Justin Kalse 809969

9903045124084 DVA2601
63178206
Assignment 07

Projects and Programmes as instruments of Development

Development is a lot more than just providing a service to your clients. Our world consists of rich and
poor people, the rich sometimes feel philanthropical or guilty because they are rich and others are
poor. Development aid programmes are meant to buy influence or to show goodwill.

Participatory project management cycle with advantages and disadvantages

Decision to adopt planning

Establish
organisational
framework for
planning

Monitor and Specify

evaluate planning goals

Formulate
Implement
objectives

Select
Collect and
preferred
analyse data
alternative

Identify
alternative
courses of
action
Justin Kalse 809969
9903045124084 DVA2601
63178206
Phase 1
The decision to begin with the planning process and creating of an organisational framework. During
this phase a decision is typically taken at government level to use development planning for solving
development problems and achieving targets. As soon as this has been decided, it is the
responsibility of the government to create the necessary organisational framework that will be
responsible for the planning and the implementation of planning. There should be provision for
organisations at national level and also, depending on the severity of decentralisation in the planning
approach to be followed, organisations should be recognized at lower levels of the government
hierarchy. This step is necessary to ensure that accessibility of the necessary human and financial
resources of planning and implementation are successfully carried out.
Phase 2
The identification of planning objectives and targets. Government leaders usually take a political
decision to identify the development guidelines and overall planning objectives. Guidelines are laid
down to specify the course of a country’s development and the framework on how development
planners can formulate more specific objective. These guidelines indicate medium and long-term
priorities and are drawn in broad outline.
Phase 3
Collecting and processing of data. This is a very important phase in the development planning of any
country. To see the availability of information is crucial for defining the nature and scope of
development complications and also for designing alternate ways to solve problems, this is also a
major concern for development planners in the Third World. These problems could be caused by a
shortage of trained personnel and financial resources as well as insufficient access to certain
services, such as data processing.
Phase 4
Identification of substitute courses of action. In this phase, the identifying and specifying of alternative
courses of action which could be used to solve development problems and achieve targets. This could
be in the form of either writing a planning document or a sequence of suggestions for specific
development programmes or projects, which could be done in various ways, varying from expert
assessments and instinctive thinking to extremely formalised, orderly and mathematical models.
PHASE 5
Evaluating plans and projects. In this phase numerous proposed alternatives will be considered and
evaluated. All of the advantages and disadvantages of different courses of action are chosen and
submitted to the applicable parties who will then decide which route to follow.
Phase 6
The implementation of plans and projects. This is rarely considered to be part of the planning process,
mainly due to the fact that the professional planners are not directly involved in the implementation
process of the plans, which is done by technicians and administrative staff. Planners don’t often
implement plans themselves, however, this does not mean that they are free to ignore the process of
implementation.
Phase 7
This is the final phase, the monitoring and evaluation, however, this is not procedures that is only
carried out once only. This is a continuous event, forming part of the implementation process. This
phase was implemented to see what takes place during the implementation phase, to regulate to what
degree targets have been realised, to express the lessons learnt from the involvement of the
implementers and to solve problems.
Justin Kalse 809969
9903045124084 DVA2601
63178206
Advantages:

 Goal achievement.
- The main objective is to achieve the goal of project and the whole PMC works to achieve this.
- The execution of the plan helps to meet the goals and give time frame.

 Effective use of time and resources

- The PMC helps in optimum utilization of resources and time
- The resource plan done at the beginning helps in effective utilization

 Better Communication
- All the staffs come together in planning and brain storming the ideas which fosters the better
communication
- Pre-identified roles and responsibilities helps to avoid the unwanted tension
- Project is the team work and performed as one

 Risk assessment
- One of the major features of the PMC is risk assessment.
- It is done at the planning phase.
- Risk when assessed earlier and staying prepared helps to tackle them.

Disadvantages

1. High cost

 With already limit in project budget, conducting and ensuring the details of all sessions
of the cycle can increase the cost.

2. Complex

 PMC can make the project look more complex, as there are many steps and activities
to follow.
 Rigidity in plan, can create the stressful environment.

3. Lack of creativity

 PMC sometimes can suppress the creativity

 The deadlines, stressful environment pre-defined activities and procedure may not let
the creativity of the staff to sprout out.
Concept of blueprint planning and where it can and cannot be used

The blueprint approach to planning is defined by Faludi (1973) as an approach whereby a planning
agency operates a program though to attain its objectives with certainty according to set objectives and
that modification during implementation is not anticipated. It is a long term planning approach that can
stretch to five years or more. It is referred to as the conventional, centralised or top down approach to
planning by some scholars such as Cristovao et al (1992). The planner must be able to manipulate
relevant aspects of the program environment leaving no room for the environment or parts of it to act in
other ways than those set by the planning agency. Korten (1980) described blueprint planning as “the
project, its identification, formulation, design, appraisal, selection, organisation, implementation,
supervision, termination and evaluation that is treated as the basic unit of development action”.
Blueprint planning means that one prepares detailed plans for all that one intends to do before
implementing any of the work. Implementers will know exactly what they are to do, in which sequence
and at what cost until the scheme is completed. Blueprint planning involves the detailed description of
the desired future situation and realisation of this situation. Jones M. T (2002) says the blueprint
Justin Kalse 809969
9903045124084 DVA2601
63178206
approach originates from the ‘capital city’ thus it is a top-down approach which is designed by static
experts. The first step is data collection and planning while the main source of funds is central.
Implementation of the programs is widespread and management focuses on spending budgets to
complete projects on time in a standardised manor. Communication is from the top in terms of orders
and reports from bottom going up and leadership is positional and changing. It is associated with
normal professionalism but it causes dependency syndrome and errors are buried. It is based upon the
above attributes that the blueprint planning approach is criticized.

According to Jones M. T (2002) blueprint planning was developed between 1940 and 1960s and is
viewed as a fixed end state product, the vision of design and engineered approach inevitably failed to
address the rapidity of changing socio economic conditions and could not adequately take account of
possible resource implications. All possible efforts must be made during a single planning effort to
remove uncertainties regarding implementation and benefits to be generated. Strong efforts need to be
made at the planning stage to help ensure controlled use of resources and processes of work
throughout the program period and concomitantly creation of the specified outputs, this becomes the
greater challenge the further ahead one plans.

According to Cristovao et al (1992) the blueprint approach is based on clearly defined and generally
accepted objectives. There is a detailed and precise knowledge of the process to be implemented in
order to reach the objectives. There is political will to use available power and resources. There is a
predetermined timetable and well known resources. The centralised top down or blueprint approach
facilitates management monitoring and evaluation tasks because activities and expected outcomes are
defined and a chain of responsibilities and duties is well defined. At times it can be the best choice for
example in emergency interventions where a strong management style may be required to attain
objectives in a timely and highly organised manner or in a situation where extension tasks are objective
that is based on specific facts and knowledge rather than on feelings, beliefs and values. The
programmer would be able to make objective decisions and probably have less need for clientele input.
Korten (1980) supports this by saying blueprint approach has appealing sense of order, specialization
and recognition of the superordinate role of the intellectual which makes it easily defensible in budget
presentations.

Cristovao et al (1992) says the blueprint approach has been subject to strong criticism for various
reasons, one of them being its top down approach, for example in food aid programs where numbers of
beneficiaries and the selection criteria is determined at the top levels and officers just implement
programs according to prescribed guidelines. Beneficiaries are just recipients of the benefits and
information. Structures are centralised and this is subject to bureaucracy. This usually results in project
failures when they are finally implemented on the ground because there will be lack of ownership by
the people.

The logical framework can be used in blueprint planning.

Advantages and disadvantages of using participatory methods in data collection

Advantages

 It gives you a better perspective on both the initial needs of the project’s beneficiaries, and on
its ultimate effects.
 It can produce information you would not get otherwise. Local people interviewing their friends
and neighbours may secure information that outsider would not.
 It tells you why something does or doesn’t work. Beneficiaries can explain exactly why, for
example, they didn’t respond to a particular technique or approach. It empowers stakeholders
and gives a voice to those who are often not heard.
 It teaches employment and life skills, as well as boosting self-confidence among participants.
Justin Kalse 809969
9903045124084 DVA2601
63178206
 It is generally more inclusive and encourages ownership of the project.
 It encourages working collaboratively and builds trust between NGO staff and the local
community.
 It can be particularly helpful where there are issues in the community or population that
outside evaluators may not know, fully appreciate or be able to collect.

Disadvantages

 It takes more time than a professional evaluator or evaluation team would.

 It can require considerable time and effort to ensure buy-in and the establishment of trust
among all participants.
 You have to make sure that everyone is heard, not just dominant voices and ‘leaders’ of
various groups.
 You have to train people to understand evaluation and how the participatory process works.
Local people may have more pressing issues which may cause delays to participatory
evaluations.
 You may have to adapt the way that information is collected to reflect, for example, high local
levels of illiteracy.
 You must check that your funder is open to the idea of participatory evaluation. 

Advantages of carrying out EIA’s

EIA can be important and valuable for a variety of reasons. It can, for example

• lead to the withdrawal of unsound projects

• lend greater legitimacy to sound projects

• be of critical importance in the final selection of a site for a project

• lead to a reformulation and reconsideration of project plans Ortolano & Shepherd (1995:8–9)

 Reduced cost and time of project implementation.

 Cost-saving modifications in project design.
 Increased project acceptance.
 Avoided impacts and violations of laws and regulations.
 Improved project performance.
 Avoided treatment/clean up costs.

Conventional monitoring and evaluation

Through conventional M&E, data on specific indicators are gathered from as many people as

possible so that the resulting figures can be taken as holding true for a bigger
population. Conventional M&E is usually dubbed as quantitative research.
Justin Kalse 809969
9903045124084 DVA2601
63178206
Bibliography

 Hart, Tim & Burgess, Roberta & Hart, Cornel. (2005). A PARTICIPATORY PROJECT
MANAGEMENT CYCLE: CAN IT ADD VALUE TO AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT? South
African Journal of Agricultural Extension. 34. 2005-301.

 Dale R (2005). Development Planning. Concepts and Tools for Planners, Managers and
Facilitators. Thailand.
 Moser C (1993). Gender Planning and Development. Theory, Practise and Training. University
of Manchester.
 Jones M T (2002). The Planning Polity: Planning Government and the Policy Process.
University of Newcastle.
 Cristovao A et al (1992). Improving Agricultural Extension. A Reference Manual. Portugal.
 Pretty J N (1994). Alternative Systems of Enquiry for a Sustainable Agriculture. Volume 25.
Institute of Development Studies. UNDP.
 Livestock Research for Rural Development. CIPAV. Colombia
 (2005). Community Based Watershed Management. Lessons from the Natural Estuary
Program.
 Maxwell S (2000). New Approaches to Planning. OED Working Paper No 14. Washington DC.
 Reddman, J., 2021. Environmental Management Tools. [online] EIA's. Available at:
<https://www.gdrc.org/uem/e-mgmt/2.html> [Accessed 9 July 2021].