Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

With technological advancement, traditional petroleum energy is depleted by the day,

while the energy demand gradually increases. However, the international oil energy is now in
short supply, resulting in soaring prices. Moreover, excessive petroleum energy use and
mining have considerably burdened the living environment, leading to the Earth’s
greenhouse effect. In view of the above reasons, the development and demand for renewable
energy will increase [1-3].
Among the renewable energy types, solar energy is undoubtedly an ideal form of
green energy in line with sustainable development. Since photovoltaic power is inexhaustible
and pollution-free and that it is easy to set up without laborious mining while having the
advantages of easy power generation capacity expansion, high reliability, and suitability as
an emergency power source of backup power in remote areas, it is said to be considerably
beneficial as far as ecological conservation, environmental protection, and carbon dioxide
emission inhibition are concerned, leading to the world’s active involvement in the ongoing
global solar energy world’s active involvement in the ongoing global solar energy
development [4]. Photovoltaic power generation is a new form of renewable energy that
creates a new lifestyle for mankind, introducing mankind into the era of energy conservation
and environmental pollution reduction. A super-capacitor is a type of physical secondary
power source with strong energy storage capacity and provides strong pulse power, which is
a new energy storage device between batteries and traditional capacitors. A super-capacitor
is developed based on the electrochemical equilibrium theory. The state of the electrode is
idealized, and the surface load will attract the opposite ions of an electrolyte solution in the
surroundings, making the ions adhere to the electrode surface, forming a double charge
constituting a double-layer capacitor. Since the distance between the two charge layers is
short and that a special electrode structure is adopted, the electrode surface increases to
generate maximum capacitance. The super-capacitor achieves energy storage through such a
polarization action [5]. A super-capacitor is an electrochemical component, but the energy
storage process involves no chemical reactions, and the energy storage process is reversible.
In addition, a super-capacitor as a new energy storage component features obvious
advantages compared to batteries and common electrolytic capacitors, such as high-power
density, long life cycle, fast charge and discharge, low leakage current, low equivalent series
resistance, safety, and environmentally friendliness [6-11].

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This paper proposed the application of super-capacitors in photovoltaic power generation
systems. The circuit includes a maximum power point tracking converter, a boost converter, a
super-capacitor bank, and a microcontroller. Targeting the problem of the output voltage
instability of the photovoltaic power generation module, a super-capacitor was designed as
the energy storage device to improve the power quality of the photovoltaic power generation
system and power supply continuity. Finally, targeting photovoltaic power, a super-capacitor
charging and discharging test was performed.Single super-capacitors were used, with the
capacitance of 2.7V and 50F 60 connected in series and parallel to form a 27V and 30F
module. The test results show that when the initial voltage of the super-capacitor is 19.6V,
the photovoltaic system operating normally was fully charged in voltage, with the charging
time of about 76 seconds. In the event a temporary power interruption occurred in the
photovoltaic system, the super-capacitor was still able to provide energy to the load,
maintaining the load for about 49 seconds.

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 CHAPTER 2
ACTUAL CIRCUIT AND TEST PROCESS

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of the proposed control system

The control circuit includes a photovoltaic power generation module, a maximum

power point tracking converter, a boost converter, a super-capacitor bank, and a
microcontroller. The schematic diagram of the proposed control system is shown in Fig. 1.

2.1 PHOTOVOLTAIC POWER GENERATION MODULE

The photovoltaic power generation module was manufactured by Neo Photovoltaic

power Corp. The module number is D6M300H3A single-crystal photovoltaic power
generation model. As shown in Fig. 2, the maximum power generation is 300W. Table 1
shows the parameter specifications of the photovoltaic power generation module provided by
Neo Photovoltaic power Corp.

Maximum Power Point Tracking Converter The maximum power point tracking
converter used in the system has the input end voltage range of 7V-40V and the output end
voltage sett as 24V

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 Fig. 2 The photovoltaic power generation module

Table 1 Specifications of the photovoltaic power generation module

. The working principle is to instantly detect the generated voltage of the solar panel
and track the maximum voltage and current values, so that the system can output the
maximum power and decrease pressure to the set output voltage in order to charge the super-
capacitor and provide energy to the load end. The schematic diagram of the internal circuit is
as shown in Fig. 3.

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 Fig. 3 Schematic diagram of the maximum point tracking converter

2.2 Boost Converter

The boost converter used in the system has an input end voltage range of 12V-48V
and the output end voltage set as 48V. The working principle is to convert the fluctuating
input voltage into a fixed output voltage. In this paper, it is used to increase the voltage
requirement from the voltage to the load end and convert the fluctuating input voltage into a
fixed output voltage through the boost converter when the super-capacitor bank is
discharging in order to supply to the load end and lengthen the action time at the load end.

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 Fig. 4 Schematic diagram of the boost converter

The internal circuit is made up of a BOOST main circuit, a drive circuit, an auxiliary
power supply, a signal conditioning circuit, and a main control circuit. The schematic
diagram is shown in Fig. 4.
2.3 Super-Capacitor Bank
The super-capacitor manufactured by NESSCAP Company was used as the energy
storage component. The model number is an ESHSR-0050-002R7, single-super-capacitor
specifications are 2.7V and 50F. In this paper, 60 super-capacitors connected in series and
parallel to form a 27V and 30F super-capacitor bank were used, as shown in Fig. 5. The
specifications and performance of different super-capacitors also vary. The single super-
capacitor specifications provided by NESSCAP are shown in Table 2

Table 2: Specifications of single super-capacitors

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 Fig. 5 The super-capacitor bank

2.4 MICROCONTROLLER
The microcontroller used in this paper is MSP430, which was manufactured by Texas
Instruments, TI. The microcontroller was used to monitor the voltages of the photovoltaic
power generation module, super-capacitor, and load end. The values monitored were used to
determine: “What is the decrease in voltage at the super-capacitor end when the super-
capacitor bank began discharging and supplying energy to the load end. By monitoring the
voltage of the super-capacitor bank, the additional time the load end can be maintained can be
determined. The application of super-capacitors in the photovoltaic power generation system
was proposed in this paper. The actual circuit exterior is as shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6 Appearance of actual circuit

The test process was divided into two parts: The charging of the maximum power
point tracking converter in the super-capacitor bank and stable load output; the situation of
the super-capacitor bank load discharge through the maximum power point tracking
converter
Frist, the photovoltaic power generation module under direct sunlight generated power, and the circuit

operated normally in this paper. The sun luminance was 900W/m 2 when the maximum power point tracking

converter was charging the super-capacitor bank, and the load out was stable. During the process, the output end

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of the photovoltaic power generation module was connected to the input end of the maximum power point

tracking converter. One end of the output end was first connected to the boost converter, and

the 50Ω pure load was connected to the output end of the boost converter as the load end.

Subsequently, the other end of the output end was connected to the 27V, 30F super-capacitor
bank. At this time, the system not only maintained the actions at the load end, but also began
charging the super-capacitor. Finally, during the test of the super-capacitor bank charging the
load through the maximum power point tracking converter, in order to simulate temporary
power interruptions of the photovoltaic power generation module, the photovoltaic power
generation module was first disconnected. Under this situation, the super-capacitor began
providing energy to the load end through the maximum power point tracking converter. The
flowchart of the control system actions is shown in Fig. 7.

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 Fig. 7 The action flowchart of control system

Chapter 3
MEASUREMENT RESULTS

According to the application of super-capacitors in photovoltaic power generation

systems proposed in this study, first, measurements and analyses were performed targeting
two parts: the maximum power point tracking converter charging the super-capacitor bank,
with a stable load output; the super-capacitor bank discharging the load through the
maximum power point tracking converter. The test results are as shown in Fig.8

Fig.8 Waveforms of solar energy charging/discharging the

super-capacitor bank

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 Measurement of the Maximum Power Point Tracking Converter Charging the Super-
Capacitor Bank with a Stable Load Output

The first part is the measurement of the maximum power point tracking converter
charging the super-capacitor. Through the measurement process, the charging waveform was
recorded and analyzed. During the measurement, the test was performed when the sunlight
luminance was about 900W/m2. Then, the output end of the photovoltaic power generation
module was connected to the input end of the maximum power point tracking converter,
while the output end was connected to the 27V, 30F super-capacitor bank and the other side
was connected to the boost converter. After that, the 50Ω pure load was connected to the
output end of the boost converter as the load end. The charging waveform was recorded, and
the voltage, current signals, and charging time were analyzed. The charging waveform is as
shown in Fig. 9.

Fig. 9 Super-capacitor charging waveform

As shown in the waveform in Fig.9, the charging waveform can be explained in three
intervals, as described below.
(1) Time: t < t0
The output end of the maximum power point tracking converter in this interval was only
connected to the load end. The input voltage of the maximum power point tracking converter
was 35V, and the voltage at the load end was 47.5V. The input current of the maximum
power point tracking converter was 2.16A, and the current at the load end was 960mA. At

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this time, the other output end of the maximum power point tracking converter was not
connected to the super-capacitor bank. Evidently, the output voltage of the maximum power
point tracking converter was set as 24V.

(2) Time: t0 ≤ t < t1

When t = t0, the other output end of the maximum power point tracking converter was
simultaneously connected to the super-capacitor, with the initial voltage of 19.6V. At this
time, the photovoltaic power generation module voltage dropped to 31.6V due to the
inclusion of the super-capacitor, while the load end voltage was maintained at 47.5V. The
current of the photovoltaic power generation module was 6.56A, the current of the super-
capacitor end was 3.68A, and the load end current was 960mA; When t0 < t < t1, the interval
presented the “super-capacitor charging” action, and the charging waveform was in an
exponential shape. Additionally, when the super-capacitor gradually charged to the full
voltage of 24V, the charging current gradually declined. At the time, the load end voltage and
current were still maintained at 47.5V and 960mA respectively.
(3) Time: t ≥ t1
When t ≥ t 1, the super-capacitor reached the “full charge” state. Thus, the super-
capacitor current declined to near 0A. At this time, the photovoltaic power generation module
voltage was 34.8V, the current was 2.32A, and the load end voltage and current were still
maintained at 47.5V and 960mA respectively Based on the above waveforms measured, the
76 seconds of super-capacitor charging time was obtained.
2. Measurement of Maximum Power Point Tracking Converter Discharging the Load The
second part is the measurement of the super-capacitor bank discharging the load through the
maximum power point tracking converter. Through the measurement process, the charging
waveform was recorded and analyzed

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 Fig. 10: Waveform of super-capacitor discharge

During the measurement, the photovoltaic power generation module was first disconnected.
At this time, the load end provided energy through the super-capacitor bank instead and
maintained actions. The discharge waveform was recorded, and the voltage, current signals,
and discharge time were analyzed. The discharge waveform is as shown in Fig. 10. As shown
in the waveform in Fig. 10, the discharge waveform can be explained in four intervals, as
described below:
(1) Time: t < t0
In this interval, the super-capacitor entered the full-voltage state of 24V. Thus, the
super-capacitor current declined to near 0A. At this time, the photovoltaic power generation
module voltage was 34.8V, the current was 2.32A, and the load end voltage and current were
still maintained at 47.5V and 960Ma respectively.
(2) Time: t0 ≤ t < t1
When t = t0, the photovoltaic power generation module was disconnected. At this
time, the super-capacitor bank at the load end provided energy through the maximum power
point tracking converter instead and maintained actions. The super-capacitor bank began
discharging the load end from 24V, 1.76A, and the load end voltage and current were
maintained at 47.5V and 960mA respectively; when t0 < t < t1, the interval presented the
super-capacitor end discharging action. Its discharge waveform is in an exponential shape. As
the super-capacitor voltage became lower, the discharge current gradually rose. At this time,
the load end voltage and current were still maintained at 48V and 960mA respectively.
(3) Time: t1 ≤ t < t2

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 When t = t1, the maximum value of the super-capacitor bank discharge current was
2.64V, and the voltage dropped to 17.2V. The load end still maintained 48V and 960mA;
when t1 ≤ t < t2, the energy provided by the super-capacitor bank in this interval was
insufficient for the load end to maintain actions. Therefore, the voltage at the load end
gradually declined.
(4) Time: t ≥ t2
When t ≥ t2, the super-capacitor bank was no longer able to supply sufficient energy
to the load end. Therefore, the PWM switch’s switching action was presented. Based on the
waveforms measured above, the super-capacitor discharge time obtained was about 49
seconds.

Chapter 4
CONCLUSIONS

The application of super-capacitors in photovoltaic power generation systems was

proposed in this study. The control circuit includes a maximum power point tracking
converter, a boost converter, a super-capacitor bank, and a microcontroller. 60 2.7V and 50F
super-capacitors were used, which connected in 10 series and 6 parallel to form a 27V and
30F super-capacitor bank as the energy storage device. Through the use of sunlight, a super-
capacitor bank performed a charging and discharging test. With the initial voltage of the
super-capacitor set as 19.6V, provided sunlight was sufficient and the photovoltaic power
generation system sufficiently supplied energy to the load, the super-capacitor was fully
charged in voltage, with the required charging time of 76 seconds. In the event of a temporary
power interruption in the photovoltaic power generation system, the super-capacitor was still
able to provide energy to the load, which was maintained for an additional 49 seconds. The
test results validated that the super-capacitor proposed in this paper as the energy storage
device control system can effectively improve the problem of intermittent power generation
output and voltage instability, ensure the power quality of the photovoltaic power generation
system, and the continuity of power supply

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