UNIT-I OPTICS

Interference:
Principle of Superposition of waves: When two or more waves travel simultaneously in a
medium, the resultant displacement at any point is due to the algebraic sum of the
displacements due to individual waves.

To understand this let us consider two waves travelling simultaneously in a medium. At any
point let y1 be the displacement due to one wave at any instant in the absence of the other and
y2 be the displacement of the other wave at same instant in the absence of the first wave.
Then the resultant displacement due to the presence of both the waves is given by

𝑌 = 𝑦1 ± 𝑦2

+ve sign has to be taken when both the displacements 𝑦1 and 𝑦2 are in the same direction; -ve
sign has to be taken when they are in the opposite direction.

Constructive interference Destructive interference

Fig.1.1

Interference: When two or more waves travel simultaneously in a medium superimpose with
each other then the resultant intensity will be modified. In other words modification of
intensity. They are superimpose the following ways

1. When two or more waves superimpose constructively , then the intensity will be
maximum or bright fringes will appear.
2. When two or more waves superimpose distructively , then the intensity will be
minimum or dark fringes will appear.

In interference the fringe width is equal.

Conditions for interference:

In order to get sustained interference pattern the following conditions are required.

1. The source must be monochromatic.

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 2. Two sources must be coherent. i.e they have same wavelength, amplitude and
constant phase difference.
3. The distance between the coherent sources should be small.
4. The distance be tween the coherent sources and screen should be large.
5. The background should be dark.

Coherence: Two waves are said to be coherent if their waves have

i) Same wavelength
ii) Same amplitude and
iii) Constant phase difference.

Only such waves on superposition give rise to interference pattern, i.e bright and dark fringes.

i) If we choose two sources of a monochromatic light with same power, they emit
waves of same wavelength with same amplitude but since the waves are emitted
spontaneously by the two different sources, they will have randomly varying
phase i.e., they will not have constant phase difference; hence two independent
sources of light can never be coherent.
i) Now let us choose two sources derived from single monochromatic source of light
as young did in his double slit experiment. He made use of Huygen’s concept of
wave front. He considered wave front as the locus of points having the same state
of vibration. Each point on a given wave front is to be considered as the source of
secondary source emitting secondary wavelets that are in phase each other. Thus
they are coherent.

Coherence is of two types.

1. Temporal coherence: If it is possible to predict the phase relation at a point on

the wave w.r.t. another point on the same wave then the wave has temporal
coherence.
2. Spatial coherence: : If it is possible to predict the phase relation at a point on a
wave w.r.t. another point on a second wave then the wave are said to be spatial
coherence.

Young’s double slit:

The phenomenon of interference of light was first discovered by Thomas young in

1801.Young allowed the sunlight to pass through a pinhole S and then at some distance
through two sufficiently close pin holes 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 in an opaque screen. Finally the light was
received on a screen on which he observed an uneven distribution of light intensity.

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 Fig.1.2

Let us consider the suoerposition of waves of same frequency having constant phase
difference.Let a1 and a2 be the amplitudes of these waves.The displacement due to one wave
at any instant t is given by,

𝑌1 = 𝑎1 sin(ωt)

And the displacement due to other wave at the same instant is given by,

𝑌2 = 𝑎2 sin(ωt+𝛿)

where 𝛿 is the phase difference between two waves at an instant t.

By the principle of superposition of waves, the resultant displacement is equal to the sum of
the displacements of all the waves. Hence the resultant displacement is

𝑌 = 𝑌1 + 𝑌2

Y=𝑎1 sin(ωt) + 𝑎2 sin(ωt+𝛿)

= sin(ωt)[ 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿] + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑤𝑡[𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿]

Let 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 =A cos ϕ, 𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿 = A sin ϕ

[𝑎1 + 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿]2 + [𝑎2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛿]2 = 𝐴2

𝐴2 = 𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿

The intensity at any point is proportional to the square of the amplitude i.e.

I=𝐴2 = 𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿

Condition for maximum intensity: The intensity will be maximum at points where the
value of 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 = 1 ,i.e.phase difference 𝛿 = 2𝑛𝜋 where n=0,1,2,3,………………

I = 𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2

I = (𝑎1 + 𝑎2 )2

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 𝐼𝑓 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 = 𝑎

I = 4𝑎2

Condition for minimum intensity: The intensity will be maximum at points where the
value of 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 = −1 ,i.e.phase difference 𝛿 = (2𝑛 + 1)𝜋 where n=0,1,2,3,………………

I = 𝑎12 + 𝑎22 + 2𝑎1 𝑎2

I = (𝑎1 − 𝑎2 )2

𝐼𝑓 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 = 𝑎

I = 0

Interference in thin films by Reflection:

When light is incident on upper surface of the thin film, a part of the light gets reflected from
the upper surface while the remaining part is transmitted into the film. When the transmitted
light is incident on the bottom surface of the film, a part of the light is reflected back towards
the upper surface while the remaining part is transmitted into the bottom surface as shown in
fig. Thus the two reflected light beams at the upper surface superimpose with each other and
hence, produces interference patterns.

Consider a transparent thin film of thickness t with refractive index µ. The monochromatic
light ray AB is incident on the upper surface of the film at an angle of incidence i.Let 𝐵𝑅1
and BC are reflected and transmitted rays respectively. The angle of refracted light is r. The
ray CD will be reflected into the film and emerge through the film from the upper surface of
film as alight ray 𝐷𝑅1 ’The two light rays 𝐵𝑅1 and 𝐷𝑅1 superimpose each other depending
upon path difference between them and hence ,produces the
interference pattern.

In order to determine the path difference draw a normal DN to

𝐵𝑅1 .The distance travelled by the light rays are equal from the
point D
and N.When the light ray travels from B to N, at the same time
the transmitted light ray travels from B to C and then C to D.

the path difference between light rays 𝐵𝑅1 and 𝐷𝑅1 is

∆= 𝜇(𝐵𝐶 + 𝐶𝐷) − 𝐵𝑁………………… (1)

Consider ∆𝐵𝐶𝑀
𝑀𝐶
cos 𝑟 =
𝐵𝐶

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 𝑀𝐶 𝑡
𝐵𝐶 = cos 𝑟 = cos 𝑟 ……………………(2)

Fig.1.3

Similarly, from ∆ DCM,

𝑀𝐶
cos 𝑟 = 𝐶𝐷

𝑀𝐶 𝑡
𝐶𝐷 = cos 𝑟 = cos 𝑟 ...............................(3)

Comparing Eqs. (2) and (3),we get,

𝑡
𝐵𝐶 = 𝐶𝐷 = cos 𝑟 ..........................(4)

Consider that BD = BM + MD ........................(5)

from ∆ DCM,
𝐵𝑀
tan 𝑟 =
𝑀𝐶
We get,

BM = 𝑡 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑟........................(6)
Similarly,
MD = 𝑡 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑟 ............................(7)
Substituting the value of BM and MD in Eqn, (5),we get,

BD = BM + MD = 2t tan r ....................(8)
From ∆ NBD ,

𝐵𝑁
sin 𝑖 =
𝐵𝐷

BN = BD sin i = 2t tan r sin i

According to Snell’s law,we know that

Sin i =µ sin r

BN = 2t tan r ( µ sin r) ...................... (9)

Substituting the BN, BC, and CD values in Eqn. (1),we get ,

2µ𝑡
∆ = − 2t tan r ( µ sin r)
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟

2µ𝑡
= (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑟 )
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑟

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 ∆ = 2µt cos r ..................... (10)

At the point B, reflection occurs from the upper surface of the thin film(denser
medium).Light ray one undergoes an additional phase change of π or an additional path
difference of (λ/2).
λ
Therefore, path difference = 2µt cos r + 2 ............................... (11)

Condition for bright fringe:

When the path difference is equal to an integral multiple of λ ,then the rays one and two
meet in phase and undergoes constructive interference. Therefore,

λ
nλ = 2µt cos r +
2
λ
2µt cos r = (2n − 1) .........................(12)
2

Condition for dark fringe:

When the path difference is equal to an half integral multiple of λ ,then the rays one and two
meet out of phase and undergoes distructive interference. Therefore,

λ λ
(2n + 1) = 2µt cos r +
2 2
nλ = 2µt cos r ............. (13)

where 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3, … . . 𝑒𝑡𝑐.

Depending on the above conditions, the interference pattern consists of bright and dark
fringes.

AIR WEDGE/WEDGE SHAPED THIN FILM

Let an air wedge be formed between two glass plates, slightly inclined to each other at an
angle θ as shown. Illuminate the wedge by a parallel beam of monochromatic
light. Interference occurs between the rays reflected
from the upper and lower surfaces of the air film. Alternate dark and bright bands of equal
width are observed.

Fig.1.4(a) Fig.1.4(b)

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Let‘t’ be the thickness of the air film at a distance ‘x’ from the edge. From figure,
tanθ = t/x
Since θ is small, tanθ~θ
θ = t/x

Or t = θ 𝑥 -------------------------- (1)
Condition for occurrence of a dark band is
2 µ t cos r = nλ
For air film, µ = 1. For normal incidence, cos r = 1
2t = nλ
Substituting‘t’ from equation (1),
2θ𝑥 = nλ
Or,
𝑥𝑛 = nλ/2θ
th
For (n+1) ring
𝑥𝑛+1 = (n+1) λ/2θ
Fringe width
β = (𝑥𝑛+1 − 𝑥𝑛 ) = λ/2θ

For a liquid wedge,

β = λ/2µθ

Applications of air wedge

Determination of thickness (diameter) of thin objects
The given object is placed between two glass plates to form an air wedge. On illumination,
we can see alternate bright and dark bands with bandwidth β = λ/2θ

Fig.1.5

From figure,
θ = d/L
β = λL/2d
Or, d = λL/2 β Where d-Thickness of thin material.
Testing of optical planeness of surfaces:
A surface is said to be optically flat if it is plane up to 1/10th of the wavelength of light used.
In order to test the planeness, we can use interference fringes obtained from an air film. The
surface to be tested is placed in contact with an optically flat glass plate and the fringes are
viewed. If the fringes of equal thickness are formed, then the surface is flat. Irregular and
distorted fringe pattern is obtained if the surface is not flat.

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NEWTON'S RINGS .
When a plano-convex lens with its convex surface is placed on a plane glass sheet, an air film
of gradually increasing thickness is formed between the lens and the glass plate. The
thickness of film at the point of contact is zero. If monochromatic light is allowed to fall
normally on the lens, and the film is viewed in reflected light, alternate bright and dark
concentric rings are seen around the point of contact. These rings were first discovered by
Newton, that's why they are called Newton’s rings. Newton's rings are formed due to
interference between the light waves reflected from the top and bottom surfaces of the air
film formed between the lens and glass sheet.

Fig.1.6(a) Fig.1.6(b)

Let the radius of curvature of the convex lens is R and the radius of ring is 'r'. Consider light
of wave length 'λ' falls on the lens. After refraction and reflection two rays 1 and 2 are
obtained. These rays interfere each other producing alternate bright and dark rings. At the
point of contact the thickness of air film is zero, the path difference is (λ/2) and as a
180O phase change occurs. Hence dark ring is obtained at the centre.
λ
Path difference for bright ring 2µt cos r = (2n − 1) 2
Path difference for dark ring nλ = 2µt cos r

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To find the radius of curvature of plano convex lens

Let's consider a dark ring with radius r at a point and thickness is t.

From the triangle

R2 = (R − t)2 + r2

R2 = R2 − 2Rt + t2 + r2

2Rt = t2 + r2

Here, t is several wavelenths or so, while the ring radius r is usually

some millimetres, so we can neglect the t2 term. Further, Fig.1.7

2Rt = r2
𝑟2
𝑡 = 2𝑅

for a dark ring, we have seen above that t = nλ/2, where n is a positive integer. Substituting
gives

Rnλ = r2 or r = (Rnλ)1/2

diameter 𝑜𝑓𝑛𝑡ℎ dark ring is 𝐷𝑛2 = 4𝑅𝑛𝜆

For a bright ring, we have seen that 𝑡 = (2𝑛 − 1)𝜆/4 where n is positive integer.
Substituting gives
𝑟2
= (2𝑛 − 1)𝜆/4
2𝑅

Diameter of 𝑛𝑡ℎ bright ring is

𝐷𝑛2 = 2𝜆𝑅(2𝑛 − 1)

diameter of 𝑛𝑡ℎ dark ring is 𝐷𝑛2 = 4𝑅𝑛𝜆

Difference between the above two rings is

2
𝐷𝑚 − 𝐷𝑛2 = 4𝑅𝜆(𝑚 − 𝑛)
2
𝐷𝑚 − 𝐷𝑛2
R=
4λ(𝑚 − 𝑛)

To find the refractive index of given liquid medium:

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The experiment is performed when there is an air film between the glass plate and plano
convex lens. The diameters of 𝑚𝑡ℎ and 𝑛𝑡ℎ dark rigs are determined with the help of a
travelling microscope.
2
𝐷𝑚 − 𝐷𝑛2 = 4𝑅𝜆(𝑚 − 𝑛) ........................ (1)

Now, the liquid is introduced between the glass plate and plano convex lens, liquid film is
formed.Again, the diameters of the same 𝑚𝑡ℎ and 𝑛𝑡ℎ dark rings are to be obtained. Then we
have,

′2 4𝑅𝜆(𝑚−𝑛)
𝐷𝑚 − 𝐷𝑛′2 = ..................................... (2)
µ

From equations (1) and (2),we get

4𝑅𝜆(𝑚−𝑛) 2 −𝐷 2
𝐷𝑚 𝑛
µ= ′2 −𝐷 ′2 = ′2 −𝐷 ′2
𝐷𝑚 𝑛 𝐷𝑚 𝑛

Using the above formula, refractive index of liquid( µ ) can be calculated.

Interferometer:

A device, working based on the phenomena of interference is known as interferometer. It is

used to measure the wavelength, thickness and refractive index of films. In general, a number
of types of optical instruments that produce optical interference. These instruments are
grouped under the generic name of interferometers.

Principle: A beam of light from an extended source is divided into two coherent beams of
equal intensities by partial reflection and refraction. These beams travel in two mutually
perpendicular directions and come together after reflection from plane mirrors. The beams
overlap on each other and produce interference fringes.

Michelson’s Interferometer :

The Michelson interferometer is a device that produces

interference between two beams of light.

Working:

• Light from the source( S) strikes the beam splitter. The

beam splitter (B) allows 50% of the radiation to be
transmitted to the translatable mirror M1. The other
50% of the radiation is reflected to the fixed mirror M2.

The compensator plate C is introduced along this path to make

each path have the same optical path length when M1 and M2
are the same distance from the beam splitter. After returning
from M1, 50% of the light is reflected toward the frosted glass

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screen. Fig.1.8

• Likewise, 50% of the light returning from M2 is transmitted to the glass screen. At
the screen, the two beams are superposed and one can observe the interference
between them.

• Compensator plate (C) –not essential for monochromatic light,

• Compensator plate (C) – essential for polychromatic light

Depending upon the path difference and angle between the mirrors M1and M2,the obtained
interference patterns are categorised into different types such as straight, circular and
parabolic.

Types of fringes:

(i) Circular: When the interference pattern is viewed through

the telescope, it appears that the virtual image 𝑀1′ is close
to M2 i.e. 𝑀1′ is parallel to M2.An air film is enclosed
between them, and then circular rings are observed.

Fig.1.9

(ii) Localised fringes: When the mirror M2 is not exactly perpendicular to mirror M1
or the mirror M1 and the virtual mirror 𝑀1′ are inclined, the air film is enclosed
between them is wedge-shaped. The shape of fringes depends on the thickness of
the film and the angle of incidence.
a) When two mirrors 𝑀2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀1′ intersect in the middle, straight fringes are observed.
b) When two mirrors 𝑀2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀1′ inclined, curved fringes are obtained.

Fig.1.10

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Applications:

1. Determination of wavelength of monochromatic light

2. Determination of refractive index or thickness of a thin transparent material

Determination of wavelength of monochromatic light

Adjust 𝑀2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀1′ parallel to each other. Thus it forms an air film of thickness’t’ in
between the mirrors and hence it produces circular fringes. If now M2 is moved (λ/2) away
from 𝑀1′ ,then additional path difference of λ will be introduced and hence (𝑛 + 1)𝑡ℎ
bright spot appears at the centre of the field. Thus each time when M1 moves through a
distance (λ/2), next bright spot appears at the centre of the field. Let N be the number of
fringes that cross the centre of the field when mirror M2 is moved from initial position X1 to
a final position X2,then

N(λ/2) = X2-X1
𝟐(𝐗𝟐−𝐗𝟏)
λ= 𝑵

Determination of refractive index or thickness of a thin transparent material

Experiment is set for localised fringes of white light. The cross wires are set on central fringe.
Now the thin plate is introduced in one of the interfering rays. The path difference between
the two waves is increases by 2t(µ- 1).Thus the fringes shift from their positions. The mirror
M2 is now moved either back ward or forward till the central fringe coincides with the cross
wire. The distance x moved by mirror M2 is noted with the help of micrometer screw. Hence,

2x =2t(µ- 1)
𝑥
t= (µ− 1)

and
t+x
µ=
t

....xxxxxxxxxx...

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 Diffraction

Diffraction: The phenomenon of bending of light round the corners of obstacles and
spreading of light wave into the geometrical shadow of an obstacle placed in the path of light
is called diffraction.

Differences between Interference and diffraction:

Interference Diffraction
1. It is due to the superposition of two 1. It is due to the superposition of
different wave fronts originating from secondary wavelets originating from
two coherent sources. the different parts of the same wave
2. Interference fringes are of equal front.
width. 2. Diffraction bands decreases in their
3. All bright fringes are of the same widths as the order increases.
intensity. 3. The bright fringes are of varying
4. All the dark fringes have zero intensity
intensity. 4. The intensity of dark fringes is not
zero.

Types of diffraction:

Fresnel diffraction Fraunhofer diffraction

1. Either a point source or an illuminated 1. Extended source at infinite distance is
narrow slit is used. used.
2. The incident wave front is either spherical 2. The incident wave front is a plane wave
or cylindrical. front.
3. The source and screen are finite distances 3. The source and screen are infinite
from the obstacle producing diffraction. distances from the obstacle producing
4. No lens is used to focus the rays. diffraction.
4. Converging lens is used to focus parallel
rays.

Fig.1.11 Fig.1.12

Fraunhofer diffraction – Single slit

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Consider a slit width a .Let a plane wave front of monochromatic light of wavelength
propagating normally towards the slit is incident on it. The diffracted light through the slit is
focused by the convex lens on a screen placed in the focal plane of the lens. According to
Huygens’s principle, every point on the wave front in the plane of the slit is a source of
secondary wavelets, which spread out to the right in all directions. These wavelets travelling
normal to the slit OP are brought to focus at P by the lens. Thus, P is a bright central image.
The secondary wavelets travelling at an angle θ
with the normal are focused at a point Q on the
screen. Depending on path difference, the point Q
may have maximum or minimum intensities.

To find intensity at Q ,let us draw the normal AK

from A to the light ray B. The path difference
between the two waves from A and B in a direction
θ is
𝐴𝐵
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝐵𝐾

Path difference (BK) = AB 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

= a 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
2𝜋
Phase difference (∅) = a 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 Fig.1.13
𝜆

Intensity in Single-Slit Diffraction, Qualitatively

To find an expression for the intensity I of the pattern as a function of θ, the angular position
of a point on a viewing screen. To do this, we divide the slit into N zones of equal widths ∆a
small enough that we can assume each zone acts as a source of Huygens wavelets. We wish
to superimpose the wavelets arriving at an arbitrary point Q on the viewing screen, at angle θ
to the central axis, so that we can determine the amplitude 𝐸𝜃 of the electric component of the
resultant wave at Q. The intensity of the light at P is then proportional to the square of that
amplitude.
To find 𝐸𝜃 , we need the phase relationships among the arriving wavelets. The phase
difference between wavelets from adjacent zones is given by

2𝜋
Phase difference (∅) = a 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜆

For point P at angle u, the path length difference between wavelets from adjacent zones is ∆a
sin θ; so the phase difference ∆ϕ between wavelets from adjacent zones is

14
 2𝜋
Phase difference (∆∅) = (∆a 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
𝜆

1. For point P at θ = 0 on the central axis of Fig. tells us

that the phase difference ∆∅ between the wavelets is
zero; that is, the wavelets all arrive in phase. The
amplitude 𝐸𝜃 of the net wave at P is the vector sum of
these phasors.This arrangement of the phasors turns out to be the one that gives the
greatest value for the amplitude 𝐸𝜃 =𝐸0

2. At a small angle θ to the central axis. The arrangement

of phasors is shown in Fig. Now there is an angle
∆∅ between adjacent phasors. The resultant
amplitude 𝐸𝜃 is smaller than the central point P.

3. If we continue to increase θ,the angle ∆∅ between

adjacent phasors increases and eventually the chain of phasors curls completely
around so that the head of the last phasor reaches the tail of the first phasor. The
amplitude is zero, hence intensity is also zero. This is the first
minimum intensity.

4. As we continue to increase θ, the angle ∆∅ between adjacent

phasors continues to increase, the chain of phasors begins to wrap
back on itself, and the resulting coil begins to shrink. Amplitude
𝐸𝜃 now increases until it reaches a maximum value in the
arrangement shown in Fig. This arrangement corresponds to the
first side maximum in the diffraction pattern.

5. If we increase θ a bit more, the resulting shrinkage of the coil decreases𝐸𝜃 , which
means that the intensity also decreases. When θ is increased enough, the head of the
last phasor again meets the tail of the first phasor. We have then reached the second
minimum. We could continue this qualitative method of determining the maxima and
minima of the diffraction pattern but, instead, we shall now turn to a quantitative
method

Calculation of Intensity:

The resultant amplitude at any point Q on the screen can be

obtained by considering the limiting case where ∆a becomes
infinitesimally small ∆a and N tends to infinity. In this limit , the
phasor diagram becomes a smooth curve as shown in
fig.

15
From the

………………. (1)

To find R,

………………. (2)

Substitute equation (2) in (1), get

Where is amplitude of all the phasors

Alternate method

To find the intensity at any point on the screen ,the slit can be divided in to n number of slits.
The path difference between n slits is
1
∆ = (𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝑛

1 2𝜋
∆ = ( 𝜆 a 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)=d(say)
𝑛

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According to vector polygon method, the resultant amplitude (R) is

sin(𝑛𝑑/2)
𝑅=𝑎
𝑑
sin( 2)

1 2𝜋
sin(𝑛 𝑛 ( a 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)/2)
𝑅=𝑎 𝜆
1 2𝜋
( a 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)
sin( 𝑛 𝜆 )
2
𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋/𝜆) 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑅=
𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜋/𝑛𝜆) 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝
𝑅=
𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝
𝑛
𝑛𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛∝
Where ∝ = (𝜋/𝜆) 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑅= ∝

𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛 ∝
𝑅=
∝
𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛∝ 2
𝑅2 = ( ) = I= Intensity
∝

Intensity distribution: The intensity at any point on the screen will be

1. Principal maximum

It is obtained ,when the angle of diffraction is zero or no path difference

𝜋
∝ = (𝜆 ) 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 0

2. Minimum intensity: The intensity will be minimum when

∝ = (𝜋/𝜆) 𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =± 𝑚𝜋

𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =±𝑚𝜆 (m = 1,2,3,4........etc).

17
3.Secondary maximum

It is in between two minima. It can be obtained when the path difference is

𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =±(2𝑚 + 1)𝜆/2 (m = 1,2,3,4........etc).

Diffraction at circular aperture

The case of circular aperture is very important in optical devices. Microscopes, telescopes,
cameras, anything utilizes spherical lenses or mirrors are subject to diffraction due to finite
size of the aperture through which the light passes. Diffraction place fundamental limit
on angular resolution of such devices.

Let AB be a circular aperture of diameter d. A plane wave front 𝑊𝑊 ′ of monochromatic light

of wavelength λ propagating normally to the circular aperture incident on it.

The diffraction beam focussed on the screen by a convex lens. Every point of the wave front
of plane of circular aperture is a source of secondary wavelets, which spread out to the right
in all directions. The wavelets travelling along the normal to the circular aperture comes to
focus at 𝑃0. Because all the normal wavelets travel the same distance before reaching the
point 𝑃0 and hence they all reinforce one another. Therefore 𝑃0 corresponds to the position
of central maximum. If we consider the secondary waves travelling in a direction inclined at

18
an angle θ with the normal to the aperture, they meet at a point 𝑃1 on the screen. Let 𝑃0 𝑃1 =
𝑥. The path difference between the extreme waves from point A and B is

𝑩𝑫 = 𝑨𝑩 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽

Arguing in the same way as in case of a single slit, the point 𝑃1 will be minimum intensity if
the path difference is an integral multiple of λ and of maximum intensity if the path
difference is odd multiple of (λ/2),i.e

𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝒎𝝀 minima ----------------------(1)

𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = (𝟐𝒎 + 𝟏)𝝀/𝟐 maxima ---------------(2)

Where m=1,2,3......etc. The term m=0 corresponds to central maxima at 𝑃0 .

If the point 𝑃1 is of minimum intensity, then all the points which are at the same distance
from 𝑃0 as 𝑃1 i.e., all the points lying on a circle of radius x, will be of minimum intensity.
The diffraction pattern may be considered by rotating the intensity distribution graph of a
single slit about the central axis passing through 𝑃0 about which the circular aperture is
perfectly symmetrical. The point 𝑃0 traces out in a circular ring of uniform illumination.
Thus the diffraction pattern consists of a central disc, called Airy disc surrounded by alternate
dark and bright concentric rings, called Air’s rings. The intensity of dark ring is zero and that
of the bright ring decrease gradually outwards from𝑃0 .

If the collecting lens is very near to the circular aperture or the screen is at a large distance
from the lens, then
𝒙
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝜽 = 𝒇 ............................ (3)

Where f is the focal length of lens.

Further, for the first minimum

𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝟏 𝝀 (𝒎 = 𝟏)
𝝀
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝜽 = 𝒅 ............................... (4)

From equations (3) and (4)

𝐱 𝛌 𝐟𝛌
= 𝐝 or 𝐱 = ................... (5)
𝐟 𝐝

Where x is the Radius of the Airy disc. It was shown by Airy, that the exact value of x is
given by
𝟏.𝟐𝟐 𝒇𝝀
𝒙= ........................ (6)
𝒅

Thus if the diameter of the aperture is large, the radius of the central disc is small.

19
The fraunhofer diffraction of plane waves passing through a circular aperture is of
fundamental importance in the discussion of the resolving powers of telescope and
microscope, in view of the circular form of lenses employed as objectives and eyepieces in
these instruments.

Diffraction -N-Slits or Grating :

An arrangement consisting of a large number of equidistant parallel narrow slits of equal

width separated by equal opaque portions is known as a diffraction grating. The rulings act as
obstacles having a definite width ‘b’ and the transparent space between the rulings act as slit
of width ‘a’. The combined width of a ruling and a slit is called grating element (𝑒 = 𝑎 + 𝑏).

Let a plane monochromatic light of wavelength incident

normally on a plane transmission grating. As the width of
each slit is of the order of λ , the wave spreading all
directions beyond the grating. In other words , the N slits
acts as N coherent sources. Consequently ,the waves
interfere producing intensity maxima and minima.

Resultant amplitudes due to N-slits is

where R = amplitudes due to N-slits

I = intensity

1. Principal maximum can be obtained, when

Where m=0,1,2,3,....etc

2. Minimum intensity can be obtained

Where m=1,2,3,.....(N-1)

Applications:

1. Maximum number of orders possible with a grating: When light is incident

normally on a grating , in the transmitted light on either side of central maximum , we

20
 get diffracted rays. But there is a limit on the maximum number of orders available
with a grating.

Maximum angle of diffraction (θ) = 900

1
𝑚= (m is order of the diffraction grating)
𝑁𝜆

2. Wavelength of diffraction grating :

We know that,Principal maximum obtained

1
(𝑎 + 𝑏) = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝑁

Where N is lines per unit width

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑁𝑚𝜆
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜆=
𝑁𝑚
3. Resolving power of grating:

The capacity of an optical instrument to show separate images of very closely placed two
objects is called resolving power.

The resolving power of a diffraction grating is defined as its ability to form separate
diffraction maxima of two closely separated wave lengths.

We know that the diffraction grating has ability to produce spectrum i.e., to separate the
lines of nearly equal wavelengths and therefore it has resolving capability. The resolving
power of a grating may be defined as its ability to form separate diffraction maxima of two
wavelengths which are very close to each other. If λ is the mean value of the two wavelengths
and dλ is the difference between two then resolving power may be defined as
Resolving power = λ/dλ
Expression for resolving power: Let a beam of light
having two wavelengths λ1 and λ2 is falling normally on a
grating AB which has (a + b) grating element and N
number of slits as shown in Figure. After passing through

21
grating rays forms the diffraction patterns which can be seen through telescope.
Now, if these patterns are very close together they overlap and cannot be seen separately.
However, if they satisfy the Rayleigh criterion, that is the wavelengths can be just resolved
when central maxima due to one falls on the first minima of the other.

Let the direction of 𝑛𝑡ℎ principal maxima for wavelength λ l is given by

(a + b) sin θn = nλ l
Or
N (a + b) sin θn = Nnλ1
and the first minima will be in the direction given by
N (a+b)sin (θn +dθn) = mλ1
where m is an integer except 0, N, 2N … ,because at these values condition of maxima will
be
satisfied. The first minima adjacent to the nth maxima will be in the direction (θn +dθn) only
when m = (nN + 1). Thus
N (a + b) sin (θn + dθn) = (nN + 1) λ1 ............................(1)
For just resolution, the principal maxima for the wavelength λ2 must be formed in the
direction (θn + dθn).
Therefore (a +b) sin (θn + dθn) = nλ2
or N (a + b) sin (θn + dθn) = Nnλ2 ..................... (2)
Now equating the two equations (1) and (2)
(nN + 1) λ1 = Nn. λ2
(nN + 1) λ =Nn (λ. + dλ.)
λ = Nn dλ.
Let λ1 = λ, λ2 -λ1 = dλ , λ2 = λ + dλ.
Thus resolving power of grating is found as
R.P. = λ/dλ = nN
Resolving power = order of spectrum x total number of lines per unit length on grating.
Resolving power of telescope:

It is defined as the inverse of the distance or angular separation between two objectives which
can be just resolved when viewed through the optical instrument (Telescope).

Let d be the diameter of the objective of the telescope. Consider the incident rays of light
from two neighbouring points. Suppose dθ is the angle subtended by the two distant
objectives at the objective of the telescope. A parallel beam of light is passed through this,
produce fraunhofer diffraction pattern in the focal plane of the objective.

22
Let P and Q be the positions of the central maxima of the two images. The pattern will lie
very close to each other with a large amount of overlapping. If the overlapping is too much,
the telescope may not be able to distinguish them as separate. According to Rayleigh’s
criterion, the patterns will be just resolved if the central maxima of one just falls on one just
falls on the first minima of the other.
The objective lens of telescope is same as that of circular aperture, The path difference
between the extreme waves is
∆= d sin dθ
∆= d ( dθ) (sinθ≈dθ)
If this path difference d ( dθ) = λ , the position of Q corresponds to the first minimum of
the first image. But Q is also the position of the central maximum of the second image. Thus
Rayleigh’s condition is satisfied. Hence the two objects are resolved.
According to Airy, the condition in case of circular aperture can be expressed as
dθ = 1.22 (λ/d)

dθ is represents the minimum resolvable angle between the two distant point objects.
The reciprocal of dθ measures the resolving power of the telescope. Hence
Resolving power = (1/dθ) = (d/1.22 λ)
Thus higher the diameter d, better the resolution. The best astronomical optical telescopes
have mirror diameters as large as 10m to achieve the best resolution. Also larger wavelengths
reduce the resolving power and consequently radio and microwave telescopes need larger
mirrors.
In telescopes, very close objects such as binary stars or individual stars of galaxies subtend
very small angles on the telescope. To resolve them we need very large apertures.

23
UNIT-II POLARIZATION AND LASERS

POLARIZATION
POLARIZATION :
The process of making the vibrations of unpolarized light confined to a single plane is known as
polarization.
Production and detection of plane polarized light:

Consider an ordinary light is passed through a tourmaline crystal as shown in fig. below. If
the tourmaline crystal is rotated by taking the incident beam as an axis, there is no variation
in the intensity of the emergent beam. The tourmaline crystal has the property of allowing
the components of light that are vibrating parallel to its axis to pass through it, and it absorbs
all other components of the light that are not parallel to its axis of the crystal. The emergent
beam from the crystal vibrates in only one direction, i.e ., it vibrates parallel to the axis of the
crystal (Fig.1). The device that produces the polarized light is called polarizer. Consider that
the emergent beam from the first crystal is passed through another tourmaline crystal kept
perpendicular to the first crystal. No light is emerging from the second crystal (Fig.2).Thus,
the first crystal produces polarized light is known as Polarizer (T1) and the second crystal
analyses the polarized light, hence it is known as Analyser (T2).

F IGURE 2.1 F IGURE 2.2

24
Pictorial Representation of light:

The plane polarized light, vibrating parallel to the plane of

this paper and vibrating perpendicular to the plane of this
paper , is represented as shown in fig. below. The
unpolarized light or ordinary light has vibrations that are
both parallel and perpendicular to the plane of the paper
and it is represented as shown in fig.
F IGURE 2.3

Plane of vibration and polarization:

The plane in which the light is vibrating is known as the plane of vibration and the plane
perpendicular the plane of vibration is known as plane of
polarization. The emergent beam vibrates parallel to the
axis of the polarizer. The plane PQRS is parallel to the axis
of the

polarizer and hence, it is known as plane of vibration. The

plane EFGH perpendicular to the plane of vibration is
known as plane of polarization. It should be noted that no vibrations takes place in this plane
EFGH.
F IGURE 2.4

U NPOLARIZED AND POLARIZED LIGHT

Un polarized light polarized light

• It consists of an infinite number • The vibrations in polarized light
of waves, each having its own are confined to one particular
direction of vibration. direction only.i.e.one-sideness
• It is symmetrical about the property.
direction of propagation. • It is Unsymmetrical about the
direction of propagation

Types of polarized lights:

Plane polarized light /linearly polarized light:

The vibrations are confined to a single plane then it is known as plane polarized
light or linearly polarized light.

25
Partially polarized light: The plane polarized light contain small additional
components of unpolarized light is known as partially polarized light.

Circularly polarized light:The amplitude of the electric vector is a constant

but rotates in the form of a helix.

Elliptical polarized light: The amplitude of the electric vector is not a constant
but varies periodically then it results in elliptically polarized light.

Production of polarized light:

There are different methods to produce plane polarized light . They are

I. Reflection (Brewster’s law) III. Refraction

II. Double refraction IV. Selective absorption and V. Scattering
Brewster’s law:
The refractive index of the material medium µ is equal to the tangent of the angle of
polarization (p).

𝜇 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑝
Applying this law ,it can be proved that the reflected
and refracted rays are at right angles.

From snell’s law

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖
µ= ...............................(1)
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟

From Brewster’s law

26
𝝁 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒑...............................(2) F IGURE 2.4

From eqn.(1) &(2)

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖
tanp =
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖
= ........................(3)
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑝 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟

From the above Fig. i = p

Equation (3) becomes cos P = sin r

cos P = cos (90-r)

P = 90 - r

P + r = 90 .........................(4)

Thus, the reflected and refracted rays are perpendicular to each other.

Double refraction:

When unpolarized light passes through a calcite crystal, it is split into two plane polarized
refracted lights. The one which obeys laws of refraction and plane perpendicular to the
principal section is known as ordinary ray. The other which does not obey the laws of
refraction and has vibrations in the principal section is called extraordinary ray. This
phenomena is known as double refraction and was discovered by Bartholinus. From Fig. The
refractive indices of O-ray and E-ray for calcite crystal are given by
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑖
𝜇𝑜 = and 𝜇𝐸 = Since 𝑟1 < 𝑟2 , 𝜇𝑜 > 𝜇𝐸
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟1 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑟2

F IGURE 2.5

Thus, the velocity of light for O-ray inside the crystal will be less than the E-ray. It is clear
that 𝜇𝑜 is same for all angles of incidence while 𝜇𝐸 varies with angles of incidence.Hence,
the O-ray travels with same velocity and it is represented by a spherical wavefront, whereas
the E-ray travels with different velocities in different directions and is given by elliptical
wave front. Both the rays travel with same velocities along optic axis.

Characteristics of O-ray and E-ray

27
 O-ray E-ray

• It obeys the convention laws of • It doesn’t obeys the convention laws

refraction. of refraction.
• It travels with the same velocity in all • It travels with different velocity in
directions in the crystal. different directions in the crystal.
• Refractive index is constant. • Refractive index is varies.

But both having same velocity along optic axis. Both the rays are plane polarized.

Geometry of Calcite crystal

• It is a transparent material.
• Chemically Calcium carbonate.
• Rhombohedral class of hexagonal system.
• It has 6 faces.
Blunt corners: The corners where the 3 obtuse angles meet.
Optic axis: A line passing through any one of the blunt corner.
Principal section: Any plane which
contains the optic axis and is perpendicular to two opposite faces.
Uniaxial crystals :
THE CRYSTALS WHICH ARE HAVING ONE OPTIC AXIS ARE CALLED
UNIAXIAL CRYSTALS .

Biaxial crystals: The crystals which are having two optic axis are called biaxial crystals.

28
WAVE PLATES or Retarders

A retardation plate resolves a polarized light beam into two orthogonal components, retards the
phase of one component relative to the other, and then recombines the two to form a single beam
with new polarization characteristics.

• Half Wave Plate

• Quarter Wave Plate

Quarter Wave Plate

A quarter wave plate is a device from a double refracting crystal whose refracting faces are
cut parallel to the direction of the optic axis. When a plane polarized light is incident on
calcite crystal, the light split up into O-ray and E-ray. They travel along the same path with
different velocities. Velocity of E-ray is greater than the velocity of O-ray. As a result, a
phase difference is introduced between them. The thickness of this device is cut in such a
way that it can produce a path difference of (λ/4) or a phase difference of (π/2) between O-ray
and E-ray.

Let 𝝁𝑬 and 𝝁𝑶 be the refractive indices of the E-ray and O-ray respectively. Let t be the
thickness of the crystal. The path difference between these rays is

∆ = ( 𝝁𝑶 − 𝝁𝑬 ) t ......... (1)

The QWP is cut in such a way thatit can produce a path difference = λ/4 .......(2)

From (1) and (2)

𝜆
𝑡=
4( 𝝁𝑶 − 𝝁𝑬 )

Applications:

1. A QWP is produced circularly polarized light, if the optic axis of the crystal makes an angle
of 450 with the incident beam of light.
2. A QWP is produced elliptical polarized light, if the optic axis of the crystal makes an angle
other than 450 with the incident beam of light.

Half Wave Plate

A Half wave plate is a device from a double refracting crystal whose refracting faces are cut
parallel to the direction of the optic axis. When a plane polarized light is incident on calcite
crystal, the light split up into O-ray and E-ray. They travel along the same path with different
velocities. Velocity of E-ray is greater than the velocity of O-ray. As a result ,a phase
difference is introduced between them. The thickness of this device is cut in such a way that
it can produce a path difference of (λ/2) or a phase difference of (π) between O-ray and E-ray.

29
Let 𝝁𝑬 and 𝝁𝑶 be the refractive indices of the E-ray and O-ray respectively. Let t be the
thickness of the crystal. The path difference between these
rays is

∆ = ( 𝝁𝑶 − 𝝁𝑬 ) t ......... (1)

The HWP is cut in such a way that

it can produce a path difference = λ/2 .......(2)

From (1) and (2)

𝜆
𝑡=
2( 𝝁𝑶 − 𝝁𝑬 )

Applications: Figure 2.7

1. A HWP is produced plane polarized light,

Optical activity

The property of rotating the plane polarized light about its direction of travel by some
crystal is known as optical activity.

Specific rotation

The specific rotation of a substance at a particular temperature and for a given wavelength
of light used may be defined as the rotation of plane of vibration of polarized light
produced(θ) by one decimetre length(l) of its solution when the concentration(c) is 1gm.per
c.c.

𝜽
𝒔=
𝒍×𝒄
POLARIMETER

• It is an instrument used for determining the optical rotation of solutions.

• It is used to measure the angle of rotation produced by a substance

• Polarimeters can be used to find the specific rotation of sugar solution

Laurent’s Half shade Polarimeter

30
 S- Monochromatic source , L-Lens, P-Nicol’s prism(Polarizer) , A- Nicol’s prism(Analyser)
, H-Half shade plate, T- Polarimeter tube , E-Eye piece

• The Laurant’s half shade plate consists of a semi-circular half wave plate of quartz
and semi-circular glass plate. The two plates are cemented along the diameter.

• The thickness of the glass plate is such that it absorbs the same amount of light as the
quartz plate.

• Let the plane of vibration of the plane polarized light incident normally on half shade
plate is along PS. Here PS makes an angle θ with the optic axis.

• The vibrations emerge from the glass plate along the plane PS.

• The vibrations emerge from the quartz will be along RQ.

• If the analyzer is parallel to PS, then the light from glass potion
will pass unobstructed while light from quartz will be partly
obstructed.

• Due to this fact the glass half will appear bright than the quartz
half.

• If the analyzer is parallel to RQ , then the light from glass portion will pass obstructed
while light from quartz will be partly unobstructed.

• Due to this fact the glass half will appear darker than the quartz half.

• If the analyzer is parallel to AB , it will appear equally bright.

LASERS
LASER : LIGHT AMPLIFICATION BY STIMULATED EMISSION OF RADIATION

Characteristics of Laser :

31
The main characteristics of laser are

Monochromaticity:

Monochromaticity means "One color". When "white light" is transmitted through a prism, it
is divided into the different colors which are in it.

In the theoretical sense "One Color", which is called "spectral line", means one wavelength(
‫ג‬o ).

In reality, every spectral line has a finite spectral width (∆‫ )ג‬around its central wavelength (
‫ג‬o ),

Directionality:

Radiation comes out of the laser in a certain direction, and spreads at a defined divergence
angle (θ). Divergence means that, as the beam propagate, the same amount of radiation
spread over larger area . Thus reducing the power density and the effectiveness of the
radiation.

This angular spreading of a laser beam is very small compared to other sources of
electromagnetic radiation, and described by a small divergence angle (of the order of milli-
radians).

● The relation between radians and degrees is given by:

360o=2πRadians
1Radian=57.3o
1 milli-Radian = 1 mrad = 0.057o

32
Since laser radiation divergence is of the order of milli - radians, the beam is almost parallel ,
and laser radiation can be send over long distances.

Angular divergence (ᶲ)

ᶲ = r2-r1/d2-d1
Coherence:

Since electromagnetic radiation is a wave phenomena, every

electromagnetic wave can be described as a sum (superposition) of
sine waves as a function of time.

● Using the same time base,3 waves marked y1, y2, y3, and their
superposition are shown in the following figure:

In (a) the waves are coherent, like the waves out of a laser.

In (b), the waves have the same wavelength, but are not coherent
with each other.

Laser radiation is composed of waves at the same wavelength, which start at the same time
and keep their relative phase as they advance. By adding (superposition) the wave amplitudes
of the different waves, higher peaks are measured for laser radiation.

Intensity:

The intensity of laser beam is very high. If a person is allowed to observe an ordinary light,
emitted by a 100 W bulb at a distance. One foot from the source, he can perceive only on
thousand watt of light. While, if the person is allowed to observe the laser beam from the
same distance, the entire laser beam penetrates through his eye. It will damage the eye of the
observer. This shows the high intensity of the laser beam.

Fundamental definitions
Metastable state: The excited state, which has a long life time, is known as metastable state.
Ppulation:The number of active atoms occupying an energy state is called population of that
state.
According to Boltzmann’s theory, the population of given energy level is
𝐸2 −𝐸1
𝑁2 = 𝑁1 exp ( )
𝐾𝑡

Where 𝑁1 and 𝑁2 are the population of the lower (𝐸1 ) and upper (𝐸2 ) energy levels
respectively

Population Inversion:
Generally, number of atoms in the ground state is greater than the number of atoms in higher
energy states. But in order to produce a laser beam, the minimum requirement is stimulated
emission.

33
Stimulated emission takes place only if the number of atoms in the higher energy level is

greater than the number of atoms in the lower energy level. Simply population inversion is
nothing but number of atoms in higher energy level is greater than the number of atom in
lower energy level i.e. (N2 > N1 )
Pumping:
The process of supplying suitable form of energy to a system to achieve population inversion.
Most commonly used pumping methods are
 Optical pumping
 Electric discharge pumping
 Inelastic Atom-Atom collisions
 Chemical reactions
Three level pumping scheme:

Pump lifts atoms from level 1 to level 3, from

which they decay rapidly to level 2 through
some non- radiative process. i.e the pump
effectively transfers atoms from the ground level
1 to the excited level 2,
▬ If the relaxation from 3 to 2 is very fast, then
atoms will relax down to level 2 rather than to
level 1.
▬ Since the lower level is ground level, pump
must lift ~50% of ground state atoms to upper
level to obtain population inversion
Therefore, three level pumping scheme generally require high pump powers and it works in
pulsed mode only.

Four level pumping scheme:

On pumping, the atoms are lifted from the ground

state to the highest of the four levels involved in
the process. From this level ,the atoms decay to
the metastable, level 3 and the population of this
state grows rapidly.If the life time of the (4 3)
transition is short and that of the (3 2) is long.A
populatin inversion on the (3 2) tranisition can
be achieved and maintained with moderate
pumping.Since ground state is not the lower laser
level there is no need to pump more than one half
of the populatin to the higher level.Since in this

34
scheme level E2 is the lower laser level and E3 is the upper laser level.

Working Principle of laser:

A material medium is composed of identical atoms or molecules each of which is
characterised by a set of discrete energy states. An atom can move from one energy state to
another when it receives or releases an amount of energy equal to the energy difference
between those two states. It is termed as a quantum jump or transition.

Absorption:

An atom residing in the lower energy state 𝐸1 may absorb the incident
photon and jump to the excited state 𝐸2 .The transition is known as
stimulated absorption or simply absorption.

𝑅12 = 𝑁1 𝐵12 𝜌 (υ)

A BSORPTION

Spontaneous Emission:In spontaneous emission, the atoms or molecules in the higher

energy state 𝐸2 eventually return to the ground state by emitting their excess
energy spontaneously. This process is independent of external radiation. The
rate of the spontaneous emission is directly proportional to the population of
the energy level 𝐸2 ,

𝑅21 = 𝑁2 𝐴21
Stimulated emission: S PONTANEOUS EMISSION

In stimulated emission ,a photon having energy E equal to the

difference in energy between the two levels 𝐸1 and 𝐸2 ,stimulate an
atom in the higher state to make transition to the lower state with
the creation of a second photon.

𝑅21 = 𝑁2 𝐵21 𝜌 (υ)

Einstein’s coefficients S TIMULATED E MISSION

In 1917, Einstein predicted the existence of two different kinds of processes by which an
atom emits radiation. Transition between the atomic energy states is statistical process. It is
not possible to predict which particular atom will make a transition from one state to another
state at a particular instant. For an assembly of very large number of atoms it is possible to
calculate the rate of transitions between two states. Einstein was the first to calculate the
probability of such transition, assuming the atomic system to be in equilibrium with
electromagnetic radiation.
When radiation interacts with matter, three types of processes occur. They are
absorption,spontaneous emission and stimulate emission of radiation.

35
According to absorption , the rate of transition of atoms from ground state to first excited
state is (𝑅12 )
𝑅12 = 𝑁1 𝐵12 𝜌 (υ)
Where 𝑁1 -number or of atoms per unit volume in a given energy level
𝐵12 -Einstein’s coefficient for absorption

𝜌(𝜗)-interaction radiation

Similarly, for spontaneous emission

𝑅21 = 𝑁2 𝐴21

for stimulaed emission

𝑅21 = 𝑁2 𝐵21 𝜌 (υ)

At thermal equilibrium state, the rate of absorption is equal to rate of emission.

𝑁1 𝐵12 𝜌 (υ) = 𝑁2 𝐴21 + 𝑁2 𝐵21 𝜌 (υ)

𝑁2 𝐴21
𝜌(𝜗) =
𝑁1 𝐵12 + 𝑁2 𝐵21

𝐴21 /𝐵21
𝜌(𝜗) =
𝐵 𝑁
( 12 1 − 1)
𝐵21 𝑁2

According to Boltzmann’s theory, the population of given energy level is

𝐸1
𝑁1 = 𝑁0 exp ( )
𝐾𝑡
𝐸2
𝑁2 = 𝑁0 exp ( )
𝐾𝑡
𝑁1 𝐸2 − 𝐸1
= exp ( )
𝑁2 𝐾𝑡

𝑁1 ℎ𝜗
= exp ( )
𝑁2 𝐾𝑡

𝐴21 /𝐵21
𝜌(𝜗) =
𝐵 ℎ𝜗
( 𝐵12 exp (𝐾𝑡 ) − 1)
21

36
 𝐴21 1
𝜌(𝜗) = 𝐵12 ℎ𝜗 ………………….
𝐵21 [exp ( 𝐾𝑡 )−1]
𝐵21
(1)

According to planks quantum radiation ,the energy density is

8𝜋ℎ𝜗3 1
𝜌(𝜗) = ℎ𝜗 ……………… (2)
𝑐3 [exp ( )−1]
𝐾𝑡

From equations (1) and (2)

𝐴21 8𝜋ℎ𝜗3
= and 𝐵12 = 𝐵21 ……….. (3)
𝐵21 𝑐3

Equation (3) is known as Einstein’s relations.

COMPENENTS OF LASER SYSTEM:

Mainly we require three components to produce laser.They are

➢ ACTIVE MEDIUM
➢ PUMPING
➢ OPTICAL CAVITY/RESONATOR
ACTIVE MEDIUM: This is the medium where the stimulated emission of radiation takes
place. The medium may be a solid, liquid or a gas.Out of different atoms in the medium ,only
a small fraction of atoms of a particular species are responsible for stimulated emission and
consequent amplication.

PUMPING: The process of supplying suitable form of energy to a system to achieve

population
inversion.
Most commonly used pumping methods are
 Optical pumping
 Electric discharge pumping
 Inelastic Atom-Atom collisions
 Chemical reactions
OPTICAL CAVITY/RESONATOR:

37
The active medium is enclosed between a fully reflective mirror and a partially reflective
mirror. These mirrors constitute an optical cavity /Resonator. The reflecting portions of the
mirrors reflect the incident radiation back into the active medium. These reflected radiation
enhance the stimulated emission process within the active medium. As a result, we get high –
intensity monochromatic and coherent laser light through the non-reflecting portion of the
mirror.

Nd-YAG Laser:

Active medium: Nd-YAG rod (Neodymium – yttrium aluminium garnet)

Pumping: Krypton flash lamp

Optical cavity: Two mirrors

Construction: In Nd-YAG laser, a rod of 5-10cm length and 6-9mm diameter is used. A
cylindrical rod is cut from crystal is used as active medium. The end of the rod are polished
and made optically flat and parallel. One end of the rod is coated silver to get 100% reflecting
mirror while the other end as a partial reflecting mirror. The rod and flash tube are kept inside
a highly reflecting elliptical cavity.

Working: The principle behind this laser is optical pumping. The population inversion is
achieved by a flash lamp. When flash lamp is switched on, Nd ions acquire energy from the
flash light . The Nd ions are excited to energy level 𝐸3 and 𝐸4 due to absorption of energy.

The Nd ions are not stable in the excited state, it makes a non radiative transition from 𝐸3 and
𝐸4 states to meta stable state 𝐸2 as shown in fig. If this process is continuous, population
inversion is achieved between 𝐸2 and 𝐸1 .A stimulated emission takes place from the energy
levels 𝐸2 and 𝐸1 .The emitted energy is amplified between the resonators and then radiates a
pulsed laser beam at a wavelength of 1.064 µm in the infrared region.

He-Ne gas laser:

38
He-Ne gas laser is a gaseous laser system and is used to produce a continuous laser.This laser
system constructed by Javan.

Active medium: He –Ne gaseous mixture in the ratio of 10:1.These two gases are mixed
under a pressure of 1mm Hg of helium and 0.1 mm of Hg of Ne.The mixture of these gases is
filled within the discharge tube for laser action.

Construction: Discharge tube is made up of a fused quartz tube with a diameter of 11.5 cm
and a length of 80.6 cm.The end faces of the discharge tube are tilted at the Brewster
angle,known as Brewster windows.A fully reflecting concave mirror is placed at one end of
the discharge tube and partially reflecting concave mirror i
placed at the other end.

Working Principle: The population inversion for laser action

is achieved by inelastic atom –atom collisions. The collisions of the atoms by electric
discharge. Due to the electric discharge in the gas an energetic electron interact with the
ground state He atom. The impact of the electron results in exchange of some of its energy to
the He atom. As a result, He atoms are excited to higher levels known as meta stable state.
The life time of these levels are relatively low. The collision of the first kind is represented
as,

𝐻𝑒 + 𝑒1 → 𝐻𝑒 ∗ +𝑒2

These two energy levels are very close to 2s and 3s levels of the Ne atom and the collision of
the second kind takes place between the He and Ne atoms,and hence the Ne atom goes to the
excited state

𝐻𝑒 ∗ + 𝑁𝑒 → 𝐻𝑒 + 𝑁𝑒 ∗

As the energy exchange continue between He and Ne atoms,the population of Ne atoms in

the exciteds increases more and more. After achieving population inversion, there are three
types of transformations i.e.,

1.2s-2p and 3s-3p : These transitions constitute laser beam in the infrared region of
wavelength 1.15µm and 3.39µm

2. 3s-2p : During this transition electromagnetic radiation of wavelength 6328 𝐴0 will be

emitted. This is in visible region and is important .It is a continuous laser.

39
Applications of lasers

1.Lasers used in communication to transmit thousand T.V channels simultaneously the

entire world

2.One can transmit an entire memory bank from one computer to another using laser.

3.Lasers are used in industries for the purpose of welding,cutting etc.

4.Lasers are used in the treatment of detaching ratina.

5.Laser therapy is completely painless and more advisable for children.

6.Laser guns are used in military as LIDAR-Light detection and ranging.

UNIT-III Principles of quantum mechanics

De-Broglie Hypothesis –Matter waves: An electromagnetic wave behaves like particles,
particles like electrons behave like waves called matter waves, also called de-Broglie matter
waves.The wave length of matter waves is derived on the analogy of radiation.
Based on Planck’s theory of radiation, the energy of a photon is given by
𝒉𝒄
𝑬 = 𝒉𝝑 = 𝝀 ….. (1)
C = Velocity of light
𝜆 = Wavelength of the photon
h = Planck’s constant
According to Einstein‟s mass energy relation
𝐄 = 𝐦𝐜 𝟐 . …… (2)
m= mass of the photon
Equating equations (1) and (2)
𝒉𝒄
= 𝒎𝒄𝟐 …… (3)
𝝀
𝒉𝒄 𝒉 𝒉
𝝀= 𝟐= = .........(4)
𝒎𝒄 𝒎𝒄 𝑷
P = momentum of photon

40
de-Broglie proposed the concept of matter waves, according to which a material particle of
mass‟m‟, moving with a velocity‟s‟ should have an associated wavelength „ called de-
Broglie wavelength.
𝒉 𝒉
𝝀= = ------ (5) is called de-Broglie‟s wave equation.
𝒎𝒗 𝑷
Properties of matter waves:
1. Wavelength is associated with moving particle and independent of charge of the particle
2. Greater the mass, velocity of the particle, lesser will be the wavelength.
3.When v= 0, 𝝀= ∞. i.ewave becomes indeterminate and v = ∞, 𝝀 = 𝟎.
This shows that matter waves are generated by the motion of particles.
4.Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves. They are independent of charge.
5.The velocity of matter wave depends on the velocity of matter particle.
6. Velocity of matter wave is greater than the velocity of light.
A particle in motion ,the matter wave has two different velocities.One regarding to the
mechanical motion of the particle represented by v and second related to the propogation of
the wave represented by ω.
We know that 𝑬 = 𝒉𝝑 and 𝐄 = 𝐦𝐜𝟐
𝒎𝒄𝟐
𝝑= ................(6)
𝒉
The wave velocity ω = 𝝑 × 𝝀
𝒎𝒄𝟐 𝒉 𝒄𝟐
= 𝒉 × 𝒎𝒗 =
𝒗
As particle velocity v cannot exceed c, hence ω is greater than velocity of light.
7.de-Broglie wavelength associated with an electron:
If a velocity ‘v’ is given to an electron by accelerating it through a potential
difference’V’then the work done on the electron is ‘eV’ and the work done is converted into
the kinetic energy of an electron.
𝟏
𝒆𝑽 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐
𝟏 𝒑𝟐
𝒆𝑽 =
𝟐 𝒎
𝒑𝟐 = 𝟐𝒎𝒆𝑽

𝒑 = √𝟐𝒎𝒆𝑽
ℎ
𝜆 =
√𝟐𝒎𝒆𝑽

by substituting the values of h = 6.625× 10−34 J sec

m = mass of electron = 9.1× 10−31 𝐾𝑔 and

e= charge of electron=1.6× 10−19 C

𝟏𝟐.𝟐𝟕
𝝀 = 𝑨𝟎
√𝑽

where V= in volt and 𝜆 = in 𝐴0

41
8.de Broglie wavelength in terms of Kinetic energy
Consider a particle of mass m moving with velocity v. Then Kinetic energy of the particle

𝟏 𝟐
𝒑𝟐
𝑬 = 𝒎𝒗 =
𝟐 𝟐𝒎

𝒑 = √𝟐𝒎𝑬
𝒉
𝝀 =
√𝟐𝒎𝑬

Davission and Germer’s experiment:

The first experimental evidence of the wave nature of atomic particles was proved by C.J
Davission and L.H Germer in 1927.They were studying scattering of electrons by a metal
target and measuring the density of electrons scattered in different directions.

1.The electron beam from electron gun which consists of a tungsten filament F heated by a
low tension battery (LT) are accelerated to a desired velocity by applying suitable potential
from a high tension battery (V).

2. The accelerated electrons are collimated into a fine beam by allowing them to pass
thorough a system of pinholes in the cylinder A.
3. The fast moving electron beam is
made to strike the target (nickel crystal)
capable of rotating about an axis

perpendicular to the plane of diagram.

4. The electrons are scattered in all directions by atomic planes of a crystal and intensity of
scattered electron beam in all directions can be measured by the electron collector and can be
rotated about the same axis as the target.
5. The detector is connected to a sensitive galvanometer whose deflection is proportional to
the intensity of electron beam entering the detector.
6. When electron beam accelerated by 54 V was directed to strike the given nickel crystal, a
sharp maximum in the electron diffraction occurred at an angle of 500 with the incident
beam.

42
7. The incident beam and the diffracted beam make an angle of 650 with the family of
Bragg’s planes.
8. The whole instrument is kept in an evacuated chamber.
9. The spacing of planes in Nickel crystal as determined by x-ray diffraction is 0.091nm

From Bragg‟s law

2dsinθ = n 𝜆
𝜆 = 0.165 nm

Therefore for a 54 V electron beam, the de-Broglie wavelength associated with the
electron is given by
12.27
𝜆 = =0.166 nm
√𝟓𝟒

This wavelength agrees well with the experimental value.

Thus Davission – Germer experiment provides a direct verification of de-Broglie hypothesis
of wave nature of moving particles.
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle:
1. According to Classical mechanics, a moving particle at any instant has fixed position in
space and definite momentum which can be determined simultaneously with any desired
accuracy. This assumption is true for objects of appreciable size, but fails in particles of
atomic dimensions.
2. Since a moving atomic particle has to be regarded as a de-Broglie wave group, there is a
limit to measure particle properties.
3. According to Born probability interpretation, the particle may be found anywhere within
the wave group moving with group velocity.
4. If the group is considered to be narrow, it is easier to locate its position, but the uncertainty
in calculating its velocity and momentum increases.
5. If the group is wide, its momentum is estimated easily, but there is great uncertainty about
the exact location of the particle.
Heisenberg a German scientist in 1927, gave uncertainty principle which states that
“The determination of exact position and momentum of a moving particle
simultaneously is impossible’’.
In general, if △x represents the error in measurement of position of particle along xaxis,
and △p represents error in measurement of momentum, then
△x △p=h
Or limitation to find the position and momentum of a particle is
ℎ
(△x ) (△p) ≥ 4𝜋 )

43
i.e Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that both the position and momentum
Can’t be measured simultaneously with perfect accuracy.

Schrodinger time independent wave equation

According to de Broglie theory, a particle of mass m is always associated with a wave whose
ℎ
wavelength is given by 𝜆 = 𝑚𝑣 . If the particle has wave properties, it is expected that there
should be some sort of wave equation which describes the behaviour of the particle. Consider
a system of stationary waves associated with a particle. Ѱ is the wave function of the particle
along x,y and z axes at any time t.It is assumed that ѱ is finite,single valued and periodic
function. Based on the Cartesian co-ordinates, one can write the differential wave equation of
a progressive wave velocity v as

𝑑2 ѱ 𝑑2ѱ 𝑑2ѱ 1 𝑑2ѱ

+ + =
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑧 2 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑2 ѱ 𝑑2ѱ 𝑑2ѱ 𝑑2ѱ

𝑣2 [ + + ]=
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑧 2 𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑2ѱ
= 𝑣 2 ∇2 ѱ …………………. (1)
𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑2 𝑑2 𝑑2
Where ∇2 = + + = Laplacian operator
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑧 2

𝑑2ѱ
The value of can be obtained by differentiating
𝑑𝑡 2

ѱ = ѱ0𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡

𝑑2ѱ
= −𝜔2 ѱ …………………… (2)
𝑑𝑡 2

2𝜋𝑣
But 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜐 = …………. (3)
𝜆

𝑑2ѱ
= −(2𝜋𝑣/ 𝜆)2 …………… (4)
𝑑𝑡 2

Substitute equation (4) in (1)

−(2𝜋𝑣/ 𝜆)2 = 𝑣 2 ∇2 ѱ
2𝑚
∇2 ѱ = − [𝐸 − 𝑉] ѱ
ħ2
2𝑚
∇2 ѱ + [𝐸 − 𝑉]ѱ = 0 ……………. (5)
ħ2

44
Equation (5) is known as Schrodinger time independent wave equation.
For a free particle 𝑉 = 0,
then the Schrodinger time independent wave equation becomes

2𝑚
∇2 ѱ + [𝐸]ѱ = 0
ħ2
Particle in a box

Let us consider one dimensional potential box of width ‘L’. In solids the carriers of electric
current are electrons. Since the free electrons can move inside the crystal only, it is assumed
that they travel in side the crystal in constant potential. Since they are prevented from leaving
the crystal treating the potential outside the crystal as infinity, boundary condition is applied
and electrons are confined inside the crystal.

For simplicity, we take V(x) = 0 within the potential box and V(x) = 𝛼 out side the box.i.e
boundary conditions are

𝑉(𝑥) = 0 0<𝑥<𝐿

𝑉(𝑥) = ∞ 𝑥 ≤ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ≥ 𝐿

According to schoridinger time independent wave equation for the

particle in a potential box is

𝑑2 ѱ(𝑥) 2𝑚2
+ 2 𝐸ѱ(𝑥) = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 ħ

𝑑2 ѱ(𝑥)
+ 𝐾 2 (𝑥) = 0 ........................(1)
𝑑𝑥 2

2𝑚𝐸
𝐾2 = .............................(2)
ħ2

A possible solution to equation (1) is

ѱ(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥 + 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘𝑥

where A and B are constants.

Since the particle cannot penetrate an infinitely high potential barrier,

For ѱ(𝑥) = 0 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0, 𝐵 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜

For ѱ(𝑥) = 0 𝑎𝑡𝑥 = 𝐿, 𝐾𝐿 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝜋

ѱ(𝑥) = 𝐴𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑥
𝑛𝜋
where K= (n=1,2,3,....) ..................(3)
𝐿

45
equation (3) is substitute in equation (2),we get

𝑛𝜋 2 2𝑚𝐸
(𝐿) = ħ2

𝑛2 ℎ 2
𝐸=
8𝑚𝐿2
Thus each value of n the possible energy of the particle is given by above equation.

Now the wave function becomes

The constant A in wave function can be obtained by applying the normalized condition

Results:

1. When n=1, it is ground state. The

probability density is largest in the middle
while it decreases towards the boundaries. It
means that the electron will be found in the
middle of the box for most of the time.
2. When n=2, it is first excited state.The
electron will be found either in left-hand
half or in the right hand half but never in the
middle of the box. Thus all the positions in
the box are not equally probable for the

46
 electron.

Significance of wave function:

The wave function ѱ is a mathematical function of a system in quantum mechanical system

which describes the complete information about the state of a system at position x and time
t.By knowing the value of ѱ ,It is easy to find the position of a particle in a given space.

• According to Schrodinger,if ѱ is the amplitude at any point in space,the probability of

finding the particle is proportional to ѱ2 .Hence ѱ2 is a measure of particle density.
• According to Max – Born,the probability (P) of finding the particle in the state ѱ and
the space of volume DV = dx.dy. dz is given by
ѱѱ∗ 𝑑𝑥. 𝑑𝑦. 𝑑𝑧 = ѱ2 𝑑𝑉 = P

• The total probability of finding a particle somewhere in space is unity, i.e,the particle
is certainly to be found somewhere in space. Therefore,

∭ ѱ2 𝑑𝑉 = 1

• This is the condition is called Normalized condition.

Ѱ must have the following properties:

• Ѱ must be finite everywhere

• ѱ must be single value
• ѱ must be continuous and it should be normalized.

UNIT III CLASSICAL FREE ELECTRON THEORY OF METALS

Introduction

Very high electrical and thermal conductivity are the outstanding properties of metals. The
positive ion cores and the valence electrons are the charge carriers in metals and hence, good
conductivity means the presence of a mobile charge carrier. The observed high conductivity
due to conduction by the drift ion cores is difficult to understand. If this happens, then
conductivity must increase with increase in temperature. Hence, it may be concluded that
mobile charges in metals are valence electrons. The classical free electron theory reveals that
the free electrons are fully responsible for electrical conduction.

Classical free electron (or) Drude – Lorentz theory of metals

Postulates

47
 1. In an atom the electrons revolve around the nucleus and a metal is composed of such
atoms.
2. The valence electrons of atoms are free to move about the whole volume of the metals
like the molecules of a perfect gas in a container.
3. These free electrons collide with other free electrons or positive ion cores or the walls
of the container. Collisions of this type are known as elastic collisions i.e there is no
loss of energy.

4. When an electric field is applied to the metal, the free electrons are accelerated in the
direction opposite to the direction of applied electric field. The free electrons
available in the metal gain some amount of energy and are directed to move towards a
higher potential. These electrons acquire a constant velocity known as drift velocity
(𝑣𝑑 ).

Drift velocity : It
is defined as the average velocity acquired by the free electron in a particular direction during the
presence of an electric field.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY AND DRIFT VELOCITY

• Consider a conductor which is subjected to an electric field of strength E as shown in

below figure. Consider that n is the concentration of the free electrons; m, is the mass
and e, the electrical charge of the electron in the conductor.
F= - Ee (1)
• According to Newton ‘s second law of motion, the force F acquired by the electrons
is equal to the force exerted by the field on the electrons.

F= ma (2)

From (1) &(2)

the equation of motion F= ma = eE

48
 𝒆𝑬
or, acceleration a=
𝒎

𝒅𝒗𝒅 𝒆𝑬
=
𝒅𝒕 𝒎
Integrating the above Eq.., we get
𝒆𝑬
Drift velocity of the electron is 𝒗𝒅 = 𝝉 -----(3)
𝒎

the current density in a conductor is given by

𝑰
𝑱= ---------(4)
𝑨

Therefore, the charge dq flowing through this area A in time dt is

dq= -enA𝒗𝒅 dt
𝒅𝒒
= 𝑰 = −𝒆𝒏𝑨𝒗𝒅 ------(5)
𝒅𝒕

Where I is the current flowing through the conductor with area of cross – section A.

substituting the value of I from eq (5) in eq (4) we get

J= -ne𝒗𝒅 --------(6)
Substituting the value of 𝑣𝑑 from Eq.(3) in Eq.(6),we get

𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝑬 𝝉
𝑱= ......................(7)
𝒎

It is clear from Eq.(7) that the current density proportional to the applied field E. When the
field increases, the current density also increases, and it reaches infinity when the field is
applied for a long period. However, in actual practice, J never becomes infinity. Rather, it
remains constant beyond a certain field strength. This is due to the presence of collisions of
free electrons which is not taken into account for obtaining the current density.

From Ohom’s law J=σE ........... (8)

The current density is proportional to the electric field intensity E and a constant σ, known as
electrical conductivity.

From eqn.(7) and (8) σ E = -ne𝒗𝒅

𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉
Therefore, electrical conductivity 𝝈 = ---------- (9)
𝒎

49
 1. Resistivity (ρ) : We know that the resistivity of a material is the reciprocal of
electrical conductivity.

Therefore, the resistivity

𝟏
𝝆=
𝝈
𝒎
𝝆= − − − −(9)
𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝉

2. Electron Mobility (µ) :

𝒗𝒅 𝜶 𝑬

𝒗𝒅 = µE
𝒗𝒅
µ=
𝑬
𝒆𝝉
𝝁𝒆 = − − − − − (𝟏𝟎)
𝒎

Electrical conductivity can be expressed as 𝝈 = 𝒏𝒆𝝁

3. Mean free path (λ) The average distance travelled by an electron between any two
successive collisions is known as the mean free path.
λ = C τ ---------(11)
where C is the root mean square velocity of the electron.

Relaxation Time : When an electric field is applied, the velocity of electrons reach a constant drift
velocity. Once the field is removed, drift velocity gradually and exponentially decreases. The drift
velocity at any instant when the field switched off given by
−𝑡
𝜗𝑑 = 𝜗𝑑 (0)𝑒 𝜏
𝜗𝑑 (0) is the maximum value of drift velocity of electrons when the field is switched off.
𝝑𝒅 (𝟎)
If 𝒕 = 𝝉 , then 𝝑𝒅 =
𝒆

The time taken by the electrons to decay (1/e) of its maximum value of the drift velocity is known as
relaxation time. The decay of drift velocity of electrons is as shown in fig,

50
“ It is defined as the time taken by a free electron to reach its equilibrium position from its disturbed
position, during the presence of an applied field.”

ADVANTAGES AND DRAWBACKS

Even though the classical condition and thermal condition of metals, it has many practical
applications. The advantages and disadvantages of the classical free electron theory are as
follows.

Advantages

1. It explains the electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity of metals.

2. It explains the wiedemann-Franz law.
3. It verifies Ohm’s law.
4. It is used to explain the optical properties of metals.

DRAWBACKS

1. It fails to explain the electric specific heat and the specific heat capacity of metals.
2. It fails to explain superconducting properties of metals.
3. It fails to explain new phenomena like photo-electric effect, Compton effect, black-
body radiation, etc.
4. It fails to explain electrical conductivity of semiconductors or insulators.
5. The classical free electron model predicts the incorrect temperature dependence of σ.
According to the classical free electron theory, σ=ne2τr/m.
6. It fails to give a correct mathematical expression for thermal conductivity.
7. Ferromagnetism could not be explained by this theory.
8. Susceptibility has greater theoretical value than the experimental value

FERMI-DIRAC STATISTICS

The distribution of energy states in a semiconductor is explained by Fermi-Dirac statistics

since it deals with the particles having half integral spins like electrons. Consider that the
assembly of electrons as electron gas which behaves like a system of Fermi particles or
Fermions. The Fermions obey Fermi-Dirac statistics, i.e., Pauli’s exclusion principle.

Therefore, the probability function of (E) of an electron occupying an energy level E is given
by

51
 𝟏
𝒇(𝑬) = − − − − − (𝟏)
𝟏 + 𝒆𝒙𝒑[(𝑬 − 𝑬𝑭 )/𝑲𝑻]

Where EF is Fermi energy,

K is Boltzmann constant and

T is absolute temperature.

In Eq.(1), the probability function f(E) lies between 0 and 1. Hence, there are three possible
probabilities namely,

f(E) = 1 100% probability to occupy the energy level by electrons.

f(E) = 0 No probability to occupy the energy level by electrons and hence, it is empty.
f(E) = 0.5 50% probability of finding the electron in the energy level.

The temperature dependence of Fermi distribution function and its effects on the occupancy
of energy level by electrons is shown in Fig.

Case-1
Probability of occupation at T= 0K and E< EF
Substituting the above condition in Eq.(1), we get
𝟏 𝟏
𝒇(𝑬) = −∞
= =𝟏
𝟏+𝒆 𝟏

Therefore, 𝒇(𝑬) = 1 -----(2)

Eq. (2), clearly indicates that at T= 0K, the energy level below the Fermi energy level EF is
fully occupied by electrons . Therefore, there is a 100% probability that the electrons to
occupy energy level below Fermi energy.

Case-2
Probability of occupation at T=0K and E >EF
Substituting the above condition in Eq.(1), we get
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒇(𝑬) = = = =𝟎
𝟏+𝒆 −∞ 𝟏+∞ ∞

52
Therefore, 𝒇(𝑬)= 0 -----(3)

Eq. (3), clearly indicates that at T=0K, the energy levels above the Fermi energy level E F is
unoccupied, i.e., vacant. Therefore, there is a 0% probability for the electrons to occupy the
energy level above the Fermi energy level.

Fermi energy level is the highest energy level occupied by an electron in a conductor at 0K
is the Fermi energy level.

Case-3
Probability of occupation at T > 0K and E=EF
Substituting the above condition in Eq.(1), we get
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒇(𝑬) = = = = 𝟎. 𝟓
𝟏 + 𝒆𝟎 𝟏 + 𝟏 𝟐

Therefore, 𝒇(𝑬) = 0.5 -----(4)

Eq. (4), clearly indicates that at T=0K, there is a 50% probability for the electrons to occupy
Fermi energy level. Therefore, the Fermi energy level is defined as the energy level at any
temperature, the probability of electron is 50% or ½. Similarly, it is also defined as EF, the
average energy occupied by the electrons which participate in conduction process in a
conductor at temperature above 0K.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS ON THE BASIS OF BAND THEORY

Most of the devices are made of semiconductors such as silicon and germanium. The
applications of semiconductors and their devices are ever increasing in all fields of science
and technology. The knowledge on the classification, structures and properties of
semiconductors is more essential to identify the right materials for applications. In this
chapter the classification, bonding and structure of solids are discussed. Based on the energy
band structure, the arrangement of electrons and forbidden bands, solid materials are
classified into the following three categories:
• Conductors
• Insulators
• Semiconductors
Let us briefly discuss the materials briefly and elaborate more on semiconducting materials.

Conductors
Materials which conduct current when a potential difference is applied across them are
known as Conductors. In case of a conductor, the valence band is completely filled, as
shown in below figure.
Therefore, when a small potential difference is applied to a solid material, it provides
sufficient energy to the electron in the valence band to shift to the conduction band. Thus,
the shifting of electrons from the valence band to the unfilled conduction band results in
the flow of current in the material. Examples for good conductors are copper, lithium, etc.
Insulators
Sold materials which do not conduct electric current under normal conditions are known
as insulators. In insulators, the valence band is completely filled and it has no electron in
the conduction band. Further, the forbidden energy gap will be very high when compared
with a conductor. The energy band diagram of an insulator (for example, ebonite) is
shown in figure. Therefore, the energy required to shift an electron from the valence

53
 band, to the conduction band in order make electrical conduction possible, is very high.
Hence, it is possible to provide enough energy by an ordinary electric field. However ,one
can achieve electrical conduction in an insulator with very high voltage known as
breakdown voltage.

Semiconductors
Semiconductors (for example, silicon and germanium) are materials whose electrical
conductivity lies between that of conductors and insulators. The conductivity of
semiconductors is in the order of 104 to 10-4 mho m-1. The magnitude of the forbidden
energy gap of a semiconductor lies between the forbidden energy gap of insulators and
conductors, as shown in the figure
Semiconducting materials, whether elemental, compound or oxide, are crystalline solids
in nature. Well known semiconductors, such silicon and germanium, are elemental
semiconductors, while gallium arsenide (GaAs), cadmium sulphide (Cds), etc.,are known
as compound semi conductors. Some of the oxide semiconductors are Bi2O3, Te2O3,
ZnO3,Cu2O, etc.

UNIT-IV SEMICONDUCTORS

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
In pure semiconductors, a single event of bond breaking leads to two carriers,namely an
electron and hole. The electron and hole are created as a pair and is known as electron-hole
pair generation. At any temperature T, the number of electrons generated will be equal to the
number of holes.If 𝑛 be the density of electrons in the conduction band and 𝑝 be density of
holes in the valence band. Hence the intrinsic carrier concentration is

𝑛𝑖 = 𝑛 = 𝑝

54
CARRIER CONCENTRATION
To find the concentration of charge carriers in an intrinsic semiconductor, first let us
consider the conduction band alone.

Carrier concentration on conduction band

In a conduction band, some lower energy states are filled with electrons at room temperature.
The concentration of electrons in the conduction band is given by

𝑛 = ∫ Z(E) f(E) dE----(1)

where N(E) is the number of electrons per unit energy per unit volume, and
f (E) is the probability that a quantum state is occupied by the electrons. N(E) is written as
𝟒𝝅 𝟑 𝟏
Z (E)= 𝒉𝟑 (𝟐𝒎∗𝒆 ) ⁄𝟐 𝑬 ⁄𝟐 -------(2)

where m e* is the effective mass of the electron.

The Fermi- Dirac distribution function f (E) is written as

𝟏
𝒇(𝑬) = − − − −(𝟑)
𝑬 − 𝑬𝒇
𝟏 + 𝒆𝒙𝒑 ( 𝑲𝑻 )
At room temperature, since E - EF > kT, hence Eq (3) can be written as

𝟏 𝑬 − 𝑬𝒇
𝒇(𝑬) = ≈ 𝒆𝒙𝒑 [− ( )] − − − −(𝟒)
𝑬 − 𝑬𝒇 𝑲𝑻
𝒆𝒙𝒑 ( 𝑲𝑻 )

From eqs (2&4), Eq.(1) can be written as

𝐸𝑐 +𝜒 𝐸 − 𝐸𝑓
4𝜋 ∗ )3⁄2 (𝐸 1⁄
𝑛=∫ (2𝑚 𝑒 − 𝐸𝑐 ) 2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− ( )] 𝑑𝐸 − − − − − (5)
𝐸𝑐 ℎ3 𝐾𝑇
In eq,(5), E1/2 has been replaced by (E - Ec)1/2, since the lower energy level in a conduction
band is Ec. The above integral varies from Ec to Ec + x, where Ec is the lower energy level in
the conduction band and x is the work function of the metal. Replacing Ec + x by ∞ Eq(5)
can be written as
∞ 𝐸 − 𝐸𝑓
4𝜋 3 1
𝑛 = ∫ 3 (2𝑚𝑒∗ ) ⁄2 (𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 ) ⁄2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− ( )] 𝑑𝐸
𝐸𝑐 ℎ 𝐾𝑇
∞ 𝐸 − 𝐸𝑓
4𝜋 3⁄ 1
𝑛 = 3 (2𝑚𝑒 ) ∫ (𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 ) ⁄2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− (
∗ 2 )] 𝑑𝐸 − − − −(6)
ℎ 𝐸𝑐 𝐾𝑇

The Integral in equation(6) is evaluated by substituting E= Ec + x, dE = dx

The limit varies from 0 to ∞
Therefore, the term
∞ 𝐸 − 𝐸𝑓
1
∫ (𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 ) ⁄2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− ( )] 𝑑𝐸
𝐸𝑐 𝐾𝑇
Be comes

55
 ∞ 𝐸𝑓 − 𝐸𝑐 − 𝑥 𝐸𝑓 − 𝐸𝑐 ∞
1⁄ 1 𝑥
∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− ( )] 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) ∫ 𝑥 ⁄2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− ] 𝑑𝑥
0 𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑇 0 𝐾𝑇

To evaluate the integral, put y=x/KT, dy= dx/kT

Therefore the integral
∞
1⁄ 𝑥
∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− ] 𝑑𝑥
0 𝐾𝑇
Becomes
∞
3⁄ 1⁄
(𝑘𝑇) 2∫ 𝑦 2 𝑒𝑥𝑝[−𝑦]𝑑𝑦
0

∞
∫ 𝑦 𝑛−𝑖 𝑒𝑥𝑝[−𝑦] = 𝛤(𝑛)
0
The integral is known as Gamma function. To evaluate this integral, the properties are
Gamma function like 𝛤(1⁄2) = √𝜋 and𝛤(𝑛 + 1) = 𝑛 𝛤(𝑛) are used. The value of the above
integral is
∞ 1⁄
1⁄ 𝑥 3⁄ 𝜋 2
∫ 𝑥 2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− ] 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑘𝑇) 2
0 𝐾𝑇 2

Substituting the value of the integral in eq(6) be get,

1⁄
4𝜋 ∗ 3⁄ 3⁄ 𝜋 2 𝐸𝑓 − 𝐸𝑐
𝑛 = 3 (2𝑚𝑒 ) 2 (𝑘𝑇) 2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )
ℎ 2 𝐾𝑇
3
2𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑘𝑇 ⁄2 𝐸𝑓 − 𝐸𝑐
2( 2
) 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) − − − − − (7)
ℎ 𝐾𝑇
Eq(7), can be written as
𝑬𝒇 − 𝑬𝒄
𝒏 = 𝑵𝒄 𝒆𝒙𝒑 ( ) − − − − − (8)
𝑲𝑻
3⁄
2𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑘𝑇 2
Where. 𝑁𝑐 = 2 ( )
ℎ2
Eq(8) gives the concentration of electrons in conduction band.

Carrier concentration on valency band

The concentration of holes in the valence band is calculated by modifying eq(1) as,
∞
𝒑 = ∫ 𝒁(𝑬)[𝟏 − 𝒇(𝑬)]𝒅𝑬 − − − − − (𝟗)
−∞
Where f(E) represent the probability that a quantum state is occupied by the electrons.
Therefore, [1 − 𝑓(𝐸)] represents the probability that a quantum state is occupied by holes.
The integral given in eq(9) varies from 0 to Ev the highest energy value of the conduction
band. The number of electrons per unit energy per unit volume is given by Eq.(2) as,
𝟒𝝅 𝟑 𝟏
𝒁(𝑬) = 𝟑 (𝟐𝒎∗𝒆 ) ⁄𝟐 𝑬 ⁄𝟐
𝒉
Since the maximum energy of the valence band is Ev, The above equation can be written as
𝟒𝝅 𝟑 𝟏
𝒁(𝑬) = 𝒉𝟑 (𝟐𝒎∗𝒆 ) ⁄𝟐 (𝑬𝒗 − 𝑬) ⁄𝟐---------(10)

56
Since E< Ev, the value of [1 − 𝑓(𝐸)] is obtained from eq.(3)

1
1 − 𝑓(𝐸) = 1 −
𝐸 − 𝐸𝑓
1 + 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( 𝐾𝑇 )
𝐸 − 𝐸𝑓 𝐸 − 𝐸𝑓
1 + 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( 𝐾𝑇 ) − 1 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( 𝐾𝑇 )
=
𝐸 − 𝐸𝑓 𝐸 − 𝐸𝑓
1 + 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( 𝐾𝑇 ) 1 + 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( 𝐾𝑇 )
Since EF-E>>KT, the exponential term in the denominator is negligible.
Therefore, we can write
𝐸 − 𝐸𝑓
𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( 𝐾𝑇 ) −(𝐸 − 𝐸𝑓 )
1 − 𝑓(𝐸) = ≈ 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [ ] − − − −(11)
1 𝐾𝑇

From eq’s(11&10), eq(9) can be written as

𝐸𝑣 𝐸𝑓 − 𝐸
4𝜋 3 1
𝑝=∫ 3
(2𝑚ℎ∗ ) ⁄2 (𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸) ⁄2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− ( )] 𝑑𝐸
−∞ ℎ 𝐾𝑇

The above integral varies from 0 to Ev , since 0 and Ev are the lowest and highest energy
values of the valence band, respectively.
𝐸𝑣 𝐸𝑓 − 𝐸
4𝜋 ∗ )3⁄2 1⁄
(2𝑚 ℎ ∫ (𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸) 2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− ( )] 𝑑𝐸 − − − −(12)
ℎ3 0 𝐾𝑇
The value of the above integral is
𝐸𝑣 𝐸𝑓 − 𝐸 𝐸𝑣 𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝑓
1⁄ 1
∫ (𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸) 2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− ( )] 𝑑𝐸 = ∫ (𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸) ⁄2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− ( )] 𝑑𝐸— (13)
0 𝐾𝑇 0 𝐾𝑇
From eq’s (12) and (13), we get
𝑬𝒗 − 𝑬 𝒇
𝒑 = 𝑵𝒗 𝒆𝒙𝒑 [( )] − − − (𝟏𝟒)
𝑲𝑻
Where
3
2𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑘𝑇 ⁄2
𝑁𝑣 = 2 ( )
ℎ2
Eq(14) gives the concentration holes in the valence band of a semiconductor.

CONCENTRATION IN AN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

In an intrinsic semiconductor, the concentration of holes and electrons are equal, i.e., n=p
According to the mass action law, the product of the hole and the electron concentration is
equal to the square of the intrinsic concentration, i.e.,

𝒏𝒑 = 𝒏𝟐𝒊 − − − − − (15)
Substituting the values of n and p. From eq(8&14) in eq(15) we get,

𝐸𝑓 − 𝐸𝑐 𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝑓
𝑛𝑖2 = 𝑁𝑣 𝑁𝑐 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [( )]
𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑇
𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝑐
= 𝑁𝑣 𝑁𝑐 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )
𝐾𝑇

57
 2𝜋𝑘𝑇 3 ∗ ∗ 3⁄ 𝐸𝑐 − 𝐸𝑣
= 4 [ 2 ] (𝑚ℎ . 𝑚𝑒 ) 2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− ( )]
ℎ 𝐾𝑇
Substituting Ec-Ev=Eg and the values of π, k, h2 in the above equation, we get, multiplying
and dividing by m3 in the above equation, we get,
𝟑
𝟐𝝅𝒌𝑻 𝟐 𝟑 𝑬𝒈
𝒏𝒊 = 𝟐 [ 𝟐 ] (𝒎∗𝒉 . 𝒎∗𝒆 ) ⁄𝟒 𝒆𝒙𝒑 [− ( )]-- ===============(16)
𝒉 𝑲𝑻

FERMI LEVEL IN AN INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

In an intrinsic semiconductor, the concentration of electrons and holes are equal. Therefore,
from eq’s(8&14), we get,
𝐸𝑓 − 𝐸𝑐 𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝑓
𝑁𝑐 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( ) = 𝑁𝑣 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [( )]
𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑇
𝑁𝑐 𝐸𝑣 − 𝐸𝑓 −(𝐸𝑓 − 𝐸𝑐 )
= 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [( ) 𝑒𝑥𝑝 ( )]
𝑁𝑣 𝐾𝑇 𝐾𝑇
𝑁𝑐 𝐸𝑣 + 𝐸𝑐 − 2𝐸𝑓
= =
𝑁𝑣 𝐾𝑇
𝑁𝑐 𝐸𝑣 + 𝐸𝑐 − 2𝐸𝑓
𝐼𝑛 =
𝑁𝑣 𝐾𝑇
𝑁𝑐
𝐸𝑣 + 𝐸𝑐 − 2𝐸𝑓 = 𝑘𝑇 𝐼𝑛
𝑁𝑣

𝐸𝑣 + 𝐸𝑐 𝑘𝑇 𝑁𝑐
𝐸𝑓 = − 𝐼𝑛
2 2 𝑁𝑣

If the effective masses of the holes and electrons are equal, then
𝐸𝐹 + 𝐸𝑐
𝐸𝑓 = − − − (18)
2
Eq(18) shows that for an intrinsic semiconductor, the Fermi level lies at the middle of the
energy gap, when the effective masses of the holes and electrons are equal.

CONDUCTIVITY OF SEMICONDUCTORS
The conductivity of a metal is given by
σ = neµ --------(19)

where n is the concentration of electrons and µ is the electrons mobility.

In a semiconductor, both the electrons and holes are the charge carriers. Therefore, eq(19) is
modified as
σ = neµe + peµh ----- (20)

where n and p are the concentration of electrons and holes,. Respectively, and µeand µh are,
the mobility of electrons and holes, respectively.
For an intrinsic semiconductor, since the concentration of electrons and holes are equal.
Eq(20) can be written as
σ = ni e (µe+µh) ---- (21)

58
Eq’s (21to 23) are used to find the conductivity of a semiconductor.

Substituting the value of ni in Eq.(21), we get

2𝜋𝑚𝑘𝑇 3/2 𝑚𝑒∗ . 𝑚𝑛∗ 3/4 −𝐸 /2𝑘𝑇

𝜎 = 2[ ] [ ] 𝑒 𝑔 𝑒(𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇ℎ ) − − − (24)
ℎ2
Eq.(24) can be written as,
𝝈 = 𝑨𝒆−𝑬𝒈 /𝟐𝒌𝑻 − − − −(25)

2𝜋𝑚𝑘𝑇 3/2 𝑚∗ .𝑚∗ 3/4

Where 𝐴 = 2 [ ℎ2 ] [ 𝑒 𝑛 ] 𝑒(𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇ℎ )
From Eq.(25), the resistivity of the intrinsic semiconductor is
1
= 𝐴𝑒 −𝐸𝑔 /2𝑘𝑇
𝜌
i.e.,
𝟏
𝝆 = 𝑨 𝒆𝑬𝒈/𝟐𝒌𝑻 ---(26)

Substituting the value of (ρ=Ra/l),in Eq.(26), we get

𝑅𝑎 1 𝐸 /2𝑘𝑇
= 𝑒 𝑔
𝑙 𝐴
𝑙 𝐸 /2𝑘𝑇
𝑅= 𝑒 𝑔
𝐴𝑎

𝑹 = 𝑪𝒆𝑬𝒈/𝟐𝒌𝑻 − − − −(27)

Here, C=(l/Aa), where a is the area of cross-section and ‘l’ the length of the specimen.
In Eq(27), taking In on both sides, we get
lnR = ln C+𝑬𝒈 /𝟐𝒌𝑻----(28)
Eq.(28) is similar to equation of a straight line y=mx+c.
In Eq.(28), y= lnR, x=/T, m=𝐸𝑔 /2𝑘 and C=lnC. If a plot is drawn between In R and l/T, the
value of Eg can be determined from the slope of the straight line.

Eg = 2kslope

A plot of in R versus l/T for an intrinsic semiconductor

59
Therefore, the energy gap of an intrinsic semiconductor is determined by drawing a graph
between In R and l/T

Extrinsic Semiconductors:
The electrical conductivity in intrinsic semiconductor is very low. To improve the electrical
conductivity in pure semiconductors some impurities are added and the process is known as
doping. These impure semiconductors are known as extrinsic semiconductors. Depending on
the nature of the additive ,the electrical conductivity in extrinsic semiconductors is due to
their electrons or holes as majority charges. The extrinsic semiconductors in which the
electrical conductivity is governed by the electrons as major charge carriers are known as n-
type semiconductors and the extrinsic semiconductors in which the electrical conductivity is
governed by the holes as major charge carriers are known as p-type semiconductors.

Carrier concentration in n-type semiconductor

Carrier concentration in p-type semiconductor

DRIFT AND DIFFUSION CURRENT

Under the influence of an external electric field, the charge carriers are forced to move in a
particular direction constituting electric current (conductivity). This phenomenon is known as
the Drift. Let there be n electrons in a semiconductor. Under the electric field E, they are
drifted with a drift velocity (vd).
Then the current density
J= neVd
Where e is the charge of an electron.
𝑱 𝒏𝒆𝒗𝒅
Then conductivity 𝝈= =
𝑬 𝑬
The drift velocity is also given by Vd = µnE
Where µn is the mobility of electrons.
Substituting the above values
J= neVd
𝑱
𝝈 = 𝑬 = 𝒏𝒆𝝁𝒏
𝟏 𝟏
𝝆= =
𝝈 𝒏𝒆𝝁𝒏
In the case of a semiconductor, the drift current density is due to electrons is given by
Jn(drift)=𝒏𝒆𝝁𝒏 E and
the drift current density due to holes is
Jp (drift) = ρµpeE
Then the total drift current density
J (drift) = Jn (drift) + Jp(drift)
= 𝒏𝒆𝝁𝒏 E+ ρµpeE
J (drift) =eE(𝒏𝝁𝒏 +ρµp)
For an intrinsic semiconductor, n = p= ni then
J(drift) = ni e (µn+µp)

DIFFUSION CURRENT

60
Due to non- uniform carrier concentration in a semiconductor, the charge carriers moves from
a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. This process is known as
diffusion of charge carriers.

Let n be the excess electron concentration. Then according to Fick’s law, the rate of diffusion
of electrons
𝑑𝑛
∝
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑛
= 𝐷𝑛
𝑑𝑥
Where Dn is the diffusion coefficient of electrons, the diffusion current density due to
electrons is given by Jn (diffusion)
𝒅𝒏
= 𝒆 [𝑫𝒏 ]
𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒏
= 𝒆𝑫𝒏
𝒅𝒙
The diffusion current density due to holes
𝒅𝒑
Jp (diffusion) = 𝒆 [−𝑫𝒑 ]
𝒅𝒙

𝒅𝒑
= − 𝒆𝑫𝒑
𝒅𝒙
The total current density due to electrons is the sum of the current densities due to drift and
diffusion of electrons
𝒅𝒏
Jn = Jn (drift) + Jn (diffusion) = 𝒏𝒆𝝁𝒏 𝑬+ eDn
𝒅𝒙

𝒅𝒑
Similarly, jp = p Ee µh – e Dp
𝒅𝒙

Einstein’s Relation
The relation between mobility µ and diffusion coefficient D of charge carriers in a
semiconductor is known as Einstein’s Relation. At equilibrium with no applied electric field,
if the charge distribution is uniform, there is no net current flow . Any disturbance
equilibrium state leads to diffusion of charge carriers resulting in the diffusion current which
creates an internal electric field. This field causes the drifting of charge carriers resulting in a
61
drift current. At equilibrium condition, the drift current and diffusion current balance each
other. Let ∆𝑛 be the excess electron concentration of a semiconductor. Then at equilibrium
the drift and diffusion current densities due to excess electrons are equal.

drifting and diffusion

𝒅𝒏
i.e., ∆𝒏𝒆𝑬𝝁𝒏= eDn ----(1)
𝒅𝒙

where E is the internal electric field.

The force on excess electrons restoring equilibrium is equal to the product of excess charge
and electric field, i.e., F= 𝑛.eE. From eq. (1)

𝒆𝑫𝒏 𝒅𝒏
F= [ ] − − − −(2)
𝝁𝒏 𝒅𝒙

From kinetic theory of gases, the force on gas molecules (charge carriers is given by )
𝒅𝒏
F = KBT ----(3)
𝒅𝒙

Comparing, the eq’s (2) & (3)we get,

𝒆𝑫𝒏
KB T =
𝝁𝒏

𝝁𝒏𝑻𝒌𝑩
𝑫𝒏 = − − − (𝟒)
𝒆

𝑫𝒏 𝑻𝒌𝑩
= − − − (𝟓)
𝝁𝒏 𝒆
Similarly for holes, we get

𝑫𝒑 𝑻𝒌𝑩
= − − − (𝟔)
𝝁𝒑 𝒆

𝑫𝒑 𝑫 𝒏
=
𝝁𝒑 𝝁𝒏
𝑫𝒏 𝝁𝒏
= ---------------- (7)
𝑫𝒑 𝝁𝒑

The above relation is known as Einstein’s Relation.

HALL EFFECT
Let Ix be the current flowing through a specimen along the x- direction and Bz be the
transverse magnetic field applied along the z- direction. An electric field Ey is induced in a

62
direction perpendicular to both the current and the magnetic field. This phenomenon is
known as Hall effect.

Illustration:

The origin of the Hall effect is easy to understand . This property confirms the particle nature
of the charge carriers. Consider a semiconducting specimen, as shown in Fig. Or a metallic
specimen, carrying a current Ix along the
x-direction and a transverse magnetic
field along the z direction then a force
will be developed along the y direction.
The direction of force is easily noted from
the cork screw rule or right hand thumb
rule. Due to the force, the charge carriers
are forced downwards and they
accumulate near the bottom face ie.,
phase I. If the specimen is a metal, since
it has only one type of charge carriers, ie.,
electrons(n type semiconductor), the
electrons are force down into the bottom surface. Therefore, the bottom surface becomes
more negative compared to the upper surface. In p type semiconductor, the bottom surface is
occupied by holes and it becomes more positive compared to the upper surface. The potential
difference between the upper and lower surfaces is known as Hall voltage (𝑉𝐻 ).

Let Ix be the current applied through the specimen along x direction and Bz be the magnetic
field applied to the specimen along the z direction. Let E be the electric filed intensity due to
Hall effect. Then, at equilibrium

e EH = Be𝜗𝑑 ----(1)

Where e is the electron charge and 𝜗𝑑 is the velocity.

Let 𝑉𝐻 be the hall voltage developed between the faces 1 and 2, then
𝑉𝐻
EH = ----(2)
𝑑

From equations (1)& (2)

VH=B d 𝜗𝑑 ---(3)
Where d is the thickness of the specimen.

Let J be the current density and it is given by,

J= ne𝜗𝑑 ---(4)
From equations, (3&4) we get

63
 VH = B d × (J/ne ) ----(5)

𝐵𝑑. 𝐽
v𝐻 =
𝑛𝑒
Equation can be written by taking, RH =1/ne (where RH is the Hall coefficient) as

v𝐻 = 𝐵𝑑𝑅𝐻
1
i.e., 𝑅𝐻 = − − − (6)
𝑛𝑒

Eq.(6) gives the value of Hall coefficient.

By knowing the concentration of the carriers, the mobility of the charge carriers is
determined using the relation,

σ=neµ

µ=𝑅𝐻 σ -----(7)
where σ is the electrical conductivity of the material

Applications of the Hall Effect

1. It is used to find whether the given semiconductor is n-type or p-type.

2. It is used to find the concentration of carriers and hence, the mobility of carriers.
3. The Hall effect is ideally suited to measure the magnetic field in many
applications. Hall effect semiconducting devices are used as sensors to sense
magnetic fields.

Direct band gap semiconductors

In a semiconductor, a direct band gap means that the minimum of the conduction band lies
directly above the maximum of the valence band in the E – K space. In a direct band gap
semiconductor, electrons at the conduction band minimum can combine directly with holes at
the valence band maximum, while conserving momentum . The energy of the recombination
across the band gap will be emitted in the form of a photon of light. This is radiative
recombination which is also called spontaneous emission.

Ex: Gallium Arsenide.

Indirect Band Gap Semiconductors

64
 Not all semiconductor materials have the minimum of the conduction band above the top of
the valence band in the E-K band structure. These materials are known as indirect
semiconductors. The examples are Si, Ge, etc.

Indirect band gap is a band gap in which the minimum energy in the conduction band is
shifted by a k vector relative to the valence band. The k vector difference represents a
difference in momentums. Semiconductors that have an indirect band gap are inefficient at
emitting light. This is because any electrons present in the conduction band quickly settle into
the energy minimum of that band. The indirect (non radiative) recombination takes place at
point defects or at grain boundaries in Si..

Let us consider the difference between direct and indirect band gap semiconductors

S. Direct Band Gap semiconductor Indirect Band Gap semiconductor

No
1. As shown in the band diagram, the As shown in the band diagram, the
minimum energy of the conduction band minimum energy of the conduction band
and maximum energy of the valence band and maximum energy of the valence band
are the same value of the wave vector. having different values of a wave vector.

An electron form the conduction band can An electron form the conduction band can
2. recombine with a hole in the valence band recombine with a hole in the valence band
directly emitting a light photon of energy indirectly through traps. Here, there is
(h𝜐). emission of photon along with phonon.
The emission of phonon leading to the
raise of temperature of the material.

Life time(i.e., recombination time) of Life time(i.e., recombination time) of

3. charge carriers is very less. charge carriers is more.

Due to emission of light photon during Due to longer lifetime of charge carriers,
4. recombination of charge carriers., these these are used to amplify the signals as in
are used to fabricate LEDs and laser case of diodes and transistor.
diodes.

These are mostly from the compound These are mostly from the elemental
5. elements semiconductors.
Examples: In p, GaAs
Examples: Si,Ge
6.

65
SOLAR CELL

The first solar cell made of silicon was developed in 1954. Even today, silicon cells are the
only cells which have commercial status. Conventional silicon cells are thin wafers about 300
µm thick and 3 to 6 cm in diameter, sliced from a single crystal of n-type or p- type doped
silicon .

A solar cell is nothing but a p-n junction device based on the principle of photoelectric effect.
It directly converts light into electricity and, hence , is known as a photovoltaic cell.

WORKING OF A SOLAR CELL

When radiation falls on a solar cell, it is absorbed and pairs of positive and negative charges,
called electron-hole pairs, are created. The positive and negative charges are separated
because of the p-n junction. The direct current thereby produced is collected by the metal
electrodes and flows thorough the external load.

V- I Characteristics of a solar cell

1. The volt-ampere characteristics of a solar cell are determined by connecting a decade

resistance box and a voltmeter as shown in fig.
2. A known intensity of light from a halogen lamp is made to fall on it. The resistance
values are varied step by step and the corresponding voltages across the resistance
box are measured using a voltmeter. From the known values are V and R, the value of
I is determined using the relation, I=V/R . A graph is drawn between voltage and
current as shown in Fig.

66
 3. The current Isc, shown in Fig. Is obtained by short- circuit in the two terminals of the
solar cell and this current is known as short-circuit current. Similarly, voltage Voc, is
known as open-circuit voltage. The product of these two quantities gives the ideal
power of the cell.
4. The maximum useful power is the area of the largest rectangle that can be formed in
the V-I current. The corresponding voltage and current area represented by Vm and Im.
Therefore, the maximum useful power is Vm Im. The ratio of the maximum useful
power to the ideal power is called fill factor. A typical value of the Voc, Isc and fill
factor for a silicon cell are respectively, 450 to 600mV, 30 to 50 mA and 0.65 to 0.8.

Efficiency of a solar cell

Efficiency of a solar cell is defined as the ratio of the total power converted by the solar cell
to the total solar power available for energy conversation

𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝜼=
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒐𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕

𝒑𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝜼= 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝒙𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒄𝒍𝒍

The above equation is used to calculate the efficiency of the solar cell and the same found to
vary from 10 to 15per cent.

Fill factor: The fill factor of a solar cell is given by the relation.

𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓

𝒇=
𝑽𝒐𝒄 𝒙 𝑰𝒔𝒄

The fill factor of the solar a cell is found to be 0.65 to 0.8

Solar cell materials:

There are many materials which can be used for solar cells. The first parameter affecting the
choice of the semi conductor for that photo voltaic applications is the band- gap energy. The
band –gap energy of a semiconductor should be comparable with the energy of the photons
present in the solar spectrum, so as to absorb more number of photons.

Ex: Si.Cds,GaAs,Culnse2,Cdse,cdTe, etc.

Application of solar cells

There are 3 broad categories fro terrestrial photovoltaic applications: industrial, social and
consumer applications.

67
 1. Industrial Applications: Telecommunication PV systems are used effectively for
the operation of telecommunication equipment in remote and difficult to access areas
like mountain tops, islands and deserts.
2. Social Applications:
a) PV devices are used to provide electric power to remote villages.
b) PV powered water pumps are being installed to provide potable water flow or
plant.
c) PV is used to power refrigerators at community health centers for keeping vaccines
at low temperatures.
3. Consumer Applications:
Some consumer products, such as pocket calculators, watches, torches, garden lights,
portable fans for cars and houses, radios, toys, electric fences, etc., are powered by
PV solar systems.

Photo detector/Photodiode:

A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light energy to produce electric

current. Sometimes it is also called as photo-detector, a
light detector, and photo-sensor. These diodes are
particularly designed to work in reverse bias condition, it
means that the P-side of the photodiode is associated with
the negative terminal of the battery and n-side is connected
to the positive terminal of the battery. This diode is very
complex to light so when light falls on the diode it easily
changes light into electric current. The solar cell is also
branded as large area photodiode because it converts solar energy into electric
energy.

Principle of a photodiode :

The working principle of a photodiode is, when a photon of ample energy strikes the diode, it
makes a couple of an electron-hole. This mechanism is also called as the inner photoelectric
effect.
Photo detector bias circuit
The photo detector (P) is connected in series with a voltage source and a load resistor RL
when a light radiation is incident on the photo detector, whose energy is greater than Eg,
increasing in the conductivity of the detector takes place. As a result, the flow of current in
the circuit leads to an increase in potential across the load resistor RL. The same can be
measured using a high impedance voltmeter. A blocking capacitor C is introduced in the
output line to remove any dc components while measuring the current in the circuit, due to
time variations of the incident light.

68
PERFORMANCE OF THE PHOTODETECTOR

The performance of different types of detectors are compared by means of certain parameters
which are called the figure merits of the detectors. The most common parameters are used are
responsivity, noise equivalent power and specific detectivity.

1. Responsivity Responsivity is defined as the ratio of the electrical output to the

radiation input

𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑹𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕

2. Quantum efficiency( ɳ ) : It is the ratio of number of electron –hole pairs generated

to the number of incident photons.

𝒏𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒏 − 𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒑𝒂𝒊𝒓𝒔 𝒈𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅

ɳ =
𝒏𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒔

APPLICATIONS

Following are some of the applications of photoconductivity:

• Photoconductivity detectors in the form of single crystal or polycrystalline materials

are prepared in the form of Schottky barriers, n-p homojunctions, n-p hetero
junctions, n-p-n or p-n-p transistors with gain greater than 1.
• The television camera vidiocon and electrophotography are the two applications in the
device form.
• It is used to detect a variety of light and particle as a light controlled switch.
• The silver halide coated on the photographic film is also based on Photoconductivity.

Light Emitting Diode(LED)

A light emitting diode (LED) is a junction diode. A light emitting diode (LED) is a device which
converts electrical energy to light energy. The principle behind LED is electroluminescence.

Working:

69
Electrons are charge carriers in a semiconductor and it absorbs energy when an electric
energy is applied. The total energy of the charge carrier increases and hence, they are excited
to higher energy state. The excited electrons in the higher energy states there only for a few
seconds ,and after the mean life time eventually return to the ground state.

During the process, a spontaneous emission of the radiation of light takes place. The energy
of the emitted photon(hυ) is equal to the energy of band gap(𝐸𝑔 ) of material,i.e.,

ℎ𝑐
𝐸𝑔 = hυ =
𝜆
……………(1)
ℎ𝑐
𝜆= ………………….(2)
𝐸𝑔

Equation (2) indicates that the wavelength of emitted photon depends on the energy gap of
the semiconductor. Thus the energy gap of a semiconductor plays a major role in selecting a
suitable material for LED applications.

•
•
•
•
•
•

LED is a forward biased p-n junction as shown in fig. When it is forward biased suitably, it emits
visible light. During the forward biasing, the charge carriers, namely electrons and holes are injected
into the anode and cathode regions. The recombination of the charge carriers takes place at the
junction. During the recombination, the difference in the energy is given up in the form of heat
radiation. i.e. photons. Thus , the diode current controls electro luminous efficiency of the LED. The
emitted light is very small in intensity. The emitted light colour depends on the type of materials used.

Examples : GaAs,GaP and GaAsP are used to produce red or green or yellow colors.

Classification of solar cells:

Solar cells are classified into different categories namely,

1. P-n homo junction

2. P-n hetro junction
3. Schottky barrier
4. Homo junction hetro structure
5. MIS (metal-insulator-semiconductor cell), and

70
 6. SIS (semiconductor- Insulator –semi conductor cell)
Let us discuss the gallium arsenide solar cells in detail

Gallium Arsenide solar cell:

GaAs solar cells perform well in mono crystalline form, compared to poly
crystalline thin film solar cells. They have high absorption coefficient for
visible light. They absorb all light in a surface layer of 1micro meters
thickness. The schematic diagram of a GaAs solar cell is shown in fig.

Diagram
schematic diagram of a GaAs solar cell

In the case of GaAs solar cells, the surface recombination is very high and at
the same time the carriers have short diffusion lens. Therefore, the efficiency
of the GaAs solar cells, is low. Low efficiency in this solar cells is also due to
the lack of understanding the material fabrication parameters which are used
to determined the minority carrier life time. Therefore, a new hetro junction
solar cell is made using GaAs / Ga(1-x0) AIx as material with an efficiency of
19%. The junction at the interface of GaAs and Ga(1-x0) AIx . As does not
effect the crystal structure very much
And, thus, does not introduced recombination centres near the junction.

Application of solar cells

There are 3 broad categories fro terrestrial photovoltaic applications: industrial, social and
consumer applications.

1. Industrial Applications: Telecommunication PV systems are used effectively for the

operation of telecommunication equipment in remote and difficult to access areas like
mountain tops, islands and deserts.

a) Catholic protection : To prevent corrosion of pipe lines, bridges, et., a small direct
current is impressed on the structures at regular intervals. This is called cathodic
protection. For this, small PV panels may be used to provide this current efficiently.
b) Alarm systems: PV systems are also used to power railway signals, alarm systems,
fog. Fire and flood hazard warnings, traffic lights and highway telephones.
c) Defence equipment: Defence equipment like mobile telephone, remote
instrumentation, remote radar, water purifier, etc., are powered by PV systems.
d) Remote Air craft Beacons: Remote radio and light beacons are powered by PV
systems.
e) Automatic Meteorological Stations: For recording the whether report at a frequent
interval of time, meterological stations are powered by PV systems.

71
2. Social Applications:

a) PV devices are used to provide electric power to remote villages.

b) PV powered water pumps are being installed to provide potable water flow or
plant.
c) PV is used to power refrigerators at community health centres for keeping vaccines
at low temperatures.

3.Consumer Applications:

Some consumer products, such as pocket calculators, watches, torches, garden

lights, portable fans for cars and houses, radios, toys, electric fences, etc., are
powered by PV solar systems.

72
UNIT-V DIELECTRIC MATERIALS

Electric dipole: Two equal and opposite charges small in magnitude and separated by a
small distance constitute an electric dipole.
Dipole moment: The product of magnitude of both charge and the distance between the two
charges.
i.e. μ = q r.
It is a vector quantity.
The direction of μ is from negative to positive.
Dielectric constant ( 𝜺𝒓 ) : Dielectric constant is the ratio between the permittivity of the
𝜺
medium to the permittivity of the free space. 𝜺𝒓 = 𝜺
𝟎
Since it is the ratio of same quantity, 𝜺𝒓 has no unit.
Polarization: The process of producing electric dipoles which are oriented along the field
direction is called polarization in dielectrics.
Polarization vector (P): The dipole moment per unit volume of the dielectric material is
called polarization vector P.
If μ is the average dipole moment per molecule and N is the number of molecules per unit
volume, then polarization vector, 𝑃=𝑁μ = NαE

Electric displacement vector (D) : It is a quantity which is a very convenient function for
analyzing the electrostatic field in the dielectrics and is given by D = 𝜀𝑜E+P
Polarization: The process of producing electric dipoles which are oriented along the field
direction is called polarization in dielectrics.
Types of Polarizations:
Polarization occurs due to several atomic mechanisms. When the specimen is placed inside
electric field, mainly three types of polarizations are possible. Those are
1. Electronic polarization
2. Ionic polarization
3. Orientational or Dipolar polarization
4. Space charge polarization

1. Electronic polarization:
Electronic polarization occurs due to the displacement of negatively charged electron in
opposite direction.
When an external field is applied and there by creates a dipole moment in the dielectric.
Therefore induced dipole moment μ= 𝜶𝒆 E.
Where 𝛼𝑒 is the electronic polarizability.
Electronic polarizability is proportional to the volume of atoms.
This Polarization is independent of temperature.

2. Ionic polarization:
This is due to the displacement of cations and anions in opposite directions and occurs in
an ionic solid. This type of polarization occurs in ionic dielectrics like Nacl.
When such a dielectric material is subjected to an external electric field, adjacent ions of
opposite sign undergoes displacement and this displacement results either increase or
decrease in the distance of separation between ions.

73
 If x1 and x2 are the displacements of positive and negative ions in an ionic crystal due to
the application of electric field E, then dipole moment is 𝜇=e (𝑥1 +𝑥2)

Electronic polarization and calculation of Electronic polarizability:

Electronic polarization occurs due to the displacement negative electron cloud of each atom
with respect to its nucleus in the presence of electric field. When an external field is applied
and there by creates a dipole moment in the dielectric.
Therefore induced dipole moment μ= 𝛼𝑒E.
➢ Where 𝛼𝑒 is the electronic polarizability.
➢ Electronic polarizability is proportional to the volume of atoms.
➢ Polarizability is independent of temperature.

Calculation of electronic polarizability:

(I)Without Electric field:
Let us consider a classical model of an atom. Assume the charge of the nucleus is +Ze and
the nucleus is surrounded by an electron cloud of charge –Ze which is distributed in sphere of
radius R.
−𝑍𝑒
The charge density of the charged sphere = 4 3
𝜋𝑅
3
−3𝑍𝑒
Charge density 𝜌= -------------------1
4 𝜋𝑅 3

(II) With Electric field:

When the dielectric is placed in an electric field E, two phenomena occurs
❖ Lorentz force due to the electric field tends to separate the nucleus and the electron
cloud from their equilibrium position.
❖ After the separation, an attractive coulomb force arises between the nucleus and
electron cloud which tries to maintain the original equilibrium position.
❖ Let x be the displacement made by the electron cloud from the positive core .Since
the nucleus is heavy it will not move when compared to the movement of electron
cloud here x<<R, where R is the radius of the atom.
❖ Since the Lorentz and coulombs forces are equal and opposite in nature, equilibrium
is reached.
❖ At equilibrium Lorentz force = Coulomb force

Lorentz force = charge × field = -ZeE --------------2

(𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠(𝑄)𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑥)
Then Coulomb force = charge X 4𝜋𝜖 𝑥 2
---
0
3

74
Here the total number of negative charges (Q) encloses in the sphere of radius x is

4 4 −3𝑍𝑒 − 𝑧𝑒𝑥 3
= 3 𝜋𝑥 3 × 𝜌 = 𝜋𝑥 3 × =
3 4 𝜋𝑅 3 𝑅3
− 𝑧𝑒𝑥3
( 3 ) −𝑍 2 𝑒 2 𝑥
𝑅
Coulomb force = +Ze × = 4𝜋𝜖 -------------- (4)
4𝜋𝜖0 𝑥 2 0𝑅
3

At equilibrium Lorentz force= Coulomb force

−𝑍 2 𝑒 2
-ZeE = 4𝜋𝜖 3
= ----------------------------------(5)
0𝑅

0 4𝜋𝜖 𝑅 3 𝐸
𝑥= ............................ (6)
Ze
Therefore the displacement of electron cloud( x) is proportional to the applied electric field E.

Dipole moment:
Now the two electric charges +Ze and –Ze are displaced by a distance under the influence of
the field and form a dipole.
Induced dipole moment = magnitude of charge × displacement = Ze X -----------(7)
Substitute the value of X from 7 in 8 we have

𝟎 𝟒𝝅𝝐 𝑹𝟑 𝑬
μ𝑒= Ze × 𝐙𝐞
μ𝑒= 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝑹𝟑 𝑬
μ = 𝛼𝑒E --------------------------------(8)
3
𝜶𝒆= 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑅 𝐸 is called electronic polarizability

Calculation of ionic polarization:

Ionic polarization:
❖ This is due to the displacement of cations and anions in opposite directions and
occurs in an ionic solid. This type of polarization occurs in ionic dielectrics like Nacl.
❖ When such a dielectric material is subjected to an external electric field, adjacent ions
of opposite sign undergoes displacement and this displacement results either increase
or decrease in the distance of separation between ions.
❖ If x1 and x2 are the displacements of positive and negative ions in an ionic crystal
due to the application of electric field E, then dipole moment is 𝜇=e (𝑥1 +𝑥2)

❖ Ionic polarization is due to the displacement of cations and anions in opposite

directions and occurs in an ionic solid.
❖ Suppose an electric field is applied in the +ve x direction, the +ve ions move to the
right by x1 and the –ve ions move to the left by x2.

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 ❖ Assuming the each unit cell has one cation and one anion, the resultant dipole
moment per unit cell due to ionic displacement is given by μ=𝒆(x1+ x2) ------------
(1 )
❖ If β1 and β2 are restoring force constants of cation and anion and F Newton’s is the
force due to the applied field, 𝐹=β1x1=β2x2-------------------------(2 )
❖ Hence x1=F /β1
❖ Restoring force constants depend upon the mass of the ion and angular frequency of
the molecule in which ions are present.

x1=eE/m 𝜔02 ----------------------(3),

where ‘M’ is the mass of +ve ion.
x2=eE/M𝜔02 ------------------------ (4) ,
Where ‘m’is the mass of -ve ion.
𝑒𝐸 1 1
x1+ x2= 𝜔2(𝑚 + 𝑀) ---------------------------(5 )
0
𝑒 2𝐸 1 1
And μ=𝒆(x1+ x2) = ( + 𝑀) ---------------------------6
𝜔02 𝑚
𝑒2 1 1
∝𝑖=𝜇/𝐸= ( + 𝑀) ------------- (7)
𝜔02 𝑚
Thus the ionic polarizability (∝𝑖) is inversely proportional to square of the natural frequency
1 1
of the ionic molecule and is reduced mass is equal to (𝑚 + 𝑀)−1

Orientational or Dipolar polarization:

• This type of polarization occurs in polar dielectrics.

• Without the external field the molecules are oriented at random. So the net dipole
moment is zero.
• When external field is applied, the polar molecules orient favourably into the field
direction.
• The polarization due to such alignment is called orientation polarisation.
• Orientation polarisation dependent on temperature.With increase of temperature,the
thermal energy tends to randomize the alignment.
• Hence the orientational polarizability is strongly dependent on temperature.
Therefore the orientational polarizability is
𝛼𝑜 = (𝑃𝑜/𝑁𝐸) = (𝜇 2 /3KT )

76
Space charge polarization:
• This occurs in heterogeneous dielectric materials and also in homogeneous dielectric
having impurities,pores filled with air etc.
• Maily hydrogen and lithium ions caused this polarization in ceramics and glasses.
• It takes relatively longer time compare to other types of polarizations.

Total polarization and polarizability:

The total polarizability of a gas can be written as

𝛼 𝑇 = 𝛼𝑒 + 𝛼𝑖 + 𝛼𝑜 + 𝛼𝑠
Since the space charge polarizability is very small when compared to the other types of
polarizabilities,
𝛼 𝑇 = 𝛼𝑒 + 𝛼𝑖 + 𝛼𝑜

𝑒2 1 1
𝛼 𝑇 = 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑅 3 𝐸 + ( + 𝑀) + (𝜇 2 /3KT )
𝜔02 𝑚

The total polarization of a material is the sum of the contribution from the various sources
above
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝑒 + 𝑃𝑖 + 𝑃𝑜 + 𝑃𝑠

𝑒2 1 1
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑁𝐸{4𝜋𝜖0 𝑅 3 𝐸 + ( + ) + (𝜇 2 /3KT )}
𝜔02 𝑚 𝑀
This equation is known as Langevin -Debye equation.

Local field or Internal field

When an external electric field is applied across a dielectric, the intensity of electric field felt
by a given atom is not equal to the applied electric field E, because the atoms are surrounded
on all sides by other polarized atoms.
➢ The internal field Eint is defined as the electric field acting on the atom is equal to the
sum of the electric fields created by the neighbouring polarized atoms and the applied
field. This field is responsible for polarizing the atom.
➢ The internal field Eint is called internal field or Lorentz field.

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LORENTZ METHOD TO FIND INTERNAL FIELD:
➢ A dielectric material is placed in an external electric field , i.e It is placed in between
two plates of a parallel plate capacitor.
➢ Consider an imaginary sphere inside the solid dielectric of radius ‘r’. Radius of the
sphere is greater than the radius of the atom.
➢ Thus there are many atomic dipoles within the sphere. Electric field at the centre of
the sphere is called internal field which is made up of the following four factors.

Ei = E1 + E2 + E3 + E4 ------------------- (1)
E1 = Electric field due to the charges on the capacitor plates (externally applied).
E2 = Electric field due to polarized charges on the plane surface of the dielectric.
E3 = Electric field due to polarized charges induced on the surface of the sphere.
E4 = Electric field due to permanent dipoles of atoms inside the sphere.

To find E1
E1 is the field intensity at A due to the charge density on the plates. From the field theory
𝐷𝛼 E1
D = 𝜖0 E1
𝑫
E1 = 𝝐 ........................(1)
𝟎

We know that 𝐃 = 𝛜𝟎 𝐄 + 𝐏 ............... (2)

𝑷
From eqn.(1) and (2) 𝐸1 = 𝐸 + ....................... (3)
𝝐𝟎
To find E2
E2 is the field intensity at A due to the charge density induced on the two sides of the
dielectric.
𝑷
𝐸2 = − 𝝐 ....................... (4)
𝟎
To find E4

E3 is the field intensity at O due to other atoms contained in the cavity. We are assuming a
cubic structure, so
E4 = 0 ............................. (5)

78
To find E3
E3 is the field intensity due to charges on the surface of the cavity and was calculated by
Lorentz method.
The enlarged view of the cavity as shown in fig. If ds is the surface area of the sphere of
radius r lying between 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 + 𝑑𝜃,where 𝜃 is the direction with reference to the direction
of the applied force,
𝑑𝑠 = 2𝜋(𝑃𝑄)(𝑄𝑅)
𝑃𝑄
But sin 𝜃 = 𝑟 , 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
QR = r d 𝜃

Hence 𝑑𝑠 = 2𝜋𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 r d 𝜃

The charge dq on the surface ds is equal to the normal component of polarization multiplied
by the surface area.
𝑑𝑞 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 d 𝜃 × 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = ds × 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

The field due to this charge at A, denoted by dE3 in the direction 𝜃 = 0 is

dq × 1 × cosθ
dE3 =
4πϵ0 r 2
2𝜋𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 d 𝜃 ×𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃cosθ
= 4πϵ0 r2
𝑃2𝜋𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃d 𝜃
= 4πϵ0 r2
Thus the total field E3 due to the charges on the surface of the entire cavity is obtained by
integrating dE3
𝜋 𝜋 𝑃2𝜋𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃d 𝜃 𝑃 𝜋
∫0 𝑑𝐸3 = ∫0 4πϵ0 r2
= 2ϵ0
∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃d 𝜃

𝑃 𝜋 2
= ∫ 𝑥 (−𝑑𝑥)
2ϵ0 0
cosθ = x and dx = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃
𝑃 𝜋 2
= ∫ 𝑥 (−𝑑𝑥)
2ϵ0 0

𝑷
E4 = 𝟑𝛜
𝟎

𝑷
Therefore internal field (𝑬𝒊 ) = E + 𝟑𝛜
𝟎

Clausius –Mosotti relation:

Elemental solid dielectrics like Ge,Si,Diamond,etc., have no permanent dipoles or ions and
will have only cubic structure,thereby exhibiting only electronic polarization.The total
polarization is

𝑃 = 𝑁𝛼𝐸𝑖
where 𝐸𝑖 is local field in dielectrics
𝑷
𝑃 = 𝑁𝛼 [𝐸 + 𝟑𝛜 ] ............................... (1)
𝟎

79
 𝑃 = ϵ0 E(ϵr − 1) .......................(2)
equating eqn.(1) &(2)

ϵ0 E(ϵr −1)
𝑁𝛼 [𝐸 + ] = ϵ0 E(ϵr − 1)
𝟑𝛜𝟎

𝑁𝛼𝐸 𝟑𝛜𝟎 ϵ0 E(ϵr −1)

+ 𝑁𝛼 [ ] = ϵ0 E(ϵr − 1)
𝟑𝛜𝟎 𝟑𝛜𝟎
𝑁𝛼𝐸 𝛜𝟎
[3 − (ϵr − 1)] = ϵ0 E(ϵr − 1)
𝟑𝛜𝟎
𝑁𝛼 (ϵr − 1)
=
𝟑𝛜𝟎 (ϵr + 2)

Dielectric loss:
• When a dielectric is subjected t the a.c. voltage, the electrical energy is absorbed by
the material and is dissipated in the form of heat.This dissipation of energy is called
dielectric loss.Since this involves heat generation and heat dissipation, this assumes a
dominating role in ℎ𝑖𝑔ℎ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠.
• In an ideal dielectric,the current leads the voltage by an angle of 900 is shown in
fig.But in case of a commercial dielectric ,the current does not exactly lead the
voltage by 900 . It leads by some other angle 𝛿 is less than 900 . The angle (90- 𝛿) is
known as the dielectric loss angle.
• The dielectric power loss is given by

Power loss in dielectrics is

P = VI cos 𝜃

For a perfect dielectrics , 𝜃 = 0, P = 0.It means no power loss.

For a commercial dielectrics, 𝜃 =(90- 𝛿)

P = VI cos (90- 𝛿)
= VI sin 𝛿
= VI tan 𝛿 (sin 𝛿 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛿) ........................... (1)

80
 • According Ohm’s law V= IR
𝑉 𝑉
I = 𝑅 = 𝑋 (𝑋𝐶 = 𝑅 = 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒) ----------------- (2)
𝐶
• From eqn.(1) and (2)
𝑉 𝑉2
P = V 𝑋 tan 𝛿 = 𝑋 tan 𝛿 ........................(3)
𝐶 𝐶
1 1
• But the frequency 𝑓 = = 2𝜋 𝑋
2𝜋𝑅𝐶 𝐶𝐶

1
𝑋𝐶 = .................... (4)
2𝜋𝑓𝐶
Substitute eqn (4) in eqn(3),we get
𝑷 = 𝑽𝟐 𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪 tan 𝜹 ..........................(5)
Where tan 𝛿 is power factor of the dielectric.
• The power loss depends on only on the power factor of the dielectric as long as the
applied voltage, frequency and capacitance are kept constant.
• The dielectric loss is increased by the following factors:
➢ High frequency of the applied voltage
➢ High value of the applied voltage
➢ High temperature
➢ Humidity

Dielectric breakdown:
Every material is bound to fail or breakdown under certain conditions. Dielectric breakdown
occurs when the electron density in the conduction band becomes very high during the
application of an electric field such that conductivity increases rapidly resulting in a
permanent damage to material. The most critical parameter is the field strength E in the
dielectric. If it exceeds a critical limit, breakdown occurs. The (DC) current vs. field strength
characteristic of a dielectric may look like this:

After reaching a critical field or breakdown field, Ec, a sudden increase in the current within
a few seconds or even quicker, completely destroy the dielectric properties. However, Ec is
not a well defined material property, it depends on many parameters such as material
thickness (bulk or thin film), temperature, atmosphere, level of porosity, crystalline
anisotropy, level of crystalinity and composition.
The different types of dielectric breakdown are given below.
1. Intrinsic breakdown/ Avalanche breakdown
2. Thermal breakdown
3. Electrochemical breakdown

81
 4. Discharge breakdown
5. Defect breakdown
Intrinsic breakdown/ Avalanche breakdown:
➢ If a dielectric material is subjected to large amount of electric field, then the electrons
in the valence band acquire sufficient amount of energy so that they easily cross the
energy gap. These electrons while flowing through the conduction band produce a
large current. This large current causes the dielectric to undergo a breakdown.
➢ The large number of conduction electrons in the conduction band may collide with the
covalent bond and consequently, they dislodge more number of electrons. This
process goes on a chain reaction. The breakdown produced in this way is said to be
Intrinsic breakdown/ Avalanche breakdown.
➢ It can occur even at low temperature.
➢ It requires relatively large electric field.
➢ This kind of breakdown occurs mostly in thin samples.
➢ It does not depend on shape of the material.

Thermal breakdown
➢ In a dielectric material when an electric field is applied, some amount of heat is
produced. The heat produced in the material should be dissipated from it.
➢ In some cases, the amount of heat is generated is very high compared to the heat
dissipated and this excess of heat may produce breakdown of the dielectric material.
➢ It can occur only at higher temperature.
➢ The breakdown time is in the order of few milliseconds.
➢ It does depend on shape and size of the material.

Electrochemical breakdown
➢ The electrochemical breakdown has close relationship with thermal breakdown.
➢ If the temperature of dielectric material increases, it will increase the mobility of the
ions and hence, electrochemical reaction will take place.
➢ When ionic mobility increases, leakage current will increase, thereby decreasing the
insulation resistance and this will result in dielectric break down.
➢ It can occur only at higher temperature.
Discharge breakdown:
➢ Some dielectric materials may have occluded gas bubbles.
➢ If these dielectrics materials are subjects to high voltages, the gaseous substances are
easily ionized and they produce a large ionization current.
➢ This large ionization current may produce dielectric breakdown.
➢ This occur at low voltages.

Defect breakdown:
Some dielectric materials may have surface defects like cracks, pores,etc.Moisture and other
impurities can get filled up at these places leading to breakdown. This is known as defect
breakdown.

Ferro Electricity: Substances exhibiting electronic polarization even in the absence of

external field are called Ferroelectric Materials. This phenomenon is known as
Ferroelectricity.
Examples: Rochelle salt (NaKC4H4O6.4H2O), Lead Titanate, PbTiO3, Lead zirconate
Titanate (PZT), Lead lanthanum zirconate Titanate (PLZT).
Properties:

82
 • Have peculiarly large dielectric constant.
• They exhibit spontaneous magnetization.
• They exhibit hysteresis phenomena like ferromagnetic materials.
• The polarization is not zero even when external field is zero.
• Ferroelectrics follow Curie-Weiss law, the electric susceptibility χ=𝐶/ (𝑇−𝜃 )
• Here C=Curie temperature, 𝜃= transition temperature, above which Ferro electric
substance becomes Para electric substances. Spontaneous polarization becomes zero
at transition temperature.
• Dielectric constant is high at critical temperature (𝑇𝐶 ).
• All Ferro electric materials are Pyro electric; however the converse is not true.
• They exhibit the phenomenon of Double
refraction.

Piezo Electricity.
Direct Piezoelectric effect:

When certain crystals are subjected to stress, the electric charges appear on their surface with
certain distance of separation. This is called the piezoelectric effect. The crystals exhibiting
Piezo electric effect are called piezoelectric crystals and this phenomenon is called Piezo
electricity. Examples: Quartz, Rochelle salt, Tourmaline.
Inverse Piezoelectric effect:
The mechanical deformation of piezoelectric material caused by an external electric field
isknown as the inverse piezoelectric effect.

83
 • Non-Centro Symmetric crystals are exhibiting this property.
• This property is utilized in conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy and
vice versa.
• Quartz crystal is a very good example of one such transducer material.
• Crystal cut in proper direction and shaped to achieve maximum efficiency.
• Natural crystal (Quartz) has the shape of a hexagonal prism with a pyramid attached
to each end.
• The line joining the end points of these pyramids is called the optic axis or Z – axis.
• The three lines which passes through the opposite corners of the crystal constitute are
electrical axes or X-axes.
• The three lines which are perpendicular to the sides of the hexagon form its
mechanical axes or Y-axes.

Ceramic Piezo electrics:

Ceramics are oxide powders compressed and sintered at high temperature to form
polycrystalline mass. Ceramic materials are cheap, easily made in various shapes and their
properties can be tailored by varying the powdered constituents.

Differences between Ferro electricity and Piezo electricity

Features Piezoelectric Ferroelectric

84
 Generates electric potential Polarization can be
when subjected to mechanical changed and reversed with
energy (viz. compression or the applied external electric
Characteristics tension) is applied. field.

Material classes Organic, Ceramic, single crystal Organic, Ceramic

PVF2, Liquid Crystals,

Examples of PVF2, PZT, PLZT, Quartz, PZT (Lead [Pb], Zirconate,
materials LiNbO3 Titanate) thin film

actuator, transducer, optical,

frequency control, SAW non-volatile memory,
Applications devices, ultrasonic receiver displays

Applications of dielectrics:

Dielectrics are widely used as insulating materials.

Another very important application of dielectric materials is their use as energy storage
capacitors. Depending on the application and type of dielectric used,the capacitor may be
grouped into the following four categories.
1. Capacitors with vaccum, air or inert gas as dielectrics: In this type of capacitors
dielectric loss are very less. The value of capacitance is not very large. Therefore
there are used in radio frequency circuits and in low frequency measuring circuits.
2. Capacitors with mineral oils as dielectrics: In this type of capacitors dielectric loss
are not very small. The value of the capacitance are very large. Hence these are used
in high voltage applications.
3. Capacitors with solid dielectrics: Glass, mica etc., are used in these capacitors.
These types of capacitors are used in laboratories as standard capacitors. They have
high dielectric constant and high insulator resistance. The dielectric constant does not
vary with temperature.
4. Capacitors with both solid and liquid dielectrics: In this type of capacitors,
combination of solids such as papers, films of synthetic materials glass, mica etc and
liquids such as mineral oil, castor oil silicon oil etc .are used. These capacitors
provide high value of capacitance. These are very useful for power factor correction
in electric power distribution.

85
**********************

86