MODALS

Arranged By:
Ditta Hakha
ENGLISH STUDIO
We use modals to express concepts such as ability (or inability), possibility, probability, certainty, obligation (or lack of obligation) and necessity
(or lack of necessity), and also to make recommendations and suggestions.

can / could/ may/ might/ shall/ should/ will/ would/ must/ ought to

Important notes:
• Meaning: Some modals can be used in different ways to express different things. For example, the modal must can have more than one
meaning (more than one use). Pay close attention to the different use of each modal.
• Grammar: Modals differ from ordinary verbs in a number of ways. Pay close attention to how the modals are used grammatically. For
example, modals:
• do not take -s on the third person singular
• are always followed by an infinitive (without to, except for ought)
• do not need do in questions and negatives
• have no past forms and no -ing forms.

In IELTS Writing Task 2, it is highly likely that you will need to use modals. You are most likely to need modals to:
• make recommendations
• express degrees of probability
• express obligation
Making Recommendations and Suggestions; Giving Advice

could
This modal can be used to make a suggestion:
• News media could try to free themselves from political bias.
• Fast food restaurants could make an effort to offer healthy alternatives.

might
This modal can be used to make a more tentative suggestion:
• It might be a good idea to make all students do an internship in order to graduate.
• It might be wise to quit social media before we become addicted to them.
should/ ought to
Both these modals are used to express a recommendation or to give firm advice:
• If employees want to improve their time management, they should draw up a list of priorities.
• Employees who want to improve their time management ought to draw up a list of priorities.
• Employees should not be expected to take work home with them.
• Employers ought not to ask their staff to take work home with them.

You can use ought to to paraphrase should. Both should and ought to are stronger in feeling than
could or might.
must
This modal can be used to express a very strong recommendation, an obligation, a
duty:
• The government must take all necessary steps to ban single-use plastic bags.
• Gender equality must be achieved in all areas of human activity.

Note that have to can also be used to express a duty, an obligation, or a strong
recommendation
• The government has to phase out coal power and prioritise clean power as soon
as possible.
• Governments have to impose stricter rules against deforestation before it is too
late.

You will use must depending on how strong your own personal views are. Must is
the strongest of all modals in this section.
Expressing Possibility and Degrees of Probability; Making
Predictions and Speculating
can / cannot
Using can or cannot to show that something is possible or not possible rather than talking
about something as certain. It is very common for people to sound overconfident or
forceful because they make absolute statements, as in Sentence 1, instead of using
cautious language as in Sentence 2:
• Eating junk food leads to obesity.
• Eating junk food can lead to obesity.
Eating junk food does not necessarily cause obesity because if it did, nearly all people
would be obese. However, junk food can cause obesity. This means it is possible that junk
food causes obesity, but it is not absolutely certain that it does in all cases.
may/ might / could
When you want to express uncertainty, to say that there is only a possibility of something
being true or happening, you can use any of these three modals interchangeably:
• People might stop littering if there were more litter bins for public use.
• Globalisation could be the main reason for the loss of local traditions.
• Internet addiction may cause unsocial behaviour.

In all three sentences above, the meaning of the underlined modal is ‘perhaps’:
• Perhaps people would stop littering if there were more litter bins for public use.
• Perhaps globalisation is the main reason for the loss of local traditions.
• Perhaps internet addiction causes unsocial behaviour.

Note that in negative sentences, only may not and might not can be used here because
could not expresses a different meaning, namely ability.
should/ ought to
When you want to say that you think something will probably happen (or not) or is
probably true (or not), you can use either of these modals interchangeably:
• Having a degree should enable you to earn a higher salary.
• Two years of real-world work experience ought to make it easier for you to land your first
job.
• Reducing our use of plastic in daily life should not be too difficult.
• International aid ought not to stop poor countries trying to tackle their own problems.

This means should and ought to can be used either to express a recommendation or to
express the probability of something happening or being true.
You can express the same meaning using be (un) likely to or It is (un) likely
that ...:
• Having a degree is likely to enable you to earn a higher salary.
• It is likely that two years of real-world work experience will make it easier
for you to land your first job.
• Reducing our use of plastic in daily life is unlikely to be too difficult.
• It is unlikely that international aid will stop poor countries trying to tackle
their own problems.

If you want to sound a little more certain, use highly (un)likely:

• It is highly likely that an increasing number of people will work from home.
• Unfortunately, fines alone are highly unlikely to stop people from littering.
will
Use this modal when you want to say that you think something will certainly happen (or not):
• In developed countries, the death rate will continue to decline.
• Manufacturing cheaper cars will not solve our environmental problems.

If you want to sound even more certain, use will definitely (not); to sound a little less certain, use
will probably (not):
• Private car ownership will probably not decrease in the foreseeable future.
• Building more railways will definitely improve the quality of our environment.

You can also express certainty using phrases such as be bound to or be certain to:
• The death rate is bound to continue to decline in developed countries.
• Building more railways is certain to improve the quality of our environment.

Note that be sure to means the same as be certain to. However, be sure to is more frequent in
spoken English while be certain to is generally considered more appropriate in formal written
English such as IELTS Writing Task 2.
must
You use must to say that you think something is fairly certain or quite
certain because of a deduction you make based on particular facts or
events:
• The widening gap between rich and poor must eventually lead to civil
unrest.
• Exploding population and urbanisation must be the main cause of any
temperature increase.

Note that in negative sentences, only cannot is used in this sense

because must not expresses a different meaning, namely prohibition:
• Genes cannot be the reason why some people are successful early in
life.
Obligation; Necessity; Absence of Necessity

must / have to / need to

These three forms express obligation or necessity and are frequently used in
academic writing:
• Governments must arrange for more trees to be planted.
• People need to be aware of the amount of energy they use in their homes.
• All countries have to have a minimum wage to ensure a good standard of
living.

As must has no past form, use had to / needed to to express

obligation/necessity in the past:
• In the 19th century, many children had to work to help their parents
financially.
do not hove to / do not need to
You can use either of these forms to say that something is not obligatory or necessary. Remember
that must not expresses prohibition and therefore cannot be used in this sense. The past forms are
did not have to / did not need to.
• With television, you do not need to leave the comfort of your home to enjoy entertainment or
educational programmes.
• We did not have to wait very long to realise how much cars pollute our air.
Other Uses of Modals
Ability
Can/ able to / manage to
If you want to say that someone or something has the ability to do or cause something, use can.
• A better standard of living means that the elderly can remain active much longer.
• Goodwill alone cannot solve all the problems the world is facing.

When talking about ability, the form be able to can be used instead of can:
• Owing to the global financial crisis, fewer countries are able to provide aid to the developing world.

The form be able to is particularly useful when talking about the future:
• We have grounds to believe that robots will be able to interview job applicants.

It is also useful in positive sentences about a specific ability or achievement in the past, where it is not
possible to use could:
• In 1945, the United Nations was able to bring many countries together with a view to safeguarding world
peace.
If you want to convey the idea that this specific achievement involved a certain amount of difficulty,
you can use managed to as an alternative:
• In 1945, the United Nations managed to bring many countries together with a view to
safeguarding world peace.

However, in negative sentences about a specific ability or achievement, could not, was/were not
able to and did not manage to are interchangeable.

Talk about a general ability in the past, we tend to use could/ could not more frequently than was
(not) / were (not) able to:
• Our ancestors could already make relatively complex tools.
Permission
can / be allowed to
You can use these forms interchangeably to say that someone has permission to do something, or in the
negative to say that they do not have permission:
• In some universities, students are allowed to work up to 20 hours a week.
• Employees may feel dissatisfied if they cannot choose what to wear at work.

When talking about the past, you can use could (not), or was/were (not) allowed to:
• In many countries, women were not allowed to vote until the 20th century.
• In the United States, women could not vote until 1920.

When talking about the future, or after another modal, only be allowed to is possible:
• It is to be feared that one day government agencies will be allowed to access all email and phone records.
• Employers should not be allowed to force their staff to take work home with them.
Modals + Perfect Infinitive

could + Perfect Infinitive

This is useful when you talk about things that people or the government could have done
in the past but did not. It highlights an oversight or a failure to do something. Use this form
to talk about actions or events that were possible but did not happen:
• Better planning could have prevented the global financial crisis that shook the world a
decade ago.

This form is also frequently used to express criticism of something that did not happen:
• Climate experts could have told us much earlier that the future of our planet was in
danger.
should / ought to + Perfect Infinitive
We often use these forms to talk about things that someone did not
do, when we think there was an obligation for them to do it:
• Many people think that the government should have built shelters for
the homeless instead of a multi-million-pound Olympic Village.

Conversely, we use should not/ ought not to + Perfect Infinitive to talk

about things that someone did, when we think it was not the right
thing to do:
• The government ought not to have spent so much money on an
Olympic Village when thousands of people are homeless.
must + Perfect Infinitive
You are less likely to use this form than the previous two in your IELTS
Writing Task 2. You use this form when you are almost certain that
something happened:
• Armstrong must have felt like a god when he set foot on the moon.

Note that in the negative, i.e. when you are almost certain that
something did not happen, you use cannot + Perfect Infinitive:
• Teenagers who become delinquents cannot have had a happy
childhood.
EXERCISE
Match each sentence (1— 10) with the corresponding meaning (a — j) of the modal

1. According to the new law, university students will be allowed to take up part-time employment. e
2. Apparently, our ancestors were able to use and control fire more than a million years ago. d
3. Employees who work from home do not have to spend hours commuting everyday.
4. If good physical health and a feeling of safety are essential to happiness, our grandparents cannot have been happier
than we are. h
5. Maglev trains can travel at a speed of over 400 kilometres per hour. c
6. Medical scientists ought not to have waited so long to try to find a cure for HIV. j
7. Over the next decades, more species will become extinct. a
8. Previous governments should have taken the necessary measures to reduce our reliance on fossil fuels. i
9. Scientists might find ways to lessen the devastating effects of global warming. b
10. Seeing Spanish conquistadors must have been a terrifying experience for the indigenous people of Central and South
America. g
1. Governments musttocommit themselves totacklingglobalwarmingwithout further delay. (x)
2. It is a fact that poor countries would like to be able to can help themselves rather than depend on international aid. (W.w.)
3. You should always draw up a list of priorities if you want to manage your time more efficiently. (W.o.)
4. Very large groups of tourists should do not be allowed into historical buildings. (x)
5. Nations often unite to fight for freedom. For example, in 1989 the Germans were be able to could take down the Berlin Wall, a symbol
of oppression and division. (W.w.)
6. A good number of companies have abolished their dress code, so employees do not have to wear must not wear formal clothes even
in board meetings. (W.w.)
7. There is no guarantee that world powers will be able to prevent another economic crisis. (✓)
8. Children who watch television more than one hour per day are more likely to get obese. (✓)
9. In my opinion, the World Bank could have has done a lot more to eliminate poverty. (W.w.)
10. Criminals would not to reoffend if there were more rehabilitation programmes. (x)
Choose the correct option.

1. Governments _ _ _ _ _ a smoking ban in all public places many years ago, but instead they only did it
recently.
a) could have imposed
b) would impose
c) must have imposed

2. Talent sometimes manifests itself early. For example, it is said that at the age of five the great Lionel
Messi _ _ _ _ _ play football much better than older children.
a) could
b) must have
c) were able to

3. The future of polar bears is in the balance and they _ _ _ _ _ become within a few decades.
a) must
b) have to
c) could
4. Some people use to believe nuclear energy was clean and safe, which is why they _ _ _ _ _
anticipated disasters such as Chernobyl and Fukushima.
a) could not have
b) were not able to
c) must not have

5. Columbus did not discover the Indies, but he _ _ _ _ _ turn this apparent failure into a success.
a) might have
b) was able to
c) could
Complete the second sentence in each pair so that it means the same as the first one. You must use a modal form in each answer,
and you can use up to five words altogether. Sometimes there may be more than one correct answer.
1. In some countries, the school-leaving age is 18.
In some countries, children have to attend school until the age of 18.

2. As the economic situation worsens, unemployment is bound to increase.

As the economic situation worsens, unemployment will definitely increase.

3. It is not always necessary to have work experience when you apply for a job, but it certainly helps if you do.
You do not always have to have work experience when you apply for a job, but it certainly helps if you do.

4. The possibility of a new global financial crash worries many people.

Many people are worried that a new global financial crash might occur.

5. As the population increases, so does the demand for food. Therefore, food shortages are inevitable.
The population increase and the ensuing rise in demand for food must inevitably lead to food shortages.

6. I believe it would be a good idea to take away the licence of anyone who drinks and drives.
In my opinion, all drink-drivers should have their licence revoked.
7. Perhaps international aid causes dependency on rich countries.
International aid may/might/could cause dependency on rich countries.

8. It would not be possible for children to enjoy their childhood if they had to work.
Children would not be able to enjoy their childhood if they had to work.

9. Climate change is the most crucial issue currently facing the world. It is therefore a great pity that not all countries signed the
Kyoto Protocol.
Climate change being the most crucial issue currently facing the world, all countries might have signed the Kyoto Protocol.

10. It is almost certain that our great-grandparents held very different social and ethical values from those we have today.
Our great-grandparents must have held very different social and ethical values from those we have today.

11. In some countries, no one under the age of 21 is allowed to get married without their parents’ permission.
In some countries, anyone under the age of 21 have to get their parents’ permission if they want to get married.

12. Nobody wants their children to live in fear of a possible World War III.
Nobody wants their children to fear that another world war might break out.
Fill in the blanks using MUST, MUSTN’T, DON’T HAVE TO, SHOULD, SHOULDN’T, MIGHT, CAN,
CAN’T !

1. Rose and Ted _________________ be good players. They have won hundreds of cups !
2. You _________________ pay to use the library. It’s free.
3. I’m not sure where my wife is at the moment. She _________________ be at her dance
class.
4. Jerry _________________ be working today. He never works on Sundays.
5. You _________________ be 18 to see that film.
6. You _________________ hear this story. It’s very funny.
7. Dad _________________ go and see a doctor. His cough is getting worse all the time.
8. You don’t have to shout. I _________________ hear you very well.
9. It _________________ be him. I saw him a week ago, and he didn’t look like that.
10. You look pretty tired. I think you _________________ go to bed early tonight.
11. Let me look. I _________________ be able to help you.
12. “Children, you _________________ cross the street if the lights are red !”
13. You _________________ sit so near the TV. It’s bad for your eyes.
14. I’m sorry but I _________________ give you a lift because my car is broken.
15. I _________________ stop and talk to you now. I have to get to the library.
16. You really _________________ go to the Louvre if you’re in Paris. It’s wonderful.
17. You _________________ come to the party if you don’t feel well.
18. I don’t know where Kelly is. She _________________ be at her sister’s .
19. You have passed all your tests. You _________________ be very pleased with yourself.
20. You _________________ smoke in your car, especially if there are children sitting in the
back.
21. You _________________ work this evening. I can do the tasks for you.
22. John doesn’t need a calculator. He _________________ do sums in his head.
23. Passengers _________________ open the door when the train is moving.
24. It _________________ rain today. It’s getting cloudy already.
25. I _________________ pay for the tickets because I got them from Sam for free.
Answer

1. Rose and Ted MUST be good players. They have won hundreds of cups !
2. You DON’T HAVE TO pay to use the library. It’s free.
3. I’m not sure where my wife is at the moment. She MIGHT be at her dance class.
4. Jerry CAN’T be working today. He never works on Sundays.
5. You MUST be 18 to see that film.
6. You MUST hear this story. It’s very funny.
7. Dad SHOULD go and see a doctor. His cough is getting worse all the time.
8. You don’t have to shout. I CAN hear you very well.
9. It CAN’T be him. I saw him a week ago, and he didn’t look like that.
10. You look pretty tired. I think you SHOULD go to bed early tonight.
11. Let me look. I MIGHT be able to help you.
12. “Children, you MUSTN’T cross the street if the lights are red !”
13. You SHOULDN’T sit so near the TV. It’s bad for your eyes.
14. I’m sorry but I CAN’T give you a lift because my car is broken.
15. I CAN’T stop and talk to you now. I have to get to the library.
16. You really MUST/SHOULD go to the Louvre if you’re in Paris. It’s wonderful.
17. You DON’T HAVE TO come to the party if you don’t feel well.
18. I don’t know where Kelly is. She might be at her sister’s .
19. You have passed all your tests. You SHOULD be very pleased with yourself.
20. You SHOULDN’T/MUSTN’T smoke in your car, especially if there are children sitting in
the
back.
21. You DON’T HAVE TO work this evening. I can do the tasks for you.
22. John doesn’t need a calculator. He CAN do sums in his head.
23. Passengers MUSTN’T open the door when the train is moving.
24. It MIGHT rain today. It’s getting cloudy already.
25. I DON’T HAVE TO pay for the tickets because I got them from Sam for free.
Fill in the blanks with a modal form from the box !

1. You’ve got plenty of time. You __________________ hurry.

2. There’s a knock at the door. I’m expecting Paul . It __________________ be him.
3. I can’t get my phone to work. It __________________ be out of order
4. __________________ I ask you a question ?
5. That was excellent work. But I __________________ do it without you.
6. She __________________ be 35. She looks older than that.
7. I __________________ go to work on Saturdays. It’s my day off.
8. Tom has given me a letter to post. I __________________ forget to post it.
9. Ann stayed in bed this morning because she ___________
10. He __________________ play chess when he was young.
11. You __________________ drive a car when you’re 18.
12. Jack spends the whole day just walking around. He __________________ have a job.
13. When I was in school I __________________ do a hand stand, but now I’m too old. I
__________________ do one any more.
14. My mother keeps telling me that we __________________ wash our hands before we
sit
down at the dinner table.
15. You __________________ forget to turn off the lights when you go to bed.
16. When I was a child I __________________ understand adults, now that I’m an adult I
__________________ understand children.
17. Sally looks sad and worried . She __________________ have a problem with
something.
18. __________________ I see your passport please.
19. He’ sees very badly, so he __________________ wear glasses all the time.
20. I __________________ take a taxi because the bus was on time.
21. He owns a very expensive house. He __________________ be a rich person.
22. I __________________ swim well when I was a child. I even won the school
championships.
23. You __________________ go to the grocery store. We have some milk in the
fridge.
24. I __________________ find my keys. I probably left them at my mother’s place.
25. You __________________ buy the tickets. I got two for free from dad.
26. She __________________ speak so rudely to her parents.
27. The teacher always tells us we __________________ cheat during a test.
28. I __________________ stop laughing. The joke was so funny.
29. I __________________ look at you. You’re so dirty. What were you up to ?
30. __________________ you turn down the volume ? – It’s too loud.
Answer
1. You’ve got plenty of time. You NEEDN’T hurry.
2. There’s a knock at the door. I’m expecting Paul . It MUST be him.
3. I can’t get my phone to work. It MUST be out of order
4. CAN I ask you a question ?
5. That was excellent work. But I COULDN’T do it without you.
6. She CAN’T be 35. She looks older than that.
7. I NEEDN’T go to work on Saturdays. It’s my day off.
8. Tom has given me a letter to post. I MUSTN’T forget to post it.
9. Ann stayed in bed this morning because she DIDN’T NEED TO go to work.
10. He COULD play chess when he was young.
11. You CAN drive a car when you’re 18.
12. Jack spends the whole day just walking around. He CAN’T have a job.
13. When I was in school I COULD do a hand stand, but now I’m too old. I CAN’T do one any
more.
14. My mother keeps telling me that we MUST wash our hands before we sit down at the dinner
table.
15. You MUSTN’T forget to turn off the lights when you go to bed.
16. When I was a child I COULDN’T understand adults, now that I’m an adult I CAN’T
understand children.
17. Sally looks sad and worried . She MUST have a problem with something.
18. CAN I see your passport please.
19. He’ sees very badly, so he MUST wear glasses all the time.
20. I DIDN’T NEED TO take a taxi because the bus was on time.
21. He owns a very expensive house. He MUST be a rich person.
22. I COULD swim well when I was a child. I even won the school championships.
23. You NEEDN’T go to the grocery store. We have some milk in the fridge.
24. I CAN’T find my keys. I probably left them at my mother’s place.
25. You DIDN’T NEED TO buy the tickets. I got two for free from dad.
26. She MUSTN’T speak so rudely to her parents.
27. The teacher always tells us we MUSTN’T cheat during a test.
28. I COULDN’T stop laughing. The joke was so funny.
29. I CAN’T look at you. You’re so dirty. What were you up to ?
30. CAN/COULD you turn down the volume ? – It’s too loud.
References
www.ieltzliz.com
https://www.english-grammar.at/worksheets/modal-verbs/m006-
modal-verbs.pdf
https://www.english-grammar.at/worksheets/modal-verbs/m002-
modal-verbs.pdf