a Nei aay Kinematics In 1987, Gregory Robertson, a skydiving instructor, carried out the most daring rescue in his lifetime. Upon seeing his fellow skydiver, Debbie Williams, falling past him unconscious in midair, Robertson instinctively increased his speed to go after her. He caught up with her and released both their parachutes barely seconds from crashing to the ground, How did he manage to alter his speed in midair? RS oe eect (a) How is displacement different from distance? (Cn mentee ices cased (c) What is acceleration? CO etna ee nee ean are (e) What is the difference between falling with and without air resistFor any object moving ina straight line (i.e linear motion), we can assign its direction from a reference point as positive or negative. For example, in Figure 2.4, If we assign the direction to the right of Aas positive, the displacement of the moving object is +5 km 2.1 Distance and Displacement Leaming Outcome — You should be able to: + understand and distinguish between scalar and vector quantities. Scalars and vectors ¥ Table 2.1. Common scalar and vector quantities EZ Vector Distance Displacement Speed Velocity Mass ‘Acceleration Energy Force Time Difference between distance and displacement Figure 2.1. shows the motion of an object between two points, A and B. We will use it to illustrete the meaning of distance and displacement. ‘A Figure 2.4. Distance and displacement between A and B What if the object moves tack to A along the same path (i.e. A> B > A)? * The distance it travels is either 14 km (blue path) or 20 km (green path); * Its displacement is zero, because it is back at A.Worked Example 2. Figure 2.2 shows a car that travels 5 km due east and makes a U-turn to travel another 3 km, Calculate (a) the distance covered; (b) its displacement. Solution {a) Distance covered = 5 km +3 km =8km (oy km N The magnitude of a displacement is (9. ending point E « measured from the starting point to the starting point |< 5 km 4 Figure 22 final point. Taking the direction due east of point 0 as positive, a aircon wen ie Displacement = 5 km ~ 3 km ‘starting point to the =2km final point. 2.2 Speed, Velocity and Acceleration Learning Outcomes — You should be able to: — ‘+ istinguish between speed and velocity distance travelled time taken ‘state what uniform acceleration is; «find average speed using change in velocity time taken + interpret examples of non-uniform acceleration, + calculate the value of acceleration using Speed How would you find out who the faster 100 m sprinter is — Usain Bolt (the current fastest man) or a cheetah (the fastest land mammal) (Figure 2.3)? To make a fair comparison, we need to find the speed of Usain Bolt and a cheetah over 100m. _ Figure 2.3. How do we use kinematics to identity the faster 100 m sprinter? ean Oise vote a distance travelled ‘second, a minute or time taken yer Speet Speed is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is the metre per second (m s*).‘Science Bites “Ironically, being the fastest can be a curse for cheetahs.” Using the internet, * verify the above statement with supporting reasons; ‘find out i there is a correlation between animals’ speeds and their masses. Based on Usain Bolt’s 1CO m world record time of 9.58 s set in 2009, distance travelled time taken 100 m “9.585 =10.4ms* Speed = The average speed of a cheetah Is between 20 m s* and 30 m s+. So, a cheetah has the edge over Bolt, unless Bolt can finish the 100 m sprint below 5 s in the future. Average speed Table 2.2 shows the results for men’s running events at the 2008 Beijing Olympics. ¥ Table 2.2 Results for men's running events at the 2008 Beling Olympics Usain Bolt Jemaica 9.69 10.3 Usain Bolt Jemaica 200 | 19.30 10.4 LaShawn Merritt usa 400 | 43.75 9.14 Wilfred Bungel Kenya g00 | 104.65, 7.64 The speed of each athlete in Table 2.2 is actually his average speed. Average speed assumes that each athlete travels at the same speed throughout the entire distance. ‘otal distance travelled toral time taken’ Average speed = In reality, the athletes did not run at the same speed throughout their races. The speed at one instant is different from the speed at another instant. The speed of an object at a particular instant is known as its instantaneous speed. '¥ Avorage speeds of diferent objects or animals bullet from rife Airbus A380_ ee 280m s* chootah 3c msVelocity When we are asked for the velocity of an object, we have to state the speed of the object and the direction in which itis ‘travelling. This is because velocity is a vector quantity. It is speed in a specified direction. displacement Velocity = time taken Its SI unit is the metre per second (ms). An object moves at a constant velocity when it moves at a constant speed in ne direction. The object is no longer at a constant velocity when it changes direction without changing its speed, or when it changes its speed without changing its direction. Similarly, as in the case of average speed, total displacement Average velocity = ~~ — total time taken Worked Example 2.2 Figure 2.4 shows a car that travels 5 km due east and makes a U-turn to travel another 7 km. If the time taken for the whole journey is 0.2 h, calculate the (a) average speed; (b) average velocity of the car. Solution Po ending point E starting point <5 km < Figure 2.4 (a) Average speed fel tire taenie _ (5+ 7) km 02h = 60 km br (b)_ Taking the direction due east of point 0 as positive, total displacement total time taken = (8-7) km "02h 40 km ht Average velocity = If the athlete in the diagram takes 25 s to complete a 200 m sprint event, find her speed and velocity distance travelled 200m The ‘triangle’ method can help you to recall the relationship between velocity ¥, displacement o and time t + Tofind time t, cover tto obtain t= (as shown above). * To find time v, cover vto obtain v: * To find time d, cover dto obtain d= vt This method can also be applied to other similar formulae, In which variable xis directly proportional to variable y but inversely proportional to variable z, xed i eet eer one Q20mst 30ms* ~*~ (@) Change in speed 4. A string is tied to 0 atone. Does the stone undergo ‘acceleration when itis whirled in circles? ‘4 Whirling a stone 2. Identify the event(s) that involves deceleration: (@) A space shuttle blasting off (b) An aeroplane landing, (6) A lift approaching the intended floor (d) An MRT train leaving a station (@) A car coming to a halt .. Acceleration ‘An object Is accelerating when its velocity changes. In other words, the object undergoes acceleration when its speed and/or direction change(s) (Figure 2.5). (b) Change in direction (6) Change in both speed and direction ‘4 Figure 2.6 Three scenarios in which acceleration occurs Acceleration SC asl change in velocity time taken Acceleration Acceleration is a vector quantity. Its SI unit is the metre per second per second (m *) ‘There is acceleration when velocity increases or decreases over time. For an object whose velocity decreases over time, we can say that it is, undergoing deceleration or retardation. Uniform acceleration ‘An object undergoes uniform acceleration when the change (increase or decrease) in its velocity for every unit of time is the same (Table 2.3). ¥ Table 2.3. Object moving with uniform acceleration 4 80-20 2 7 7 60 : -20 3 40% 20 a When the velocity of the object is increasing by 20 m s~ every second, the acceleration is 20m s*. When the velocity of the object is decreasing, by 20 m s* every second, the deceleration is 20 m s.= The following equation can be used to determine the uniform acceleration a of an abject: ‘re uniform acceleration ‘and uniform motion the same? Explain your answer, where u v initial velocity (in m 5"); final velocity (in m 5“); time at which an object is at initial velocity uv (in sy; the time at which an object is at final velocity vin 8); change in velocity (in m st); At = time interval between t, and ¢,(in s). Worked Example 2.3 [eS A car at rest starts to travel in a straight path. It reaches a velocity of 12 m s* in 4 s (Figure 2.6). What is its acceleration, assuming that it accelerates uniformly? t Solution We assign the direction to the right as positive. Given: initial velocity u = 0 m s* (since the car starts from rest) : final velocity v= 12m s* time taken At= ,-t,=4s mst Veiamst vou (42-0) ms* q=0s “at as The acceleration is 3m s®. ‘The velocity of a golf ball rolling in a straight line changes from 8 m sto 2m s* in 10 s (Figure 2.7). What is its deceleration, assuming that it is decelerating uniformly? 4 Figure 2.6 Solution We assign the direction to the right as positive, Given: initial velocity v= 8 m s* final velocity v= 2 ms time taken At = 10 s =8mst Since its acceleration is assumed to be uniform, (2-8)ms# at 10s The deceleration is 0.6 ms. a -0.6 ms? 82 a Si From what you have learnt so far, have you ‘ound the answers to Let's Explore (a), (b) and (o}? Non-uniform acceleration ‘An object undergoes nor-uniform acceleration if the change in its velocity for every unit of time is not the same (Table 2.4). ‘¥ Table 2.4 Object moving with non-uniform acceleration Time/s Pes Coe ae 's Explore! Scalar quantities are physical quantities that have magnitude only. Examples include distance, speed and time. Vector quantities are physical quantities that have both magnitude and direction. Examples include displacement, velocity and acceleration. ‘Speed is the distance moved per unit time. Its SI unit is the metre per second (m s*) total distance travelled ‘tal time taken Velocity is the rate of change of displacement. {ts SI unit is the metre per second (m 5") displacement tine taken Acceleration Is the rate of change of velocity Its SI unit is the metre per second per second (ms) Average speed = Velocity = From point A, a boy walks 4 m to the east, 2m to the south, 4m to the west, and finally 2m to the north. Find (a) the distance he travelled; {b) his displacement. What is the difference between speed and velocity? “An object moving at a constant velocity is moving ina straight line.” Is the statement true or false? Explain your answer. 0 4. 5. 8. o ° ° 1 10 40-0=10 2 40 40-10 = 30 3 - 60 60 - 40 = 20 4 - 70 70-60 =10 5 50 50-70 =-20 Note that the change in velocity is not the same for every second. The moving object is undergcing non-uniform acceleration. ‘An object undergoes acceleration when its speed and/or direction change(s). change in velocity time taken {An object undergoes uniform acceleration a if the change in its velocity for every unit of time is the same, i.e, the rate of change of velocity is constant. Acceleration = a= AY, where av= the change of the velocity; ae At = the time interval over, which the change in velocity occurs. {An object undergoes non-uniform acceleration if the change in its velocity for every unit of time is not the same. At the start of a journey, the odometer (i.e. meter that tracks the total distance a car has travelled) showed an intial reading of 50 780 km. At the end of the journey, the ‘odometer reading was 50 924 km. The journey took two hours. What was the average speed Of the journey in (a) kim hr; (b) m s+? What is acceleration? Given that the velocity of an object moving in fa straight line changes uniformly from u to vin time ¢, write an expression for the acceleration of the object.2.3 Graphs of Motion Learning Outcomes — You should be able to: + plot and interpret a displacement-time graph; * plot and interpret a velocity-time graph; ‘+ deduce information about motion from the shape of a displacement-time graph, ‘deduce information about motion from the shape of a velocity-time graph; ‘determine displacement by calculating the area under a velocity-time graph. Displacement-time graphs Figure 2.8 shows a car travelling along a straight line in one direction, starting away from the starting point O. If the direction to the right is set as positive, then the positive gradients of graphs in (b)(c) mean that the car is travelling towards the right. The displacement of the car is measured for every second. The displacement and time are recorded ia Feewe ia 8 Wrtbon of 3 227 and a graph is plotted using the data. The results for four possible Journeys are shown below. — (a) Car at rest Sketch a displacement- time graph of another car that travels at ‘a higher velocity ‘compared to the ear in The graph has zero gradient. Figure 2.8, The displacement is a constant for every second. QO rake note The magnitude of the gradient gives the speed of the car. The sign of the gradient gives the direction of the car. (b) Car travelling at uniform velocity of 10 m s* ° 1 2 3 4 5 o-| a0 30 | 40 | 50 4] The graph has a constant gradient. /*\ The displacement increases 10m | every second Tone /(c) Car travelling with increasing velocity (non-uniform velocity) = ofs{o2f{sf{afs_ Pema | se | | as | eo | tas Displacement The graph has an increasing gradient. The velocity increases. ‘The instantaneous velocity ofthe car at t= 3 sis given by the gradient of the tangent at the point e/s o i 0 4s | 80 Dispacementm The graph has a decreasing gradient. The velocity decreases. Time/s Velocity-time graphs A boy playing in a video arcade controls his car by stepping on a pedal. Velocity~ time graphs can be used to illustrate uniform and non-uniform acceleration in h motion in one direction in a straight line. (a) Car at rest (b) Car travelling at uniform velocity of 10 m s-* ols{2[sala|s5 olsfelslia|s5 ololololo|o 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 10 vetatyim 9% 0 The velocity remains sof The velocity remains dl atOms*, so 3 at 10 ms, so the car has zero the car has zero 0 acceleration. 20 acceleration. 20 2 20 19) tee Ree 0:(c) Car travelling with uniform acceleration o{1af{[2{s [a4 |s5 o | 10 | 2 | 30 | 40 | 50 eos The velocity of the car increases by 10 m s* every second. Hence, the graph has a positive and constant gradient, and the acceleration is constant. 1 By stepping on the pedal all Ties the way, the boy moves his car with constant acceleration. 1 2 3 | 4s | 40 | 30 | 20 | 10 | o The velocity of the car decreases by 10 ms“ every second. Hence, the graph has a negative and constant gradient, and the deceleration is constant. 4 By releasing the pedal, Tamers the boy moves his car with a constant deceleration. (e) Car travelling with increasing acceleration (non-uniform acceleration) ° 1 2 | 3 4 | 5 i ove eecnal teil can ica elec = The increase in velocity is increasing with time, Hence, the graph has a positive and increasing gradient, and the acceleration increases, The Instantaneous acceleration of the car at t= 3.8 Is given by the gradient of the tangent at the point ‘4 By stepping on the pedal slowly the boy moves his car with an increasing acceleration. Time/s(f) Car travelling with decreasing acceleration (non-uniform acceleration) On tee aj eh es o | 18 | 32 | 42 | 48 | 50 The increase in velocity is decreasing with time. Hence, the graph has a positive and decreasing gradient and the acceleration decreases, ‘4 By releasing the pedal slowly, the Tie boy moves his car with a decreasing, acceleration. Comparisons between displacement-time ‘Compare deceleration and velocity-time graphs ‘and decreasing Velocity-time graphs and displacement-time graphs look very similar, but they ‘acceleration. What are give different information. We can differentiate them by looking at the labels the dterences beween — EN yalyayas, the two? Assume that the car in Fgure 2.8 starts from rest and accelerates uniformly in one direction to a constant velocity. The car then comes to a stop at a red light. Figure 2.9 shows the displacement-time and velocity-time graphs of the car and how they are related. en rr fren Cor accelerates Car moves at constant Cor decelerates uniformly uniformly fom rest veloc toa stop. The ans indcates dsplacement. Thus, Displacement-time graph this is a displacement-time graph. Displacement/m Displacement moved increases iniformly overtime. Hence, { gradient is a positive constant represented by a straight line) Displacement moved increases at an increasing rate. Hence, gradient increases (represented by a concave curve). \ \ Displacement moved increases at a decreasing rate. Hence, gradient decreases (represente: by a convex curve). Time/s i Teyaieindeane scree, | Wt ga Rerawensague ee a a velocity-time graph. Hence, gradient is uniformly over time. Hence, a positive constant gradient is a negative Velocity/m s* (represented by a constant (represented by @ ee A B Chapter 2 «4 Figure 2.9 Displacement and velocity-time graphsWorked Example 2.5 ne ee eeeeeeeeen Figure 2.10 shows the displacement-time graph of a car. Assume that the direction of the car moving away from origin O is positive. Refer to Figure 2.10. + Is the car moving at a uniform velocity for the stretch of the Journey described by curve CF? fae a ee ‘+ Compare and comment on the as Figure 2.40 velocity at D and at E. + Is the velocity increasing or Describe the motion of the car at each stage: decreasing from E to F? (a) A (b) B (c) C (a) Dtoe (e) EtoF Solution The motion of the car is described in Table 2.5. ¥ Table 2.5 Motion of the car Displacement is 40 m from 0. go + Velocity is zero, (b) * Velocity is uniform. * Displacement is 90 m from O. () * Velocity is zer ‘+ Car travels in the opposite direction back towards 0. ‘+ Displacement decreases at a decreasing rate, + Velocity is non-uniform and decreasing, (@ + Displacement remains at 28 m from 0. (| EF | Volo ie ra © science ates Calculate his speed in metres per second and in steps per second. Which speed) Would you use to pace yourself if you are aiming to beat his record? > Swissotel The StamfordWorked Example 2.6 The velocity-time graph of a car is shown in Figure 2.11. Describe the motion of the car. Velocity/m 5 ‘When interpreting ‘the motion of the car ina velacity-time ‘graph, explain what happening interval by interval Time/s ol 6 «10 «15 «205 80S a Figure 2.13 Solution The motion of the car is described in Table 2.6. Table 2.6 Motion ofthe car Motion + Velocity increases uniformly from 0 m s% to 45m 5° 0-55 | * Acceleration is uniform at on ft8-Omst se 3ms '* Velocity increases from 15 m s# to 20 m s at a decreasing rate. 5-408 | « Acceleration is nonuniform and decreasing. ‘Velocity is uniform and is at a maximum. 10-455 | « pcceleration is zero. ‘+ Velocity decreases uniformly from 20 m s~ to 0 m s~ ‘= Acceleration is uniform at 15-208| ,_(0-20)ms* Ss Therefore, deceleration (or retardation) is 4m s*. ams * Velocity is zero. 20-28 | « Acceleration is zero. * Velocity increases uniformly from 0 m s* to 40 m 25-30 | * Acceleration is uniform at (10-0) ms* Ss =2ms? * Velocity decreases from 10 m s* to 0 m s* at a decreasing rate. * Deceleration is non-uniform and decreasing. 30-355Area under velocity-time graph Figure 2.12 shows the velocity-time graph for an object moving with uniform velocity Velocity/m s-* Timers 2 4 6 8 10 12) dae ee Figure 2.12 Velocity-time graph of an object moving with uniform velocity sto f=414s. What is the total The velocity is 6 m s* from time t displacement from t= 0 s to t= 10 s? We can calculate it as follows: ms, t=10s d=vxt=6mstx10s 60m The product of velocity and time gives the displacement. From Figure 2.13, you can see that the product of 6 m st and 10 s is the area of the shaded rectangle. Volocity/m s* * Only the area under a velocity-time graph gives the displacement, The area under a displacement time graph does not give displacement. ‘+ We can derive the total displacement from a displacement-time graph ‘4 Figure 2.13 Displacement of the object is the area of the rectangle under by reading the values the velocity-time graph. directly off the y-axis. —_@2 ~: Now, consider the following velocity-time graph (Figure 2.14) for an object that accelerates, moves with uniform velocity and then decelerates. | E 5 Time/s 4042 4a B20 aaa ‘A Figure 2.14 Velocity-time graph of an object that accelerates, moves with Uniform velocity and then decelerates: Calculation of total displacement Total displacement of the object is the total area under the velocity-time graph = Area of the trapezium =3 x sum of parallel sides x height =$x(984245)x36ms4 = 594m Calculation of average speed Average speed of object __ total distance travelled _ 594m ="“otal time taken 24s 24.8ms* Description of motion From time t= 0s to t= 6s, * Velocity increases uniformly from 0 ms to 36 ms, 2 88-05? mse Acceleration = “TE ppg = ms From time t= 6 sto t= 155, © Velocity remains constant at 36 ms. * Acceleration = 0 ms? From time (= 15 s to t= 24s, * Velocity decreases uniformly from 36 m sto Om s*. 36) ms 15) s * Acceleration = =-4ms?Worked Example 2.7 ¥ An MRT train moves off from Aljunied station and travels along a straight track towards Paya Lebar station, Figure 2.15 shows how the velocity of the train varies with time over the whole journey. Velocity/m s* o| 10 20 30 40 60 60 70 80 90 ‘A Figure 2.45 Velocity-time graph of an MRT train (a) Determine the average speed of the train between t= 0 s and t= 70's. {b) Describe the motion of the train between. (i) t=Osandt=10s; (ii) t= 10s and t= 70 s; (iii) t= 70 s and t= 90s. ‘Solution (a) Displacement between t= 0 s and t= 70s Velocity/m s* = area under velocity-time graph between Osandt=70s area of shaded trapezium (on the right) =4x(608+709)x15ms3 = 975m Average _ total distance travelled 10 70 speed ~ time taken _ 975m. “70s =13.9ms% (b) (1) The velocity-time graph of the train has a gradient that is positive and constant. This means that the train is undergoing uniform acceleration. (il) The vetocity-time graph of the train is a horizontal line. That is, its gradient is zero. This means that the acceleration of the train is zero. (ill) The velocity-time graph of the train has a negative and decreasing gradient. This means that the velocity of the train decreases at a decreasing rate. The train is undergoing decreasing deceleration. We can also find the same shaded area under the velocity time graph by adding the area of the small shaded triangle and area of the shaded rectangle. ‘Try computing the total displacement using the method ‘above. Check ift gives the same ‘answer as in the solution toWorked Example 2.8 ‘A motorist approaches a traffic light junction at 54 km h. The traffic light turns red when he is 30 m from the junction. If he takes 0.4 s before applying the brakes, and his car slows down at a rate of 3.75 m s~, determine whether the motorist is able to stop his car in time. The assumptions are: © The car travels at a uniform velocity of 54 km h* until the brakes are applied. ‘* Its deceleration of 3.75 m s~ is uniform. ‘Solution Note: First, convert 54 km ht into a speed in m s“ 54 km _ $4000 46 95 gs 54 km be Velocity-time graph of vehicle: wn s* us 0.8 T Fat} Find: time interval At between the point at which the motorist applies the brakes and the point at which the car stops Given: uniform deceleration = 3.75 m s? (i.e. acceleration -3,75 ms) change in velocity Av = final velocity ~ initial velocity -15ms* Av wos “isms -3.75 ms" at ateas area under velocity-time graph area of trapezium = $x (0.484445) x 15ms* jl =36m | SSince the displacement of his car is more than 30 m, the motorist is} Unable to stop his car in time Visit http://w. stoppingdistances.org.uk 10 watch a simulation ‘of how the stopping distance changes under various driving conditions. Can the car stop in time? | Does the car stop within 30m? | To answer that, we need to find its displacement. | Its displacement is the area under its velocity-time graph. | To find the area, we need to find At. _Speed-time graph against velocity-time graph Consider a volleyball that is tossed vertically upwards (Figure 2.16) and allowed to fall freely with negligible air resistance. We assign the upward direction from the ground as positive, time t velocity v= 0 | ‘a Figure 2.46 The upward and dowrward joumey of a volleyball Figures 2.17 and 2.18 show the speed-time graph and the velocity-time graph of the volleyball respectively. What do you notice about the areas under the two graphs? Total distance travelled by the ball Distance travelled during its upward joumey to the highest point Distance travelled during its downward Journey from the highest point Speed/m 5 ‘A Figure 2.47 Speed-time {raph of of the volleyball For the speed-time graph, total distance travelled by the volleyball = total area under the speed-time graph =A tA, neh Total displacement of the ball Displacement is Displacement is positive (i.e. h) during | negative (i. ~h) during its upward journey to its downward journey the highest point. {rom the highest point Velocity/m s* ‘4 Figure 2.48 Velocity-time ‘raph of the volleyball For the velocity-time graph, total displacement of the volleyball {otal area under the velocity-time graph =A+A +h) 0 * Why is the displacement of the volleyball during its downvard journey negative? + Sketch the velociy-time graph if the downward direction is defined as positive. ome @'s Explore! From what you have learnt so far, have you found the answers to Let's Explore (4)? oe a. 1. (a) The gradient of a displacement-time graph gives the velocity of an object. (b) The gradient of a tangent on a displacement-time graph for non-uniform velocity gives the instantaneous velocity of an object at that instant. 2. (a) For an object at rest, the displacement-time graph is a horizontal line. (b) For an object travellirg at uniform velocity, the displacement-time graph Is a straight line with ccnstant gradient. (6) For an object travelirg at increasing velocity, the displacement-time graph is a curve with increasing gradient. (@) For an object travellirg at decreasing velocity, the displacement-time graph isa curve with decreasing gradient. 3. (a) _The gradient of the velocity-time graph gives the acceleration of an object. (b) The gradient of the tengent on a velocity-time graph for non-uniform velocity gives the instantaneous acceleration of an object at that instant. 4, The displacement can be cetermined by calculating the area under its vvelocity-time graph. ‘Study the displacement-time graph shown in Figure 2.19, Displacement/m 44 Figure 2.49 Displacerent-time graph of an object For each time interval, spezify whether the object is moving at uniform velocity, ‘moving at non-uniform velozty or at rest. Calculate the average velocity for the given time intervals. 2, How do we tell whether an object is stationary from its displacement-time graph? 3. How do we determine the velocity of an object using its displacement-time graph? 4, Figures 2.20 and 2.21 show the displacement-time and velocity-time graph of a car. For both graphs, describe the motion of the car from (a) point 0 to point (b) point A to point 8; (€) point B to point C; (d) point C to point D. Displacement/m Velocty/m s* D 8 Time/s Time/s 1s Figure 2.20 Displacement- 4 Figure 2.24. Velocity-time time graph of a car ‘graph of a car2.4 Acceleration due to Gravity Learning Outcomes — You should be able to: + state that the acceleration of freefall near to the Eart! 10ms% th’s surface is approximately ‘+ describe the motion of free-falling bodies with and without air resistance; Galileo's discovery If we drop a large stone and a small pebble from the same height at the same time, which object will hit the ground first? In the 47th century, Galileo Galilei discovered through a series of experiments and careful observations that all objects, regardless of mass or size, fell at the same acceleration due to the Earth's gravity. Galileo’s finding was contrary to the widely accepted claim made by Aristotle that a heavier object fell faster than a lighter object. Aristotle's cl oe ‘apply the term terminal velocity when describing the motion of falling bodies. Galileo's finding ‘Ifyou were a scientist in the 17th century, would you have. ‘accepted Gallleo's finding? Why? Acceleration due to gravity gis a constant. For objects close to the Earth’s surface, the value of gis generally taken to be 9.8 m s~. For simplicity in calculations, we approximate this value to 10 m unless otherwise stated, Osama auras s* throughout this book, ‘A Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) Find out if an object that is projected sideways takes more time to hit the ground, 4. Set up a ruler and two coins as shown below. 2. Press on the ruler and « tap the end as shown, 50 that coin A falls vertically, while coin B Js projected sideways. 3. Observe whether they hit the ground at the ‘same time. —_@Objects falling without air resistance {An object can only be in free fall if the only force acting on itis its own weight. Figure 2.22 shows the path taken by a feather and by a hammer falling in a vacuum (i.e. in free fall). T" displacement s, displacement s, (>5,) displacement s,(>s,) 30m s* My -A Figure 2.22 A feather and a hammer in fre fall vim 5 sradient gives. aoceleration” From Figure 2.22, we can make the following deductions: + The velocity of the two objects under gravity increases by 10 m s* every second, That is, both'objects undergo a constant acceleration of 10 ms? ‘+ The direction of their motion is downward (i.e. towards the centre of the Earth). * The acceleration of the free-falling objects does not depend on their rae mass or size. In other words, all objects fall freely at a constant Figure 2.28 Velocty-tine acceleration of 10 m s*. Figure 2.23 shows the velocity-time graph _graphvof freefaling motion that describes the motion of the two free-falling objects. Chaptor 2Worked Example 2.9 AA sandal fell off a bamboo pole from the third floor while it was being put out to dry. The time taken for the sandal to reach the ground was 1.34 s. If air resistance was negligible, (a) find the velocity of the sandal just before it hit the ground; (b)_ find the height of the third floor from the ground; (©) do you expect any change in the velocity-time graph if a sock fell off instead? ‘Solution Since the air resistance is negligible, the sandal is in free fall accelerating at 10 m s*). : time taken t to reach the ground is t, = 1.345 To visualise the problem, we sketch the path and the velocity-time graph of the free-falling sandal. {a) Gradient of v-t graph = constant acceleration due to gravity (y,-0) ms* : (e845 Oop ge «Path of te freefaling sandal ¥,=13.4ms* oe The velocity of the sandal just before it hit the ground was 13.4m s-, (b) Displacement = area under v-t graph Height of third floor from the ground = 1, Liasamstxisas =9.0m : t= 134 (c) No. Both the sandal and sock would give the same «4 Velocity-time graph of velocity-time graph, since acceleration is constant at 10 ms-®, the free‘alling sandal Objects falling with air resistance When you run fast, do you feel air brushing against you? You are experiencing alr resistance. Air resistance is a frictional force. It has the following characteristics: ‘* It always opposes the motion of moving objects. aiseatetinos * It increases with the speed of the objects, * It increases with the surface area (or size) of the objects. * It increases with the density of air. > Air resistance pushes upwards ‘against the open parachute to counter the weight of the parachutist and his gear. woight of parachutist "and gear‘Small dense objects (e.g. ste! balls) fall through air at the same acceleration | and hit the ground at the same time. This is because they experience low [f air resistance. In comparison, a piece of paper is light and has a large surface area. It experierces greater air resistance. The paper falls at a [i lower acceleration. ve | Figures 2.24 and 2.25 show the velocity-time graph and the motion of a | piece of paper falling through air respectively. T 3 3 a us R= air resistance, which increases with velocity oa A, < Mead, < Area, < Area A, W-= weight of paper, which is constant 4 Figure 2.24 Velociy-time graph of Vi(2¥) 4 Figure 2.28 How the velocity ofa fling piece of 8 piece of paper fling though ir paper and air resistance acting on it change overtime Table 2.7 below summarises the forces involved, the changes in velocity and acceleration, and the displacement of the piece of paper at different time intervals. \¥ Table 2.7 Summary of the forces involved, changes in velocity and ‘acceleration, and displacement of the paper falling through alr 9 In velocity and acceleration t=0sto |W>R, | « Velocity increases from zero to ¥, 8, (=A) teis There Is acceleration, t=isto|W>R, | Velocity increases from v, to ¥, SEA) te2s |R>R, |» Avsmalleri.e. (v,-v) <(v,-0) nee, + Acceleration is lower than that between t= 0 s and t= 1s. W>R, | * Velocity increases from v, to v, R,>R, | Avsmallerie. (v,—¥) <(%,—Y) + Acceleration is lower than that between t= 1s and * Velocity stays constant. 5, (©) * Av=0, Le. v= ¥, = terminal velocity (8, > 5) only slignty) * ‘Acceleration is zero.Objects experience higher air resistance when their speed increases. When the air resistance against an object equals its weight, the object starts to travel at a constant speed known as terminal velocity. This means that the object has zero acceleration. If an object falls through a short distance, it may not reach terminal velocity before hitting the ground. Worked Example 2.10 ‘A window cleaner drops a sponge from a window at time t = 0 s. Figure 2.26 shows the velocity-time graph for the motion of the sponge. Velocity vim s* 14] 12| 10] 05 10 is 20 25 ao Time v/s 4 Figure 2.26 (a) Describe the motion of the sponge between A and D. (b) Find the displacement of the sponge between t= 0s and t Solution (a) From Ato B, the velocity of the sponge increases uniformly and the acceleration is a constant 10 m s#, From B to D, the velocity is still increasing but at a decreasing rate. The acceleration decreases. After D, the acceleration soon becomes zero and terminal velocity of 12 m s* is reached. (b) Displacement = area under velocity-time graph 4 (0.6 8) x (6.0 ms) 18m a© science wes Wit etho pie of keg? resistance (i.e. an upward force). The amount of air resistance a shydiver experiences depends on his speed and surface area, Speed of a skydiver Air resistance increases with the skydiver's speed. During the initial part of his descent, the skydiver’s welght is greater than the air resistance. Hence, he gains speed, the air resistance increases until t eventually equals his weight. At this point, he fas at terminal velocity and his acceleration is 2er0. Surface area of a skydiver How a skydiver positions his body during his fall is important. A larger surface area will create more alt resistance. A skydiver falls in a spreadeagle position to maximise his surface area. In this way, he can achieve a lower terminal velocity and stay in the air longer. To fall faster, he simply reduces his surface area by falling head or feet first falls with acceleration towards the ground. As he For the rescue attempt mentioned at the beginning of the chapter, Gregory Robertson adjusted his body to fall head first. He increased his speed to catch up with the unconscious Debbie Williams. Upon nearing her, he went into a spread-eagle position to slow down before grabbing her and opening her parachute. Robertson and Williams landed safely. eee ~_ From what you have learnt so far, have you found the answers to Let's Explore (e)? é In the absence of air resistance (i.e. in vacuum), all objects fall under gravity at constant acceleration g. It is approximately 40 m s near the Earth’s surface, In the presence of air resistance, the velocity of a falling object Increases at a slower rate (i.e. decreasing acceleration). ‘8. An object falling through air achieves terminal velocity when its weight Is equal to the air resistance against it. Visit tp: //mn. dsc.discovery.com to wateh a video on the physics of etydiving {An object is released from an unknown height and falls freely for 5 s Use keywords such es before it hits the ground. ideo" and "shyave"” (a) Sketch the velocity-time graph for a time interval of 5 s, ‘assuming there is negligible air resistance. (b) What is the velocity of the object just before it hits the ground? (c) What is the unknown height? Why does a feather reach terminal velocity faster than a hammer, even though both are released from the same height? . || | The Moving Man Visit http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/moving-man to watch a simulation of a moving man. Click on Run Now! to start the simulation program. Part 4 Getting familiar with the program 4. Select the introduction tab on the top left corner of the program window. 2. (a) Drag the Position, Velocity and Acceleration sliders to change the values of these variables. * Position slider from 1.20 m to ~1.20 m * Velocity slider from 1.20 m s* to ~1.20 m s* * Acceleration slider from 1.20 m s? to -1.20 ms? (b) Check the Velocity Vector and/or Acceleration Vector boxes to visualise the man's movement. (c) Click the Play button at the bottom of the window to start the motion of the man according to the variables specified. 3. At the end of the simulation for one setting, click on the Pause button followed by the Clear button before entering the values of the next setting Observe and describe how the motion of the man changes with time for individual settings. Part 2 Predicting and sketching displacement-time (s-t) and velocity-time (v-t) graphs 1. Select the Charts tab on the top left comer of the program window, 2, Explore the different tabs and buttons as was done in Part 4, 3. Without running the simulation, predict and sketch the s-t and v-t graphs for the following ‘two scenarios. Scenario 1: At -8.0 m from his mother, a toddler started to walk towards his father at a constant velocity of 1.2 m s*, He bumped into his father, who was 10 m away from his mother. ‘Scenario 2: A departing tourist stood 5.0 m from the departure hall at the airport, looking, for her passport. It was 4 s before she started walking towards the hall at a constant velocity of 0.50 m s*. After 4 s, she decided to walk faster at an acceleration of 1.0 m s* before stopping at a souvenir shop. 4. Enter the relevant values into the program, and run the simulation to check if your graphs match the ones generated by the program. Part 3 Collaborative learning 1. If any of your predicted graphs differ from those generated by the program, discuss and clarify your doubts on the chapter with your classmates and teacher. 2. In groups of four, discuss how a velocity-time graph can be drawn if you are given a displacement-time graph.T with at and may reach terminal vel State whether each ofthe following statements is true or false. Then, correct the false statement(s). Revise the relevant section(s) If you got the answer wrong or are not confident of your answer. eae) Statem ba (ay | Vly scale, and hence has magnitude and rection. 2a ‘An object traveling at @ uniform velocity has a displacement-time graph that has a oy constant, positive gradient. {2 | wren he sped of an ted charge, anton hogs. (6 | Te eo uae veto gah of an objet ge vlc 23 (0 | Te vty-tie go of reefing tet i ahrznta re. 23 op | wi te oy fice tng ling ee hj wi a eee oa toma vy ‘Answers are available at the back of the book. 0 —:Section A: Multiple-Choice Questions 1. The average speed of a car is 35 km hr". How 2 far can it travel in 45 minutes? A 0.78km B 26.25 km © 129km D467 km Acar accolerates uniformly from 5 m s* to 13 ms" in 4.0 s, What is the acceleration of the car? A 080ms? B 080ms? © 1.25ms? D 2.00ms? A ball that is thrown vertically upwards at 1.2 m s* decelerates uniformly at 10 m s~. How long will it take to reach zero velocity? A 0.428 Bo 245 © 60s D 1205 Which one of the following velocity-time graphs represents the motion of an object slowing down ‘ata non-uniform deceleration? A Velocity B Velocity IN | Time © Velocity D Velocity NK Time iN Which of the following velocity-time graphs represents the motion of an object falling to the ground in the presence of air resistance? A Velocity B yetoctty Time Time © Volocity D Yelocity Time Time Section B: Structured Questions (a) Define average speed. (b) Figure 2.27 shows a cyclist’s route. He started from point A at 6 am and went past three other points B,C and D, before returning to point A at 6 pm. 6 pm 6 am 12 noon a Figure 2.27 Calculate the average speed of the cyclist () from Ato B; (i) from B to C; (lil) for the whole journey. ‘Atrain travels along a straight track from one station to another. Figure 2.28 shows how the velocity of the train varies with time over the whole journey. Velocty/m s* Time/s Dear B io 42 18 16 4s Figure 2.28 (a) State the time interval over which the train Is decelerating, {b) Determine the acceleration of the train during the first two seconds of the journey. {c) Determine the (displacement between the two stations; (li) average speed of the train.Figure 2.29 shows how the velocity of a moving body varies with time t Velociym s* 20 10} Time/s (Oi0 fet 20 eso n=ag 4 Figure 2.29 (a) Determine the acceleration of the body during the first 10 s. (b) Between t= 30 s and t= 48 s, the body decelerates uniformly to rest. (Complete the graph for this time interval (i) From the graph drawn in (i), obtain the velocity of the body when t= 37.5 s, (€) Determine the displacement of the body between Figure 2.30 shows the velocity-time graph of a car in motion. elocity/m 5 20 15 20] 5 08 10 15 20 25 30 38 Times «4 Figure 2.30 Describe the motion of the car between (a) t=O0sandt=10s; (b) t= 10s and t= 15 (c) t=15sandt= 20s; (@) t=20s and t= 30s; {e) ¢=30sandt=355, a Section C: Free-Response Questions Figure 2.31 shows a smooth track ABCD. The track has a horizontal section BC calibrated in metres. A smooth, stee! ball bearing of mass 0.3 kg was released from a point on the slope AB, A steel ball bearing a} c | 0 4.0m 20m 30m 40m 50m 4 Figure 2.31 A stopwatch was used to time how long it took the ball bearing to go past the various calibration marks. The times were recorded in the Table 2.8. The timing on the stopwatch started some time after the ball bearing went past B. ¥ Table 2.8 Displacement from B/m a 2. 35 | 3.0 6.0 4.0 5.0 11.0) (a) Using graph paper, plot a displacement-time graph for the steel ball bearing, (b) Calculate the average speed of the ball bearing between the 3.0m and 4.0m marks. (e) Assuming there was negligible friction between the ball bearing and the track, calculate the displacement of the ball bearing from B just before the timing started fon the stopwatch, (d) What was the acceleration of the bearing as itrolled along BC? Explain your answer. (€) The ball bearing slowed down on its way tup slope CD and stopped momentarily at T before rolling back down the slope. Given that at T the reading on the stopwatch was, 13 s, calculate the deceleration of the ball bearing as it rolled up slope CD. eather was released from rest in vacuum, and then in air. In both situations, the feather was released from a significant height. (a) Compare and comment on the motion of the feather in vacuum and in air, (b) Sketch the velocity-time graphs of the ‘motion of the feather in vacuum and in air. Workbook Link jorksheet 21 |