-
has been rising since 1983, when reported total planted er. In 2004, the price of $45 per cwt was the peak due
area was 2,800 acres compared to 6,000 acres in 2004. to the extreme shortage in supply caused by several
This reflects a 214 percent increase in planted area. In hurricanes and tropical storms. The relative peak was
1993, 1995, 2000 and 2001, areas planted were equal in 1995 and 2003 when the average seasonal price per
to or more than 4,000 acres. From 2002 to 2004, this cwt were $31 and $31.50 respectively (Figure 50).
figure surpassed 5,000 acres. Year 2004 reported the
highest area planted (Figure 49, page 26). Export Trend
Harvested area has also been rising at the same rate Due to the North American Free Trade Agreement,
as planted area. In 1983, although 2,800 acres were NAFTA, trade among the United States, Canada and
planted, only 2,400 acres were harvested, equivalent Mexico has improved significantly. Presently, Canada
to 86 percent. This harvested amount has increased is our number one trading partner for fruits and veg-
to 5,800 acres in 2004; that is, about a 242 percent etables.
increase compared to 1983. Basically, harvested area In 2002, tomato export value to Canada was worth
is following the same trend as planted area except in $111.7 million, equivalent to 83 percent of total U.S.
1990, when the recorded harvested and planted area tomato export value; $11.6 million was recorded for
were the same — 3,500 acres (Figure 49).
export to Mexico, equivalent to 8.6 percent. Other and 2002 was seen in the fall crop. In December 2002,
countries that purchased a negligible quantity oftoma- the best price of about $50 per cwt was recorded.
toes from time to time from the United States were the Overall, there were variations from month to month
United Kingdom, The Netherlands and Japan (Lucier and from year to year. This variation has to do with the
and Plummer, 2003). quantity produced and imported (Figure 53, page 26).
Consumers determine the demand by deciding
Import Trend what and how much they will buy, so marketing ef-
Although the NAFTA agreement has benefit- forts must be consumer oriented. Consumers normally
ted trade ties between the United States, Canada and reflect their wants in the product and product charac-
Mexico, Mexico has benefitted more by continually teristics they buy. Characteristics of tomato quality
expanding its tomato sales to the United States by include shape, thickness, firmness and uniform glossy
14 percent from 2001-2002. The United States im- color. Variety and age determine color. Large tomatoes
ported tomatoes from Mexico worth $490 million, normally bring premium prices, regardless of color.
$412 million, $485 million and $552 million in years The competing states’ production levels determine the
1999, 2000, 2001 and 2002, respectively (Figure 51, supply.
page 26). It should be noted here that Mexico also has
a comparative advantage in terms of weather, cheap Wholesalers’ and Distributors’
labor and other conditions. Also, most of the tomato Purchase Decision for Fresh Produce
suppliers are U.S. companies based in Mexico to take A 2002 University of Georgia marketing survey
advantage of the cheap labor and favorable weather asked wholesalers and distributors to rank their pur-
conditions (Lucier and Plummer, 2003). chase decision for fresh produce.
Mexico was our leading tomato supplier, generat- The result is summarized in Table 11. It is not
ing about 69 percent of total import value or $552 surprising that quality is the most important factor in
million in 2002. Canada ranked second. A negligible the wholesalers’ and distributors’ purchasing decision.
quantity supplied came from the Netherlands (Figure It was interesting, however, that quality and price were
51). ranked higher than reliability. Unfortunately, the origin
of fresh produce was ranked last.
Pricing
Supply and demand determine the general price Table 11. Average ranking of specific factors in wholesal-
level. Seasonal average prices per cwt have been ers’/distributors’ purchase decision for fresh pro-
fluctuating. In 1990, the seasonal average price per cwt duce — Ranked most to least important (n = 8).
was $27.40 whereas in 2002 the price had jumped to Factor Average Ranking
$31.40 per cwt. The peak price was recorded in 1998 Quality 1.13
at $35.20 per cwt. The U.S. average retail price for the Price 2.00
first quarter of 2003 was highest compared with 2000, Reliability 3.63
2001 and 2002, respectively. Thereafter, the downward Quantity 4.13
trend was consistent with previous years but 2003 was Convenience 5.00
still the best year in terms of average price obtained Transportation 5.25
per pound of tomatoes (Figure 52, page 26). Origin 6.88
Tomato prices vary greatly within a season and Source: Wolfe, K., and E.G. Fonsah. 2002. “Wholesalers
among years. Most of the price variation within sea- and Distributors Outlook for Fruit and Vegetables Pro-
son is caused by weather effects on production. Price duced in Georgia.” GFVGA News Vol. 7, No. 4, Fall.
variations among years are caused by changes in acre-
age and weather. Little of the price variation is caused Wholesalers/distributors consider quality, price and
by demand changes. Demand changes are slight from reliability to be the most important factors in mak-
year to year. For recent prices, see University of Geor- ing a purchase. Being grown in Georgia will not help
gia Extension Agricultural Economics website: www. Georgia growers if their produce cannot compete on
agecon.uga.edu. quality, price and reliability. These three factors are the
Although the dollar per cwt price was the lowest in minimal requirements needed to enter this market and
January 2000, a significant increase compared to 2001 can be thought of as a baseline from which products
grown in Georgia must be differentiated.
Georgia’s reputation for providing quality tomatoes References
in the quantity demanded has improved. Competition Boatright, S.R., and C. McKissick. 2003 Georgia
from other areas in the southeast requires that this Farm Gate Value Report, AR 04-01, The Univer-
reputation be maintained and improved. As production sity of Georgia College of Agricultural and Envi-
continues to expand, some growers will not be able to ronmental Sciences, Center for Agribusiness and
compete. Production skills alone will not ensure sur- Economic Development.
vival. Marketing will increase in importance.
Boatright, S.R., and C. McKissick . 2004 Georgia
Conclusion Farm Gate Value Report, AR 05-01, The Univer-
Marketing tomatoes, or any product, is more than sity of Georgia College of Agricultural and Envi-
selling. Marketing includes production, distribution, ronmental Sciences, Center for Agribusiness and
and pricing. To be successful, marketing must be re- Economic Development.
sponsive to consumers’ demands. Consumers demand
quality, freshness and “reasonable” prices. The U.S. Georgia Agricultural Statistics Service/USDA. 2002
production of fresh tomatoes has been continually on Census of Agriculture Georgia Profile. Also see
the rise since 1978 when 156.1 million pounds were http://www.nass.usda.gov/ga/
produced. By year 2002, production had increased
more than three times to 534.9 million pounds. Lucier, G., and C. Plummer. (2003) “Vegetables and
Due to NAFTA, trade among the United States, Melons Outlook” Electronic Outlook Report from
Canada and Mexico has improved significantly. Pres- the Economic Research Service, USDA, VGS-296,
ently, Canada is our number one trading partner for April 17.
fruits and vegetables. The United States importedtoma-
toes from Mexico worth $490 million, $412 million, Lucier, G., and C. Plummer. (2003) “Vegetables and
$485 million and $552 million in years 1999, 2000, Melons Outlook” Electronic Outlook Report from
2001 and 2002, respectively. the Economic Research Service, USDA, VGS-
Supply and demand determine the general price 2003, July.
level. Seasonal average prices per cwt have been
fluctuating. In 1990, the seasonal average price per cwt Lucier, G., and C. Plummer. (2003) “Vegetables and
was $27.40 whereas in 2002 the price had jumped to Melons Outlook” Electronic Outlook Report from
$31.40 per cwt. Tomato prices vary greatly within a the Economic Research Service, USDA, VGS-298,
season and among years. Most of the price variation Aug.21.
within a season is caused by weather effects on pro-
duction. Price variations among years are caused by Wolfe, K., and E.G Fonsah. (2002) “Wholesales and
changes in acreage and weather. Consumers determine Distributors Outlook For Fruit and Vegetables
the demand by deciding what and how much they will Produced in Georgia” GFVGA News Vol. 7, No. 4,
buy. Thus, marketing efforts must be consumer ori- Fall.
ented. Consumers normally reflect their wants in the
product and product characteristics they buy.

Production Costs
Esendugue Greg Fonsah
Extension Economist
T omato growers can use enterprise budgets to

estimate production and break-even costs. Bud-
gets include cost estimates for those inputs necessary
and management are 15 percent of all pre-harvest vari-
able expenses. This amount pays for management and
farm costs that cannot be allocated to any one specific
to achieve the specified yields over a period of years. enterprise. Overhead items include utilities, pick-up
Since production practices vary among growers, each trucks, farm shop and equipment, and fees.
grower needs to adapt budget estimates to reflect his or
her individual situation. Cost/Unit of Production
Detailed printed and computerized budgets are The cost categories are broken down in cost per
available in most county extension offices and at the unit (Table 15). The pre-harvest variable costs and the
University of Georgia, Department of Agricultural and fixed costs decline with increasing yields.
Applied Economics Website: www.agecon.uga.edu.
Budget Uses
In addition to estimating the total costs and break-
Types of Costs even costs for producing tomatoes, there are other
Total costs of producing any crop include both uses of the budget. Estimates of the cash costs (out-of-
variable and fixed costs. The variable or operating pocket expenses) provide information on how much
costs vary with the adopted cultural practices. Com- money needs to be borrowed. The cash cost estimates
mon variable cost components include seed, fertilizer, are helpful in preparing cash flow statements. In the
chemicals, fuel, and labor. instance of share leases, the cost estimates by item can
Variable costs are further broken down into pre- be used to more accurately determine a fair share ar-
harvest (Table 12) and harvesting and marketing rangement by the landlord and tenant.
operations (Table 13) in the hypothetical budget. This
provides you an opportunity to analyze the costs at dif-
ferent stages of the production process. Risk Rated Net Returns
Fixed costs include items such as equipment own- Since yields and prices vary from year to year, an
ership (depreciation, interest, insurance, and taxes), attempt is made to estimate the riskiness of producing
management, and general overhead costs (Table 14, tomatoes. The Extension Agricultural Economics De-
page 50). Most of these costs are incurred even if little partment uses five different yields and prices to calcu-
production takes place and these costs should be con- late risk (Table 16). The median values are those prices
sidered when planning production costs. and yields a particular tomato grower would anticipate
Land cost may either be a variable or a fixed cost. to exceed half the time.
Because it varies significantly from county to county, Half the time, the grower would anticipate not
from region to region, and whether it is irrigated or reaching below these prices and yields. Optimistic
non-irrigated, it is not included in this hypothetical values are those prices and yields tomato growers
budget. Even if you own the land, there is a cost. Land would expect to reach or exceed one-year-in-six.
is a fixed cost in this budget even though no cost has The pessimistic values are poor prices and yields that
been recorded. A fixed cost per hour of use shows would be expected one-year-in-six. The best and worst
ownership costs for tractors and equipment (deprecia- values are those extreme levels that would occur once
tion, interest, taxes, insurance and shelter). Overhead a lifetime (1 in 49).

The risk rated section (Table 17) shows a 62 per- Summary
cent chance of covering all costs. About 50 percent Successful tomato production and management is
of the time, the budgeted grower would expect to net always challenging and like any agricultural commod-
$956 or more. Two-thirds of the time, he/she would ity, it is difficult. However, it remains an economically
expect to net less than $1,464. One year out of six he feasible production enterprise for many Georgia veg-
would expect to make more than $1,464 per acre or to etable growers. Enterprise budgets can be used to aid
lose more than $3,430. producers in production and marketing decisions. For
additional or more detailed information, please contact
your local extension office.
Table 12. Hypothetical variable or operating costs of producing tomatoes.

Item Unit Quantity Price Amt/Acre Total
Variable Costs
Plants Thou 5.00 183.75 918.75 919
Lime & gypsum Acre 1.00 45.00 45.00 45
Fertilizer (base & side dressing) Ton 1.00 250.00 250.00 250
Plastic1 Roll 2.80 98.00 274.40 274
Fumigation Acre 1.00 520.00 520.00 520
Insecticide 2
Appl 20.00 21.20 424.00 424
Fungicide Appl 4.0 38.50 154.00 154
Herbicide Acre 3.00 10.00 30.00 30
Stakes & string Acre 1.00 125.00 125.00 125
Labor, mach operation Hr 5.00 5.50 27.50 28
Labor, transplant Hr 100.00 5.00 500.00 500
Cleanup (plastic & stakes) Acre 1.00 150.00 150.00 150
Machinery Acre 1.00 25.76 25.76 26
Irrigation Acre 1.00 202.71 202.71 203
Land rent Acre 1.00 0.00 0.00 0
Interest on operation capital $ 3,647.12 0.09 164.12 164
Pre-harvest variable costs 3,811.24 3,811
*Fertilizer amount and application rates should be based on soil test recommendations.
1
Metalized plastic for fall planting costs $210 per roll or $378 for 1.8 rolls per acre.
2
Fall planting includes injectable insecticides and fertigation.
Table 13. Hypothetical harvesting and marketing costs of producing tomatoes.
Harvest and Marketing Costs

Picking and hauling Ctn. 2,000 1.25 2,500.00
Grading and packing Ctn. 2,000 0.85 1,700.00
Container Ctn. 2,000 0.70 1,400.00
Marketing Ctn. 2,000 0.70 1,400.00
Total Harvest and Marketing 7,000.00
Total Variables, Harvesting and Marketing Costs/Acre 10,811.24

Table 14. Hypothetical fixed costs of producing fresh tomatoes.
Annual Dept. Payment

Machinery Acre 1.00 84.90 84.90
Irrigation 3
Acre 1.00 67.89 67.89
Land Acre 1.00 0.00 0.00
Overhead and Management $ 3,811.24 0.15 571.69
Total Fixed Outlays 724.47
Total Budgeted Cost per Acre 11,535.71

3
See irrigation budget on the University of Georgia Department of Agricul-
tural and Applied Extension Economics Web site: www.agecon.uga.edu.
Table 15. Hypothetical costs per carton of producing tomatoes.
Costs per Carton

Pre-harvest variable cost per carton 1.96
Harvest and marketing cost per carton 3.60
Fixed outlays per carton 0.37
Total budgeted cost per carton 5.94
Table 16. Risk rated return for tomatoes yield and prices.
Best Opt Median Pess Worst
Yield (cartons) 2400 2200 2000 1600 1400
Price per carton 10.00 8.00 6.50 5.00 4.00
Table 17. Tomato production risk rated returns over total costs net return levels (top row); the chances of obtaining this level
or more (middle row); the chances of obtaining this level or less (bottom row).
Best Optimistic Expected Pessimistic Worst
Returns ($) 5,645 4,082 2,519 956 -506 -1,968 -3,430
Chances 7% 16% 30% 49% 49% 49% 49%
Chances 51% 32% 16% 6%
Chances for Profit 62% Base Budgeted Net Revenue 1,464
extension.uga.edu
Bulletin 1312 Reviewed January 2017
Published by the University of Georgia in cooperation with Fort Valley State University, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and counties of the state. For more information, contact your local UGA Cooperative Extension office.
The University of Georgia College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences (working cooperatively with Fort Valley State University, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the counties of Georgia) offers its educational programs,
assistance, and materials to all people without regard to race, color, religion, sex, national origin, disability, gender identity, sexual orientation or protected veteran status and is an Equal Opportunity, Affirmative Action organization.

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Commercial Tomato

T he tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) is the

UGA Cooperative Extension Bulletin 1312 | Commercial Tomato Production Handbook 3

4 UGA Cooperative Extension Bulletin 1312 | Commercial Tomato Production Handbook

6 UGA Cooperative Extension Bulletin 1312 | Commercial Tomato Production Handbook

UGA Cooperative Extension Bulletin 1312 | Commercial Tomato Production Handbook 7

8 UGA Cooperative Extension Bulletin 1312 | Commercial Tomato Production Handbook

T omato production in Georgia is an expensive, labor

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T he use of plastic mulch in the commercial produc-

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I rrigation is essential to produce consistent yields of

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S everal physiological problems can affect tomatoes.

Catfacing Graywall or Blotchy Ripening

Puffiness Internal White Tissue

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L ime and fertilizer management should be tailored

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Table 4. Phosphorous and potassium recommendations for tomato production.

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T he equipment used for applying liquid insecticides,

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Figure 37. Leaffooted bug Figure 38. Tomato pinworm

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Figure 53. U.S. Monthly Tomatoes F.O.B. Shipping-Point Prices:

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P lant diseases are one of the most significant limit-

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I nsect pests can damage tomato throughout the grow-

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E ffective weed management is one of many criti-

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M arketing tomatoes or any horticultural product is

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T omato growers can use enterprise budgets to

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Table 12. Hypothetical variable or operating costs of producing tomatoes.

Table 13. Hypothetical harvesting and marketing costs of producing tomatoes.

Harvest and Marketing Costs

Total Harvest and Marketing 7,000.00

Total Variables, Harvesting and Marketing Costs/Acre 10,811.24