Matrix Theory

(Lecture 1)

Pooja B

iNurture Education Solutions

August 16, 2017

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 1 Matrices
Introduction
Types of Matrices:
Square matrix:
Determinant:
To find the determinant of a square matrix of order n:
Properties of determinants:
Elementary Matrix Operations:
Invertible matrices:
Inverse of a matrix using elementary matrix operations:
Rank of a Matrix:
Row-reduced Echelon form:
Linear eqautions:
Homogeneous equations:
Non-Homogeneous equations:

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 Matrices Introduction

Matrix
A matrix is a set of entries, arranged in a rectangular array of rows and columns.
In general, a matrix with ’m’ rows and ’n’ columns is written as
 
a11 a12 . . . a1n
 a21 a22 . . . a2n 
 
 ... ... ... 
am1 am2 . . . amn

Note
1 Each entry in a matrix is called an element. An element aij represents the entry, in
the i th row and j th column.
2 Let m be the number of rows and n be the number of columns in a matrix, there
are mn elements in the matrix and the matrix is said to have order m × n, read as
m by n. Example: If  
1 3 5 7
A= 2 4 9 9 
4 3 11 0
Then a11 = 1, a24 = 9, a33 = 11 etc.

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 Matrices Types of Matrices:

Types of Matrices

Row Matrix
A matrix with a single row and multiple columns is called a row matrix. It
has order 1 × n.

Column Matrix
A matrix with a single column and multiple rows is called a column
matrix. It has order m × 1.

Zero Matrix
A matrix in which all the elements are zero, is called a zero matrix. It is
denoted as O

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 Matrices Types of Matrices:

Square Matrix
A matrix in which, the number of rows and number of columns are equal,
is called a square matrix.

Note
1 A square matrix with n rows and n columns, is said to have order n.
2 The elements a11 , a22 , a33 , . . . ann of a square matrix A of order n,
are called principal diagonal elements of the matrix.
3 The elements other than the diagonal elements are called
non-diagonal elements.

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 Matrices Types of Matrices:

Types Of Square Matrix

Diagonal Matrix
A square matrix, in which all the non-diagonal elements are zero, is called a
diagonal matrix.

Scalar Matrix
A square matrix in which, all the non-diagonal elements are zero and all the
diagonal elements are equal, is called a scalar matrix.

Identity Matrix
A square matrix in which, all the non-diagonal elements are zero and all the
diagonal elements are equal to 1, is called a unit matrix or identity
matrix. It is denoted as I n .

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 Matrices Determinant:

Determinant
The determinant of a matrix is a real number associated with it. It is
denoted as |A| or detA

Note:
Determinant is defined only on a square matrix.

Singular Matrix
A singular matrix is a matrix, whose determinant is zero.

Non-Singular Matrix
A non-singular matrix is a matrix, whose determinant is non-zero.

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 Matrices Determinant:

To find the determinant of matrix

When n = 2
 
a b
Let A = be a square matrix of order 2, then
 c d
a b 
|A| =   = ad − bc
c d

When n = 3
 
a11 a12 a13
Let Let A = a21 a22 a23  be a square matrix of order 3. Define Aij as the
a31 a32 a33
matrix obtained from A after omitting the i th row and j th column. Then

|A| = (−1)i+1 ai1 |Ai1 | + (−1)i ai2 |Ai2 | + (−1)i+1 ai3 |Ai3 |(where i = 1, 2, 3)
or
1+j
|A| = (−1) a1j |A1j | + (−1) a2j |A2j | + (−1)1+j a3j |A3j |(where j = 1, 2, 3)
j

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 Matrices Determinant:

When n = 4
 
a11 a12 a13 a14
a21 a22 a23 a24 
Let A = 
  be a square matrix of order 4. Define Aij as the
a31 a32 a33 a34 
a41 a42 a43 a44
matrix obtained from A after omitting the i th row and j th column. Then

|A| = (−1)i+1 ai1 |Ai1 | + (−1)i ai2 |Ai2 | + (−1)i+1 ai3 |Ai3 | + (−1)i ai4 |Ai4 |
or
1+j
|A| = (−1) a1j |A1j | + (−1) a2j |A2j | + (−1)1+j a3j |A3j | + (−1)j a4j |A4j |
j

Here i, j = 1, 2, 3, 4

Note:
The determinant can be taken over any row or any column, and the result
will be the same.
We usually choose the row or column with the maximum number of zeroes
for convenience.
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 Matrices Determinant:

Properties of determinants:

The following are some of the properties of determinants:

1 The value of determinant remains unchanged if the rows and columns
of a matrix are interchanged.
2 The sign of determinant changes if two rows (or columns) of a matrix
are interchanged.
3 If two rows (or columns) of a matrix are identical, the value of the
determinant becomes zero.
4 If B is a matrix obtained from another matrix A by multiplying a row
(or column) by a non-zero scalar k, then |A| = k|B|.
5 The value of determinant remains unchanged by adding to the
elements of a row (or column), k times the corresponding elements of
another row (or column).

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 Matrices Elementary Matrix Operations:

Elementary Matrix Operations

Let A be any matrix of order m × n The following are called the elementary row
operations that can be applied on A.
1 Interchange the row Ri with another row Rj . It is denoted a s Ri ←→ Rj
(where i 6= j and i, j = 1, 2, 3 . . . m).
2 Multiplication of the elements of a row Ri by a non-zero scalar k. It is
denoted as Ri −→ kRi (where k ∈ R, k 6= 0 and i = 1, 2, 3 . . . m).
3 Adding to the elements of a row, Ri , k times the corresponding elements of
another row Rj . Here k is a scalar. It is denoted as Ri −→ Ri + kRj (where
k ∈ R, and i, j = 1, 2, 3 . . . m).

Note:
The same operations can be applied on the columns of a matrix also. The elementary
column operations are denoted as follows:
1 Ci ←→ Cj (where i 6= j and i, j = 1, 2, 3 . . . n).
2 Ci −→ kCi (where k ∈ R, k 6= 0 and i = 1, 2, 3 . . . n).
3 Ci −→ Ci + kCj (where k ∈ R, and i, j = 1, 2, 3 . . . n).
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 Matrices Invertible matrices:

Inverse of a Matrix
Let A be any square matrix of order n, and B is another matrix of the same
order, such that AB = In = BA. Then B is said to be the inverse of A and
is denoted as A−1 .

Invertible Matrix
A matrix A is said to be invertible, if A−1 exists.

Note:
A matrix is invertible if and only if it is singular.
If A is the inverse of B then B is also the inverse of A.
.

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 Matrices Invertible matrices:

To find the Inverse of a matrix using elementary operations:

Let A be any invertible matrix of order n, and In be an identity matrix of

the same order, then A−1 can be found by following these steps:
1 Verify whether the matrix A is invertible.
2 Write A = In A (or A = AIn ).
3 Apply a sequence of row operations on A in the L.H.S., such a way
that A reduces to In .
4 Simultaneously apply the same row operations to In in the R.H.S. to
reduce In to some matrix B.
5 At the end we have In = BA. Hence the required inverse matrix is
A−1 = B.

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 Matrices Invertible matrices:

Equivalent Matrices
Two matrices A and B are said to be equivalent, if one matrix B can be
obtained from the other matrix A by performing a finite number of
elementary operations on A. This we denote as A ∼ B.

Note
Matrix equivalence is an equivalence relation:
A ∼ A for any matrix A.
If A ∼ B, then B ∼ A.
If A ∼ B and B ∼ C , then A ∼ C .

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 Matrices Invertible matrices:

Rank of a Matrix
A matrix A is said to have rank r , if
i there exists one non-singular submatrix of A with order r .
ii every sub-matrix of A with order r + 1 or greater, is singular.
Rank of a matrix A is denoted as ρ(A)

Properties:
1 The value of rank remains unchanged if the rows and columns of a
matrix are interchanged.
2 The value of rank remains unchanged if two rows of a matrix are
interchanged.
3 The value of rank remains unchanged by multiplying a row by a
non-zero scalar k.
4 The value of rank remains unchanged by adding to the elements of a
row (or column), k times the corresponding elements of another row
(or column).
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 Matrices Invertible matrices:

Row-reduced Echelon form:

A matrix of order m × n is said to be in row-reduced echelon form, if

i the leading element (the first non-zero entry) of each row is unity.
ii all entries below the leading entry is zero.
iii the number of zeroes appearing before the leading entry in each row is
greater than that appearing in the previous rows.
iv the zero rows (rows in which every element is zero), must appear below
the non-zero rows.

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 Matrices Invertible matrices:

To find the rank of a matrix using elementary row operations

1 Reduce the given matrix A into its row-reduced echelon form by

applying suitable row operations.
2 Identify the rows with atleast one non-zero element, as the non-zero
rows.
3 The rank of a matrix A is equal to the number of non-zero rows, in
the row-reduced echelon form of the matrix A.

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 Matrices Linear eqautions:

Linear Equation
An algebraic equation in which all the variables have degree atmost 1, is
called a linear equation.

In general, a linear equation with n variables is written as

a1 x1 + a2 x2 + . . . an x+ n = b

Solution of a linear equation

The solution of a linear equation in n variables, is an n − tuple,
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) which satisfies the equation.

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 Matrices Linear eqautions:

System of linear equations

A system of m linear equations in n variables is given as

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + · · · + a1n xn = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 + · · · + a2n xn = b2
a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 + · · · + a3n xn = b3
..
.
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + am3 x3 + · · · + amn xn = bm

This can be written inmatrix form as AX = Bwhere, A is the m × n co-efficient

a11 a12 . . . a1n
 a21 a22 . . . a2n 
matrix given by A =   , X is the n × 1 variable matrix
... ... ... 
a am2 . . . amn
  m1  
x1 b1
 x2   b2 
given by X =  .  and B =  .  is the m × 1 matrix of independent
   
 ..   .. 
xn bm
terms.
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 Matrices Linear eqautions:

Homogeneous equations:
Consider the system
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + · · · + a1n xn = 0
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 + · · · + a2n xn = 0
a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 + · · · + a3n xn = 0
..
.
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + am3 x3 + · · · + amn xn = 0
of m homogeneous linear equations in n variables. This system can be written as
AX = O, where O is the zero matrix of order m.
Note:
1 The n − tuple (0, 0, 0, . . . , 0) is always a solution to the system of equations
AX = O. This solution is called the trivial solution. Any other solution is
called the non-tivial solution.
2 Homogeneous systems of equations are always consistent since every
homogeneous system has a trivial solution.
Pooja B AX = O has a non-trivial solution
3 (iNurture Education Solutions) MatrixifTheory
and only if ρ(A) < n.
August 16, 2017 20 / 23
 Matrices Linear eqautions:

To find the solution of AX = O:

1 Find rank of A by reducing A to its row-reduced echelon form. Let ρ(A) = r .

2 If r < n, the system has a non-trivial solution. Write the equivalent form of
the system of equations obtained after step 1.
3 Choose (n − r ) variables and keep them as constants. Write the remaining r
variables in terms of the constant variables.

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 Matrices Linear eqautions:

Non-Homogeneous equations:
Consider the system
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + · · · + a1n xn = b1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 + · · · + a2n xn = b2
a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 + · · · + a3n xn = b3
...
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + am3 x3 + · · · + amn xn = bm
of m non-homogeneous linear equations in n variables. This system can be written as
AX = B.
Augmented Matrix
The matrix
 [A : B] formed by combining
 the elements of A and B, given by
a11 a12 . . . a1n : b1
 a21 a22 . . . a2n : b2 
A:B=  is called an augmented matrix.
 ... ... ... 
am1 am2 . . . amn : bm

Note:
The non-homogeneous is consistent if and only if the rank of its coefficient matrix A is
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 Matrices Linear eqautions:

To find the solution of AX = B:

1 Find rank of A by reducing A to its row-reduced echelon form. Let ρ(A) = r1

2 Find rank of A by reducing [A : B] to its row-reduced echelon form. Let
ρ([A : B]) = r2
3 If r1 6= r2 , the system is inconsistent and has no solution. Write the equivalent
form of the system of equations obtained after step 1.
4 If r1 = r2 , the system is consistent and has a solution. Write the equivalent form
of the system of equations obtained after step 1 and solve as before.

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