UNESCO-NIGERIA TECHNICAL &

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
REVITALISATION PROJECT-PHASE II

NATIONAL DIPLOMA IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
COURSE CODE: MEC224

YEAR 2- SE MESTER 4

THEORY
THEORY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
WEEK 1
1.1 Reasons for the study of properties materials
1.1 Materials science and engineering
1.2 Types of material
1.2.1 Metallic
1.2.2 Polymeric (Plastic)
1.2.3 Ceramic Materials
1.2.4 Composite Materials
1.3 Summary
WEEK 2
2.0 Atomic structure and bonding
2.1 Structure of atoms
2.2 Atomic Numbers and Atomic Masses
2.3. Electronic construction of Atoms
WEEK 3
3.0 Electronic structure and chemical reactivity
3.1 Atomic and molecular bond
Bonds in Solids
Ionic bond
Covalent bond
Metallic bond
3.2. Types of crystals
Body centred cubic (bcc) structures
Face centred cubic (fcc) structures
Hexagonal close packed (hcp) structures

WEEK 4
4.0 Phase transformations
4.1 Equilibrium diagram cooling curves
4.2. The one-two-one and inverse lever rules
4.3. Types of equilibrium diagrams
Inter metallic compounds
Invariant systems
WEEK 5
5.1 Ingot Casting
5.2 Types of Steel Ingot

WEEK 6
6.1 Equilibrium or constitutional diagrams
6.2 Eutectic
6.2.1 Interpretation of equilibrium diagrams
6.2.2 Solid solution diagram
6.2.3 Combination types
6.3 Eutectic and solid solutions
6.4 Intermediate phases

WEEK 7
7.1. Properties of materials
Extraction of metals from ores
7.2. Beneficiation or preliminary, treatment of iron ore for smelting.
Cutting
Grinding

WEEK 8
8.0 Concentration of ores
(i) Heavy media separation process –
(ii) Magnetic Separation Process –
(iii) Washing with water to separate the ore from the waste.
(iv) Calcination
(v) Agglomeration

WEEK 9
9.1. Manufacture of pig iron
9.2. Composition of pig iron

WEEK 10
10.0 Steel making processes
10.1. Bessemer process
10.2. Open hearth process

WEEK 11
11.1. Cast iron
11.2. Chemical composition
11.3. Chemical composition
11.4. Alloy cast iron

WEEK 12
12.0 Properties and application of non ferrous metal
12.1 Non-ferrous metals
WEEK 13
13.0 Hot working and cold working processes
13.1. Mechanical shaping of metals
13.2. Hot rolling
13.3. Hot extrusion

WEEK 14
14.1. Cold working
14.0 Cold working processes
14.2. Types of cold working process
14.3. Cold pressing and deep drawing
14.4. Coining and embossing
14.5. Flow forming

WEEK 15
15.0 Properties and application of non metallic materials
15.1 Glass
15.1.1 Constituents of glass and their functions
 WEEK 1

1.2 REASONS FOR THE STUDY OF PROPERTIES MATERIALS

1.1 MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

Materials science is primarily concerned with the search for basic knowledge about the

internal structure, properties, and processing of materials. Materials engineering is mainly

concerned with the use of fundamental and applied.

Fig. 1.1 lings between materials science and engineering

Knowledge of material so that the material can be converted into products necessary or

desired by society. The name materials science and engineering combines both materials
 science and materials engineering and is the subject of this book. Materials science is at

the basic knowledge end of the materials knowledge spectrum and materials engineering

is at the applied knowledge end, and there is no demarcation line between the two.

Three-ringed diagram which indicates the relationship among the basic sciences (and

mathematics), materials science and engineering, and the other engineering disciplines.

The basic sciences are located within the first ring or core of the diagram, while the

various engineering disciplines (mechanical, electrical, civil,chemical, etc.) are located in

the outermost third ring. The applied sciences, metallurgy, ceramics, and polymer science

are located in the middle or second ring. Materials science and engineering is shown to

form a bridge of materials knowledge from the basic sciences (and mathematics) to the

engineering disciplines.

1.2 TYPES OF MATERIAL

For convenience most engineering materials are divided into three main classes: metallic,

polymeric (plastic), and ceramic materials. In this chapter we shall distinguish among

them on the basis of some of their important mechanical, electrical, and physical

properties. In subsequent chapters we shall study the internal structural differences of

these types of materials. In addition to the three main classes of materials, we shall

consider two more types, composite materials and electronic materials, because of their

great engineering importance.

1.2.1 Metallic

These materials are inorganic substances which are composed of one or more metallic

elements and may also contain some nonmetallic elements. Examples of metallic

elements are iron, copper, aluminum, nickel, and titanium. Non-metallic elements such as
carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen may also be contained in metallic materials. Metals have a

crystalline structure in which the atoms are arranged in an orderly manner. Metals in

general are good thermal and electrical conductors. Many metals are relatively strong and

ductile at room temperature, and many maintain good strength even at high temperatures.

Metals and alloys' are commonly divided into two classes: ferrous metals and alloys that

contain a large percentage of iron such as the steels and cast irons and nonferrous metals

and alloys that do not contain iron or only a relatively small amount of iron. Examples of

nonferrous metals are aluminum, copper, zinc, titanium, and nickel.

The picture below is a photograph of a commercial aircraft jet engine which is made in

primarily of metal alloys. The metal alloys used inside the engine must be able to

withstand the high temperatures and pressures generated during its operation. Many years

of research and development work by sciences and engineers were required to perfect this

advanced –performance engine.

 Fig 1.2. air craft turbine engine

Materials and materials processes have been associated with more efficient gas-turbine

engine propulsion performance over the past years. Metal-matrix and ceramic-matrix

materials may lead to even further increased performance in the future

1.2.2 Polymeric (Plastic)

Most polymeric materials consist of organic (carbon-containing) long molecular chains or

networks. Structurally, most porymmeric materials are non-crystalline but some consist

of mixtures of crystalline and non-crystalline regions. The strength and ductility of

 polymeric materials very greatly. Because of the nature of their internal structure, most

polymeric material are poor conductors of electricity. Some of these materials are good

insulator and are used for electrical isolative applications. In genera, zolymeric materials

have low densities and relatively low softening or decomposition temperatures.

1.2.3 Ceramic Materials

Ceramic materials are inorganic materials which consist of metallic and non-metallic

elements chemically bonded together. Ceramic materials can be crystalline,

noncrystalline, or mixtures of both Most ceramic materials have high hardness and high-

temperature strength but tend to have mechanical brittle-ness. Lately, new ceramic

materials have been developed for engine applications. Advantages of ceramic materials

for engine applications are light weight, high strength and hardness, good heat and wear

resistance, reduced friction, and insulative properties.

The insulative property along with high heat and wear resistance of many ceramics make

them useful for furnace linings for .nigh-temperature liquid

 metals such as steel. An important space application for ceramics are the ceramic tiles for

the space shuttle. These ceramic materials thermally protect the aluminum internal

structure of the space shuttle during ascent out of and reentry into the earth's atmosphere

1.2.4 Composite Materials

Composite materials are mixtures of two or more materials. Most composite materials

consist of a selected filler or reinforcing material and a compatible resin binder to obtain

the specific characteristics and properties desired. Usually, the components do not

dissolve in each other and can be physically

Identified by an interface between the components. Composites can be of many types.

Some of the predominant types are fibrous (composed of fibers in a matrix) and

paniculate (composed of particles in a matrix). There are many different combinations of

reinforcements and matrices used to produce composite materials. Two outstanding types

of modem composite materials used for engineering applications are fiberglass-

reinforcing material in a polyester or epoxy matrix and carbon fibers in an epoxy matrix.

Schematically where carbon-fiber-epoxy composite material will be used for the wings
 and engines of the new C-17 transport plane. Another example of the 56 of composites is

glass-reinforced polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) for oilfield fittings. This application utilizes

the excellent corrosion resistance of this material.

1.3 SUMMARY

Materials science and materials engineering (collectively, materials science and

engineering) form a bridge of materials knowledge between the basic sciences (and

mathematics) and the engineering disciplines. Materials science is concerned primarily

with the search for basic knowledge about materials, whereas materials engineering is

concerned mainly with using applied knowledge about materials.

The three main types of materials are metallic, polymeric, and ceramic materials. Two

other types of materials which are very important for modern engineering technology are

composite and electronic materials. All these types of materials will be dealt with in this

book.

Materials compete with each other for existing and new markets, and so the replacement of one

material by another for some application occurs. The availability of raw materials, cost of

manufacturing, and the developing new materials and processes for product; ire major factors

which cause changes in materials usage.

 WEEK 2

2.0 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND BONDING

2.2 STRUCTU RE OF ATOMS

Let us now review some of the fundamentals of atomic structure since atoms are the basic

structural unit of all engineering materials.

Atoms consist primarily of three basic subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and

electrons. The current simple model of an atom envisions a very small nucleus of about

10"14 m in diameter surrounded by a relatively thinly dispersed electron cloud of varying

density so that the diameter of the atom is of the order of 10-10 m. The nucleus accounts

for almost all the mass of the atom and contains the protons and neutrons. A proton has a

mass of 1.673 x 10-2" g and a unit charge of +1.602 x 1(T19 coulombs (C). The neutron

is slightly heavier than the proton and has a mass of 1.675 x 10Jkg but no charge. The

electron has a relatively small mass of 9.109 x 10"2g (that of the proton) and a unit

charge of -1.602 x 100C (equal in charge but opposite in sign from the proton). Table 2.1

summarizes these properties of subatomic particles

The electron charge cloud thus constitutes almost all the volume of the atom but accounts

for only a very small part of its mass. The electrons, particularly the outer ones,

determine most of the electrical, mechanical, chemical, and thermal properties of the

atoms, and thus

Mass grams (g) Charge coulombs (C)

Proton 1.673 x 10-24 +1.602 x 10-19

 Neutron 1.675 x 10-24 0

Electron 9.109 x 10-28 -1.602 x 10-19

a basic knowledge of atomic structure is important in the study of engineering materials.

2.2 ATOMIC NUMBERS AND ATOMIC MASSES

Atomic Numbers

The atomic number of an atom indicates the number of protons (positively charged

particles) which are in its nucleus, and in a neutral atom the atomic number is also equal

to the number of electrons in its charge cloud. Each element has its own characteristic

atomic number, and thus the atomic number identifies the element. Atomic numbers of

the elements from hydrogen, which has an atomic number of 1 to hahnium, which has an

atomic number of 105, are located above the atomic symbols of the elements in the

periodic table.

Atomic Numbers

The relative atomic mass of an element is the mass in grams of 6.023 x 1023 atoms

(Avogadro's number NA) of that element. The relative atomic masses of the elements

from 1 to 105 are located below the atomic symbols in the periodic table of the elements.

The carbon atom with 6 protons and 6 neutrons is the carbon 12 atom and is the reference

mass for atomic masses. One atomic mass unit (u) is defined as exactly one-twelfth of the

mass of a carbon atom which has a mass of 12 u. One molar relative atomic mass of

carbon 12 has a mass of 12 g on this scale. One gram-mole or mole (abbreviated mol) of

an element is defined as having the mass in grams of the relative molar atomic mass of

that element. Thus, for example, 1 gram-mole of aluminum has a mass of 26.98

g and contains 6.023 x 1023 atoms.

2.3. ELECTRONIC CONSTRUCTION OF ATOMS

THE ATOM

For many years scientists have been trying to develop an acceptable model of the micro-

and the macro-universe. To this point in man's history, as instruments are refined and

additional data are collected, the model of the macro universe is being expanded. Much

of this new information is deduced from energy that is continuously bombarding the

earth's surface.

If one reflects a moment much of what man suspected about the moon was only a built-

up model until it was confirmed by man's landing on its surface. It soon becomes

apparent that much of What we actually know is still only a small part of that which

actually exists.

In the same manner (hut man prefers to be able to assimilate his (miling of the macro-

universe into a model so that he may better understand it, so he has attempted to generate

a model of the micro-universe.

For purposes of this text the model preferred is the one that views the atom as having

almost all it mask concentrated in a positively charged nucleus. In orbit about this

nucleus arc one or more negatively charged particles called electrons. The net charge of

the atom as whole is zero. The nucleus is envisioned to have a positively charged particle

called the proton. The number of protons in the nucleus remains unchanged for ii

particular element A neutrally charged particle, called the neutron, may also be found in

(he nucleus1. Together, the protons and neutrons are called nucleus. Thus the entire

positive charge appears- to he concentrated in the protons in the nueleus, which are

balanced by the cumulative negative charges of the electrons.

The magnitude of the electron charge (and the proton charge) is 1.6 x KT19 coulomb

(C). Its mass is 9.108 x 1()--8 gram (g). The mass of the proton is I.673X 10-24g, and the mass

of the neutron is 1.675 x 10-4g. The mass is concentrated almost entirely in the nucleus.

Elements are designated according to their chemical symbols. Thus iron (Fe) has an

atomic number of 26 and an atomic mass number of 56. It is designated as

56
26 F

This atom would consist of 26 protons and 26 electrons and 30 neutrons. If we let A = 56

and Z = 26, then the neutron number is

N = A-Z = 56-26 = 30

where N = neutron number

A = atomic mass number
Z = atomic number
Isotopes of any element have the same atomic number but differ in their atomic mass

number because, even though they have the same number of electrons and protons

(electrically neutral), they differ in the number of neutrons. Thus hydrogen and its

isotopes are as follows:

Hydrogen(H) Deuterium(2 1H) Tritium(H)

1 electron 1 electron 1 electron
1 proton 1 proton 1 proton
0 neutrons 1 neutron 2 neutrons

Opposite charges attract each other, and the centrifugal forces would seem to cause the

electrons to want to fly out of orbit. Under normal conditions this centrifugal force would

be balanced by the electrical forces of attraction. However, a centripetal* force indicates

an acceleration. Such an acceleration dictates that an electrically charged body must

radiate energy. Such energy loss by the orbiting electron would cause it to fall into the

nucleus. It is obvious that such a model is not acceptable.

To explain this unacceptable model, discrete energy orbits are assumed. If the electron is

found in one of these orbits, it will have a fixed energy value. In these fixed energy levels,

the electron does not radiate energy, and the energy level of the electron is balanced by

the electrostatic attraction of the nucleus.

* A centripetal force is the reaction force to the centrifugal force. It is the force which

acts toward the center of rotation.

Inside the nucleus the charges are positive. Since positive charges repel, it would seem

that the nucleus should fly apart. However, this model of the atom dictates that there be

very large forces of attraction at work inside the nucleus. These binding forces are called

nuclear forces. Their magnitudes are much greater than the positive charges operating

within the nucleus.

As already indicated, this model also envisions the orbital electrons as possessing discrete

amounts of energy and therefore as being arranged in definite orbits dictated by the

energy required to keep that electron in that particular orbit. These orbits are referred to

as shells. The maximum number of electrons permitted in each shell is 2ttz. The symbol n

represents the shell number.

Thus the hydrogen atom has one electron in the first shell and helium has two electrons in

the first shell. According to Example 1, this closes the first (K) shell. Lithium has three

electrons. The first two will fill the K shell and the one remaining electron will start a

new shell L. Sodium, which requires 11 electrons, will have two electrons in the K shell,
eight in the L shell, and one in the M shell. Starting with potassium, this scheme deviates

somewhat as one progresses through the list of elements for the transition elements.

The capital letters K, L, M, N, O, P, and Q are used to designate the shells. Each shell is

again divided so that no more than two electrons may occupy one subdivision. If two

electrons occupy one energy level orbit, their spin must be in opposite directions. This

introduces several ideas, which are identified as follows:

The total energy of an electron is designated by a. principal quantum number n, where «

is equal to 1, 2, 3, 4, ...

The angular momentum of the electron is designated by letter and is called the second

quantum number. This angular momentum determines the subshell inhabited by the

electrons; /has values from 0 to (ra-1) and the subshell is 2(21+ 1). The subshells are

lettered s,p, d,f, g,h.

Two additional quantum Bombers are used to further define this model. mi indicates the

magnetic moment of the electron, has values of >H to 0 to —A and designates the orbit

within a sabshell corresponding to a particular energy leveL Af,, which may have values

of +i or -4, indicates the direction of spin of the electros upon its own axis.

Thus no two elements may have all four quantum numbers alike. The periodic table

(Table Z- 1) shows bromine (Br)35 as 4i240s. This is the N shell. A simple model is

shown in

The atomic model discussed so far was for electrically neutral atoms only and for atoms

in their ground state. It was noted, however, flat each of the n orbits has its own

characteristic energy level. If for some reason (an electric discharge) the electron in its

ground state is excited enough so that its energy level is increased, this increase of
strategy may be. Enough to knock it completely out of the atom. ob the other hand, it

major the energy :atom by some discrete amount and cause the electron to enter orbits.

When an atom loses one or more of its electrons, it is said to be ionized. When an

electron occupies a higher energy orbit, it is said to he in an excited state. An electron in

the excited state will jump back to its ground state with one jump or several jumps. If it

returns to its ground state in one jump [Fig. 2-2(a)], it will emit an amount of energy

characteristic of that jump. This packet of energy is called a quantum. If it returns to its

ground, state through several jumps each jump will require a release of a quantum of

energy characteristic of that jump.

Fig. 2.0. ionic bonding

 WEEEK 3

3.0 ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE AND CHEMICAL REACTIVITY

3.2 ATOMIC AND MOLECULAR BOND

Bonds in Solids

The atoms and molecules in a solid slate are more closely packed as compared to gaseous

and liquid states and are held together by strong mutuc. forces of attraction. These inter

atomic forces are electrostatic in nature and depend upon the electronic structure of

matter. When atoms come closer and finally unite to form molecules their electrons

rearrange themselves in such a way as to achieve a stable configuration. This

arrangement of electrons gives rise to different types of bonds due to which atoms are

held together.

FIG.3.1. BOND IN SOLID

IONIC BOND

Ionic bonds are mainly formed in inorganic; compounds like NaCl and KOH etc. and

never in pure elements. An ionic bond is really the attractive force between a positive ion

and a negative ion when they are brought into close proximity, 'These tons, of course, are

formed when the atoms involved lose or gain electrons in order to stability their outer

shell electron configuration. Elements if classified as either electropositive or

electronegative, depending upon when they tend to lose Or gain electrons in order to

achieve this stable outer shell electrons configuration. Let us cons id or the combination

which take place between the Sodium (metal) and Chlorine (non-metal); to form Sodium

Chloride. The sodium has a single electron (n it) outer shell and this transfers to join the

seven electrons in the outer shell of Chlorine atom. This type of atomic interaction,

involving the outright transfer of one electron from another, leads lo formation of ions

which are held together by electrostatic nature of the binding force, the bond between

atoms is said to be ionic or electrovalent.

COVALENT BOND

The covalent bond is formed by sharing of electrons between atoms rather insister of

electrons. Only a few solids are held together by covalent bonds. Covalent bonding alone

is not sufficient to build three dimensional solids. The majority of solids incorporating

covalent bonds are bound also either by ionic or van der Waals' bonds.

An excellent example of covalent bonding is found in the Chlorine molecule (Fig. 21.10

a). Here the outer shell of each atom possesses seven electrons. Each chlorine atom

would like lo gain an electron and thus form a stable octet. This can be done by sharing

of two electrons between pairs of chlorine atoms thereby producing stable diatomic
molecules. The nature ol covalent bonds in the molecules of hydrogen (H2) and

hydrochloric acid (HC1) are illustrated m

FIG3.2 COVALENT BOND

METALLIC BOND

A metallic bond results from the sharing of variable number of electrons by a variable

number of atoms. The atoms in metal and alloys are held together by such bonds. This

type of bond is characteristic of the elements having small number of valence electrons,

which are loosely held. so Out the can be easily released to the common pool. The

bonding takes place when each of the

 FIG.3.3. METALLIC BOND

of the metal contributes its valence electrons to the formation of an electron cloud that

pervades the solid metal. The valence electrons are not bonded directly to an individual

atom but they move freely in the sphere of influence of other atoms and are bound to

different atoms at different times and that too for a short time.

Schematic picture of the metal ions (positive) and that a', electron cloud (negative). The

cohesion of a metallic crystal is due to the attraction of the positive nuclei and the valence

electrons passing between them. A metallic bond thus conceived can exist only between a

large aggregate of metallic atoms and must therefore be non-directional. The high

electrical conductivity to metals is given by the free electrons moving freely in an electric

filed.

3.2. TYPES OF CRYSTALS

BODY CENTRED CUBIC (BCC) STRUCTURES

In this type of structure, the unit cell (in the shape of a cube) contains one atom at each of

its 8 corners and another atom at the body centre. It is thus obvious, that each unit cell

shares 8 atoms one on each of its corners in addition to one atom at the body centre.

The common examples of this type of structure are a-iron (below 910°C), 5-iron (1400°C

to 1539°C), tungsten, vanadium, molybdenum, chromium and alkali metals (i.e. sodium

and caesium etc).

FACE CENTRED CUBIC (FCC) STRUCTURES

In this type of structure, the unit cell (in the shape of a cube) contains one atom at the

centre of its each face, in addition to one atom at each of its 8 corners as shown in Fig.

3.15. It may be noted that this type of structure does not contain any atom at the centre of

the unit cell. It is thus obvious that each unit cell shares 14 atoms.

The common examples of this type of structure are y-iron (910°C to 1400°C), copper,

silver, gold, aluminum, nickel, lead and platinum etc. The face centred cubic structures

are also found in ceramic crystals.

HEXAGONAL CLOSE PACKED (HCP) STRUCTURES

In this type of structure, the unit cell contains one atom at each corner of the hexagonal

prism, one atom each at the centre of the hexagonal faces and three more atoms within

the body of the cell. It is thus obvious that each unit cell shares 14 atoms, and contains 3

atoms.

The common examples of this type of structure are magnesium, zinc, titanium,

zirconium, beryllium, and cadmium etc.

 EEK 4

4.0 PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS

4.2 EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM COOLING CURVES

A cooling curve is a graph of the structure of a pure metal o-r a combination of that metal

with another metal. The latter is called an alloy. Thus studying a particular cooling curve

yields data related to a particular combination of two or more metals of the entire

temperature range through which an alloy cools. If the characteristics of another alloy of

the same two metals are desired, the cooling curve for the never combination is needed.

Art equilibrium diagram is a composite of all cooling curves of all the possible

combinations of two or more metals. I", should be stressed that equilibrium diagrams are

related to the conditions of cooling that occur slowly enough to be considered stable —

hence the term equilibrium.

Assume a closed system. If the ice at —10°F is heated, it absorb heat until the ice reaches

32°F, at which point it will begin 10 melt. The mixture of ice and water will remain at

32T, because all the heat is being used to melt whatever ice is being transformed to water

at 320F. Once all the ice has been transformed to water at 32°F, the heat added to the sys-

tem will be used to raise the temperature of the water to 2 !2T. At this point the heat will

all go toward transforming the water into steam at 212CF, The mixture of water and

steam remains at 212:F until all the water converts to steam, at which time the heat input

raises the temperature of the steam. The plot of this heating system.

The reverse mechanism takes place if the steam is in a closed system and if it is allowed

to cool to —1OT. The plateaus at 32°F

 Fig. 4.1. phase changes in metals

and 212°F are the temperatures on the curve at which phase changes occur.

Several definitions are in order at this time: (1) The elements that make up an alloy or the

chemical compounds that may be formed from these elements are called components.

They are considered components if chemical means are needed to separate them. (2) A

phase is a part of an alloy that does not require chemical methods to make that part dis-

tinguishable from other parts. That is, physical means can be used to distinguish the parts

of the alloy.

If a pure metal is heated and then cooled very slowly, its cooling curve may be plotted.

The curve ab represents the cooling of the melt. At temperature T and at point b. the pure

metal starts to precipitate out of solution. At point c the entire melt has transformed to the

solid pure metal. Note that curve be is level and (hat the phase change occurs at one

temperature T. From c to The solid metal undergoes cooling.

Two metals have been heated to point a, where both are liquid and are dissolved in each

other. On slow cooling they remain liquid until they reach Tlt at which temperature

solidification starts. At I2 the solidification has been completed, and the entire mixture is
a solid solution. The cooling of the solid continues to d. Point b is the point Where

crystallization beginning and is refer

Fig. 4.2. cooling curves pure metals

where crystallization begins and is referred to as the liquidus point. Point c is the point on

the curve where final solidification takes place. It is referred to as the solidux point.

Another type of cooling curve is one that exhibits characteristics. This occurs when two

metals A and B are soluble in the liquid state but insoluble in the solid state.

In this mechanism the liquid solution starts to cool at a. At b, pure metal A starts to form

and precipitate out of the liquid phase. As the temperature drops from 7 to r3, pure metal

A continues to precipitate. As metal A precipitates out, the ratio of B to A increases, and

we say that the liquid remaining becomes richer in B. This mechanism of freezing results

in the slope of the curve be.

At c the freezing is that of the remaining metals of A and B. The temperature remains

constant until all solidification is complete at d. Line de represents the normal cooling of

the solid phases.

Several cooling curves of combinations of : metals ,4 and B. These curves have been

rotated through 90 degrees, and the points a and b have been projected to the back plane

as shown. That is. all points a are on the liquid line and all points b are on the solidus
'fine. When all the liquidus points are connected by a smooth line, and all the solidus

points are connected by another smooth line, the equilibrium diagram results.

4.2. THE ONE-TWO-ONE AND INVERSE LEVER RULES

The one-two-one rule provides a simple method for determining the

Phases that exist in a particular region. The procedure is to draw a horizontal line fry that

starts at the solid boundary x and terminates at the liquid boundary y. The xy line itself

lies in a two-phase region. The two phases are solid and liquid.

It should also be noted that in our example the overall composition of the alloy P is

always 75 per cent metal A and 25 per cent metal B. Since there is only one phase

(liquid) for temperatures above TV the composition of the alloy is always liquid. The

same is true for the single-phase solid that exists below the temperature T3 for alloy P.

However, at the intersection z of the temperature line it and the composition line P, two

phases exist, namely liquid ami solid. The composition of the liquid phase and the solid

phase varies as the alloy cools along line P.

The line jcv, through point z, intersects the solidus line at x. If a perpendicular is dropped

from point x to the abscissa of the graph, it will be seen that the line shows the

composition of the solid phase as being

Fig. 4.3. phase diagram of an alloy showing complete solibility

composed of 90 per cent element A and 10 per cent element B (A + B must total 100 per

cent).

The line xy, through point z, also intersects the liquidus line at If a perpendicular is

dropped from y to the abscissa, the composition of the liquid will be seen to be 20 per

cent element A alloyed with 80 per cent element B.

Inverse Lever Pule. It now becomes necessary to determine the percentages of each phase

that is present at various temperatures. Let us look at alloy P and determine the

percentages of L and 5 present at 7~3. The length of the line xy represents the sum of the

two phases as 100 per cent. The inverse rule states that the liquid phase can be calculated

by taking the length of the line xz and dividing this by xy. The solid phase may be
calculated by taking the length of the line zy and dividing this by xy. To get the

percentage the values are multiplied by 100, Thus

4.3. TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAMS

There are several combinations of liquid solubility and solid solubility states that yield

characteristic equilibrium diagrams. Equilibrium diagrams reflect combinations of these

characteristic diagrams and may be classified with reference to their solid-liquid state

combinations. That is, the components that enter into an alloy may be insoluble, partially

soluble, or completely soluble in each other in the liquid or solid state. Several of these

combinations are discussed with the use of hypothetical diagrams.

Certain elements may exist as two separate phases in the liquid state and two distinct

phases in the solid state. This indicates a system completely insoluble in the liquid state

and completely insoluble in the solid state. The idealized equilibrium diagram,

characteristic of such a system. The liquid solubility of element A in element B is

practically zero. As the system cools below T,, solid As forms and precipitates out, and

two phases exist. At 72. solid Bs forms and exists as a separate phase with As.

Left portion of such a system. At the top of the diagram two liquids are shown existing as

separate phases. The non-vertical boundary lines would indicate a very slight solubility.

Parallel boundaries (idealized) would indicate no solubility of the two liquids.

Systems that show this type of solubility combinations in the liquid and solid states are

iron-oxygen, silver-iron, silver-tungsten, and copper-tungsten.

Another system is that in which the components are partially soluble in the liquid state.

They may be partially soluble in the solid state, or they may be completely "soluble or

insoluble in the solid state.

 insoluble in solid state
Partially soluble in liquid state partially soluble in the solid state
completely soluble in solid state

Figure 4-5 shows a diagram in which the elements are partially soluble in the liquid state

and insoluble in the solid state. For alloy X the single-phase liquid state exists above T.

Below the upper transformation line there exist two distinct liquid phases: one rich in

element A and the other rich in element B. The partial solubility in the liquid phases

exists in this region of the diagram. Below 7\, the ,4-rich phase solidifies, and a liquid-

solid combination exists. As the temperature drops below T2, B solidifies independently

of A, so that B coexists with the A phase.

Dartially soluble (L, + Lz) and the solid phases are partially soluble (a + ft). Thus, as the

two partially soluble liquids cool, A and B exist as partially soluble in each other as an

alpha (a) phase. The remaining liquid Z..J, solidifies as a partially soluble beta (β) phase.

Systems that show partial liquid solubility and partial solid solubility are zinc-bismuth,

aluminum-lead, copper-iron, and zinc-lead.

Diagram in which the two components are partially soluble in the liquid state and

completely soluble in the solid state. That is, elements A and B combine to form a single

phase on cooling.

Another series of equilibrium diagrams is that in which the constituents are completely

soluble in the liquid state in combination with varying degrees of solubility in the solid

state such as these are nickel-copper, antimony-bismuth, chromium-molybdenum, gold-

silver, and tungsten-molybdenum.

In some instances components may be completely soluble in the liquid state and

completely insoluble in the solid state. One such equilibrium diagram. Bismuth-cadmium
forms such a diagram. In this example, the metals A and B in the alloy X are completely

soluble above the liquidus line. As the temperature drops below the liquidus tine, A

precipitates out as heat is removed. At T the two metals A and B are evidently completely

insoluble in each other, since the cooling curves exhibit a flat, or hold. Below T, the

metals A and B are insoluble in each other.

A special invariant combination of A and B exists in this diagram. Whenever a

combination of 60 per cent A with 40 per cent B exists, the two solidify as a eutectic.

However, the eutectic also exhibits the fact that ,4 and B are completely insoluble in the

solid state.

The most common solubility combination of components is the case where the

components are completely soluble in the liquid state and partially soluble in the solid

state. Such systems are formed by combining copper-silver, copper-zinc^ copper-

beryllium, copper-tin, copper-aluminum, magnesium-aluminum, lead-antimony, lead-tin,

and aluminum-silicon. The metals A and B are completely soluble in the liquid state and

that in no case is pure A or pure B formed, except at the terminal sides of the diagram.

INTER METALLIC COMPOUNDS

The addition of alloys to pure metals may alter the dimensions or the configuration of

their lattice structures. The addition of alloying elements (solute) to a pure metal (solvent)

may be accomplished in several ways.

In some instances, solute atoms may displace solvent atoms in a solid lattice. When this

occurs, it is called a substitution solid solution. Since it is rare that the solute atoms are

the same size as the solvent atoms that they displace, the result is a distortion of the

lattice.
If elements are to be completely soluble in one another, they must have the same type of

lattice structure. The greater the size difference between the atoms of the two elements,

the less their solid solubility in substitutional solutions. That is, if atom A is larger than

atom 8, it will be less likely to substitute for a B atom in the lattice than would an atom C

whose size is more nearly the size of B. It is also true that the tendency toward the

formation of intermetallic compounds takes precedent generally over the formation of a

substitutional solid solution. As the concentration of the solute increases, so does the

probability of formation of a substitutional solid solution increase.

When the solute atoms lodge in the space between the solvent atoms the system is called

an interstitial solid solution. This happens when the solute atoms are small, about half the

diameter of the solvent atoms, and are able to fit in between the larger atoms in a Jattice.

Obviously, the size of the space between the solvent atoms, as well the size of the solute

atoms, is important to the formation of an inter-itial solid solution. Iron, nickel,

chromium, manganese, molybdenum, ingsten, and vanadium are elements that lend

themselves to being the 'Ivent in the formation of interstitial solid solutions. Carbon,

hydrogen, >ron, nitrogen, and oxygen are atoms that have diameters small enough act as

the solute atoms in interstitial solid solutions. Iron, at room temperature, dissolves very

small amounts of carbon interstitially. Above 1333°F the lattice structure changes from

body-centered cubic lattice to face-centered cubic lattice, and the interatomic spacing

increases, which makes it possible for carbon to form interstitial solid solutions.

If the atoms are insoluble in each other, a mechanical mixture results. The intermetallic

compound results when the two, solute and solvent, atoms join each other. These space

lattices are very complex. They transform from the liquid phase to the solid compound
 phase at a fixed temperature and at a fixed composition. They differ from chemical com-

pounds in that the rules of valence bonding, described earlier, do not apply. The

mechanical properties associated with intermetallic compounds are high strength and

hardness, low ductility, and low conductivity. As stated, intermetallic compounds form at

one temperature. the alloy of A and B that has a composition of 55 percent and 45 per

cent B freezes from the Jiquid directly to our intermetalJic compound. The region

characteristic of such a compound is a straight line that divides the diagram into two

distinct sections.

INVARIANT SYSTEMS

Several additional combinations of a two-component system form when two

elements are in the required fixed percentages for a particular change in phase to take

place. In the binary system there are five such important reversible and invariant

transformations. They are as follows (the diagrams are hypothetical):

These are invariant systems because they occur whenever an alloy has a fixed

composition. For example, at a temperature TB, anytime the composition of the liquid

phase is 40 per cent A and 60 per cent B, that liquid will transform directly into a two-

phase a + ft. It will behave as though it is a pure metal. As indicated, such a

transformation is called a eutectic transformation.

The inverse lever rule was discussed in Sec. 4-2. If this rule is applied to alloy R, it will

be seen that the liquid phase at e has the necessary 40 per cent A, 60 per cent B

composition to be classified as a eutectic. At ti and q, solidification starts in a manner

such that its composition is z. As the alloy cools further to 7a, the composition of the

solid phase changes from z to x, and the liquid phase changes from q to y. It should be
remembered that the composition of each phase is determined by dropping a

perpendicular to the abscissa and reading the percentages of A and B. Thus the

percentage of B in the solid will increase from about z ~ 4 per cent to x = 6 per cent,

while the percentage of B in the liquid will be enriched from about q = 20 per cent to y =

30 per cent. The percentages of A in the solid and liquid will decrease accordingly. The

a-region represents a solid solution in which metal A is the solvent.

At 7'fi, the composition of the solid has moved from jc = 6 per cent B to w = 10 per cent

B, while the composition of the liquid has moved from y = 30 per cent B to e = 60 per

cent B. Thus the liquid has a eutectic composition at e of 40 per cent A and 60 per cent B,

As alloy R cools below TK, this eutectic liquid solidifies as if it were a pure metal [see

Fig. 4-2(a)]. The result is solid A and B in the form of an alpha (a) phase, and A and B in

the form of an eutectic phase.

Also, any alpha that solidifies above TK, between compositions A = 90 per cent and A ~

40 per cent, is called primary alpha. If beta solidifies above TE, between compositions A

=• 40 per cent andX = 10 per cent, it is called primary heta (ft,).

There is still another movement that takes place. Below TV the a-phase is rich in

component B. It cannot hold all the A component as it cools and forces it out of the

lattice structure. In a like manner, some of the B component is forced out of the /3-phase.

which is A rich,

The composite analysis just discussed is shown in Table 4-2. The same analysis can be

made for alloy 5,

It should be emphasized that a eutectic alloy has a fixed percentage of A to B, Since the

eutectic liquid horizontal tine, there can be only eutectic composition between^ =90 per

cent and A = 10 per cent.

It should also be noted that only at composition E does the eutectic, and only the eutectic,

form. To the left of E, A = 90 per cent to A = 40 per cent, the eutectic and a crystals

form. This is called a hypoeutectic structure. To the right of E, A = 40 per cent to A = 10

per cent, the eutectic and /3 crystals form. This is called a hypereutecnc structure.
WEEK 5

5.1 INGOT CASTING

When a metal is to be produced in a wrought form it is first cast as an ingot of a shape and
size suitable for processing in the plant available. Whilst steel is normally cast into ingots of
approximately square section, non-ferrous alloys are frequently cast as flat slabs for rolling
to strip or sheet; bars for the production of wire; and cylindrical billets for the extrusion of
sections.
Metallurgical, as well as economic, considerations demand that molten metal shall solidify
rapidly as soon as it is poured into the mould. Ingot moulds are therefore made from metal,
and are either massive and of cast iron or of thin-walled copper which is water-cooled. In
either case the molten metal will chill rapidly on making contact with the mould surface.
When the charge in the steel-making furnace is ready it is poured into a teeming ladle which
has been conveyed to the teeming platform by means of a travelling electric crane. The ladle
is a refractory-lined steel vessel equipped with a trunnion on each side, by means of which it
is lifted. In order that the slag which floats on the top of the molten steel shall not enter the
ingots the charge is poured from the bottom of the ladle (Fig. 5.1). Hence the steel outer
shell has a hole in the bottom near to the rim, in which is fitted a refractory nozzle, together
with a stopper of similar material which fits into the nozzle. The stopper is carried on the
end of a steel rod, protected by refractory sleeving, which extends vertically through the
molten bath. The stopper rod is connected to a lever mechanism by means of which an
operator controls the raising and lowering of the stopper, and consequently the rate of
pouring. The ladle is generally heated by gas before the charge is tapped into it.
When the molten steel has been poured into the ladle it may be deoxidised with ferro-
manganese, ferro-silicon or aluminium. It is then allowed to stand for some time, whilst slag
and other non-metallic materials float to the surface, after which it is teemed into the ingot
moulds.
2.201 The ingot moulds are made from cast iron. A typical
composition for the purpose is as follows: carbon, 3'5%; silicon, 1'0%;
manganese, 0·8%; phosphorous, 0'15%; sulphur, 0'07%. These moulds
are of various shapes and sizes. In cross-section they may be square or
rectangular with rounded

Fig. 5.1: The principles of the Bottom pouring ladle

edges, eight-sided, fluted, twelve-sided or circular with walls corrugated. e
purpose of these corrugations is partly to accelerate solidification and thus
_ duce a fine grain in the ingot and partly to minimize the formation of
cracks in the ingot surface during the first rolling operation. Some typical
ingot mould sections, in order to facilitate 'stripping' the ingot from the mould it is
necessary to taper the mould cavity to the extent of about 20 mm per metre on diameter.
One end of the ingot is thus slightly larger than the other end, and moulds are commonly referred
to as 'big-end-up' or 'big-end-down', according to whether they taper downwards or upwards. The
big-end-down type of
Fig. 5.2: Big-end-down ingot mould Fig. 5.3 Big-end-up ingot mould with ‘Hot
Top’

mould (Fig. 5.2) is the older. It is open at both ends, and when ready for use stands on a thick
cast-iron 'stool' which forms the bottom of the mould. Stripping of the ingot is thus relatively
easy, since it is only necessary to lift the mould from off the solid ingot, which is left standing on
the stool. 2.202 The newer big-end - u p type of mould (Fig. 5.3) is usually closed at the bottom
except for a round hole which is fitted with a tapered plug which facilitates the stripping of the
solid ingot. This type of mould is generally fitted with a

Fig. 5.4: Assembly for the bottom pouring of steel ingot

removable refractory collar or 'hot-top' which is placed on top of the mould. The function of
this refractory collar is to slow down the rate of cooling at the top of the ingot and thus
provide a reservoir of molten metal which can 'feed' into the main body of the ingot as its
solidifies and hence contracts. The hot-top thus minimizes piping
Some high-grade steel ingots are bottom-poured into big-end-up moulds. The
main reason for this procedure is to prevent splashing of the metal on to the
sides of the mould, as is possible with the top-pouring method. These
splashing freeze on to the mould walls and cause discontinuities in the surface
of the solid ingot, with consequent imperfections on the surface of the rolled
products. By using the more expensive bottom-pouring method, however, the
'mould is filled without agitation or splashing of the metal. In addition, the
degree of oxidation of the metal during teeming is much less than it is with
the top-pouring method.
The principles of continuous casting of aluminium alloys and other metals are mentioned later in
this chapter). Similar processes have also been adapted to the casting of round, square and
rectangular sections in steel; and slabs of o· I m2 or more in cross-section are currently in
production.
Illustrates one development of this type of process for the manufacture of steel strip between
2'5 mm and 25 mm thick. After the metal has cooled sufficiently in the water-cooled mould
to form a solid shell on the outside, it is passed through a pair of squeeze rolls, the distance
between the axes of which exceeds the centre width of the interior of the mould exit. The
degree of reduction in centre thickness is of the order of 2: I. A number of .pairs of rolls in
succession may be employed beneath the mould.

5.2 Types of Steel Ingot

It was shown that pipe formation is likely to be more extensive in an ingot cast in a big-end-
down mould than in one cast in a big-end-up mould. In fact, in the former type of ingot the
formation of a secondary pipe is a probability which will be further increased if any gas is
liberated during solidification of the steel. In either type of mould the extent of the pipe can be
limited by the use of a hot-top as indicated.
It should not be assumed that all grades of steel are completely deoxidised before casting, for,
whilst high-carbon steels are invariably completely killed, much semi-killed steel is produced,
together with large quantities of low carbon 'rimming' steel, which receives little or no
deoxidation.
Most of the excess oxygen (present as the oxide FeO) in molten steel at th end of the refining
process is removed by the carbon which is added, accord in to the following reaction:
FeO + C = Fe + CO
Some oxygen, however, can remain in the melt in equilibrium with carbon and the relationship
between the amounts of oxygen and carbon which ca exist together in the melt in this way is
shown.
If the carbon content of the molten steel is known, therefore, the exact amount of deoxidant
necessary completely to deoxidise the steel can be calculated, and if only partial deoxidation is
required, then the amount of deoxidant added will be correspondingly less than this amount.
High-carbon steels, medium-carbon steels for forging and steels for
sand castings are completely killed, since a structure free from blow-
holes is essential, but for many applications, particularly in soft
steels, where the quality of the surface of the product is more
important than that of the interior, the process called 'rimming' is
used. In this process little or no deoxidant is used, and when the melt
begins to solidify a layer of almost pure metal first forms at the
surface of the mould. This causes the concentration of oxygen in the
remaining liquid to increase so that the above reaction (1) begins
again, with the consequent evolution of carbon monoxide, which
tends to sweep away accumulated impurities from the face of the
growing crystals. Thus a shell of very 'clean' metal is produced, and
its thickness will depend largely upon the degree of initial
deoxidation. When the metal has cooled to the point where
solidification begins throughout the remaining liquid much of the
evolved gas will be trapped (Fig. 5.5), and porosity in the interior of
the ingot will result. Provided that these blow-holes are far enough
below the surface, they will weld up effectively when the ingot is
heavily worked in a rolling mill. If, however, they are too close to
the skin of the ingot they may break through the surface so that they
become oxidised, with the result that they do not weld up on rolling.
Sometimes the rimming action, that is the reaction between the oxygen and the
carbon with the resultant evolution of carbon monoxide, is stopped after the primary stage is
over. This is done by deoxidizing the partly solid steel in the ingot mould by adding a calculated
amount of aluminium.
The main characteristics of rimmed steel is a surface skin which is relatively ‘clean’ and pure,
and this gives a good surface to the finished product. Such

Fig. 5.5: Types of steel ingot

Steel is used for deep-drawing processes, tin-plate manufacture, and the production of
galvanized sheeting.
In a semi-killed ingot the oxygen content after partial deoxidation is lower Ian in a rimming
steel, so that the evolution of carbon monoxide tends to take place at a later stage in the
solidification process. The porosity produced ; largely instrumental in eliminating the pipe.
Moreover, impurities tend to e 'pushed' nearer to the top of the ingot by the evolved gas, so that
much of this impure material is cropped off. Thus some of the useful features of both completely
killed and rimming ingots are combined in a semi-killed ingot.
Some alloy steels and special forging steels are now vacuum de-gassed
in order further to improve their soundness, one method of de-gassing.
Here a stream of molten steel is drawn into a vacuum chamber which
contains the ingot mould. Reduction of the internal pressure within the
stream leads to its de-gasification. In this way the whole charge is treated
successively. Dissolved gases such as hydrogen and nitrogen boil off.
This upsets chemical equilibrium within the molten steel so that
reactions occur between oxides and silicates and dissolved carbon:
Silicates + C → Si + Co (Boils off).
Silicon thus liberated dissolves in the steel
WEEK 6
6.1 EQUILIBRIUM OR CONSTITUTIONAL DIAGRAMS
The solidification of an alloy generally occurs as a continuous process over a range of falling
temperature and even after becoming solid, constitutional changes of far reaching importance
may continue to take place. In a series of alloys such as the cupro-nickels or the carbon steels, it
is possible by plotting temperature against composition to represent graphically the changes
which take place during and subsequent to solidification. Such graphs, suitably annotated, are
known as equilibrium diagrams, and a knowledge of them is useful in the control of casting
operations and heat treatment processes. An objection to these diagrams, which is sometimes
raised, is that they deal with alloys in a stable or equilibrium condition, only realised by either
extremely slow cooling or very prolonged annealing, a condition rarely obtained in practice.
Nevertheless they do show the direction in which changes are likely to occur.
While often appearing complicated, the sections covering industrial alloys can be interpreted on
the basis of three simple types-eutectic, solid solution and peritectic, each characterised by a
definite arrangement of lines. They do not indicate the structural arrangement of the phases, i.e.
laminate, globules, films; nor do they indicate the velocity of reactions.
6.2 EUTECTIC
For the present purpose the lead-antimony system may be considered a simple eutectic, in which
the metals are completely soluble in the liquid and entirely insoluble in the solid state. The
equilibrium diagram is shown in Fig. 36. Alloys within the temperature-composition limits
above AEC are liquid and the boundary lines AE and EC, obtained from cooling curves, are
known as the liquidus. A characteristic of this diagram is that the liquidus consists of two
branches falling in temperature from the freezing point of the two metals to a minimum
intersection point, known as the eutectic point (E).
All the alloys become completely solid at the same temperature, corresponding to the
temperature at E, and the boundary ADEBC is known as the solidus. The areas ADE and CBE
represent alloys in a pasty condition -solid dendrites and liquid.
Consider the solidification of an alloy of composition x (40 % lead). At temperature tb seed
crystals of antimony are formed. The melt is consequently enriched in lead and is represented by
a point, such as Y1 (55 % lead). Its temperature must therefore fall to t2 if the dendrites are to
continue to grow by further deposition of antimony and consequent enrichment of the liquid in
lead. This process is repeated continuously until the composition and temperature are given by
point E. Further separation of antimony proceeds along an extension of CE (shown dotted),
reaching .a point E1 which is supercooled sufficiently below curve AE* to cause solidification of
lead with heat burst and cessation of growth of antimony. Lead crystals can continue to grow for
a very short time only since its separation along line AE soon enriches the alloy m antimony to a
point at which antimony must again separate. This process .of alternate solidification of minute
quantities of lead and antimony maintains the alloy at an almost constant temperature, until it is
completely solid, then normal cooling IS resumed as indicated by the cooling curves in Fig. 36.
Similarly, any alloy between E and A (13 to 0 % antimony) commences to solidify on reaching
line AE by forming lead dendrites and the resIdu~1 melt is gradually enriched in antimony until
point E IS reached, when It

Fig. 6.1 Eutectic diagram structures and cooling curves

freezes as an eutectic mixture. A similar structure in a copper silver alloy. The alloy of eutectic
composition E solidifies solidifies entirely as eutectic at a constant temperature. The eutectic in
all the other alloy of lead and antimony has the same composition, E.
As a rule, one constituent forms a continuous matrix in which in which the other constituent is
dispersed. The dispersed constituent may consist of spheres, rods, plates and angular shapes but
all tend to be fine in the centre of the grain, thus giving rise to a 'colony' effect, seen in Fig. 38,
which shows a copper-silver eutectic of the globular type. Illustrates ‘angular’ dendrites of
CuAl2 embedded in CuAI2-AI eutectic. Other eutectic structures are shown
A eutectoid, as its name implies, is closely related to a eutectic and the eutectoid diagram, so
important in the case of steels and aluminium bronze can be interpreted in a manner similar to
the eutectic diagram just discuss (I. Just as the liquid may be considered to break up into two
kinds of crystal on solidification, so the eutectoid is formed from the breaking up of a solid
solution into two different, but intimately mixed, constituents.

6.2.1 Interpretation of equilibrium diagrams

At this stage it is convenient to summarise a few rules which help ill interpreting equilibrium
diagrams for two elements.
(1) The diagram consists of solubility lines which divide it into area, known as phase fields,
representing either single or double constituents, such as ADE in Fig. 36. Single phase fields
are always separated from one another by a two-phase region, and three phases can only exist
at a single temperature (e.g. E).
(2) If a vertical line, drawn to represent the composition of an alloy, crosses a line in the
diagram, it denotes that some change occurs in the alloy.
(3) At any point in a two-phase field the
(a) Composition of the constituents, in equilibrium with each other, is given by the intersection
of the boundaries by the horizontal line drawn through the point. For example, at point P in
Fig. 36 the intersections t2 and Y2 represent solid antimony and liquid containing Y2 per cent of
lead;
(b) Relative weights are given by the relative lengths of the lines, Pt2and Ph
weight of liquid _ Pt2
weight of solid antimony - PY2'

37 Copper dendrites in copper – silver eutectic 35% copper

38 Copper-silver eutectic. Note colonies (x 80)
39 CuA12 dendrites in eutectic; 45 % copper ( x 1.00)
40 30% copper-tin alloy showing effect of peritectic reaction (x 80)
6.2.2 Solid solution diagram
A typical diagram for two metals completely soluble in both the liquid and solid states is shown
in Fig. 6.2 for copper and nickel. Again there is a range of solidification, but in this case not
pure metals, but solid solution always solidifies and in certain cases the temperature of
solidification may be higher or lower than that of the pure metals.
Consider the solidification of an alloy of any composition, say x (50% copper). When it reaches
a temperature t, freezing starts as shown by the liquidus curve, the solid formed, however, is not
of the same composition a; x but of composition Y (35 % copper), on the solidus at temperature,
which of course shows the temperature at which solid .alloy of composition Y would commence
to melt on heating, forming a liquid of composition e the first dendrites are richer in nickel the
remaining melt will. have a composition such as Xl' richer in copper than the original
composition x. At temperature t1 the composition of the solid in equilibrium with the liquid is y1and
fresh deposition of solid will adjust this composition: At the same time original dendrites should
absorb copper from the liquid to change their composition from y to Y. Finally, the liquid X2
vanishes at temperature t2 and the solid has the uniform composition of x.
This state of affairs rarely occurs in commercial alloys owing to the rapid cooling which prevents
the attainment of equilibrium. .
The effect of rapid cooling is to prevent the first dendrite Y from absorbing the proper amount of
copper as the temperature falls to t1 Hence the average composition of the solid is not YI, but one
between Y and YI. As a result the liquid contains more copper than that indicated by Xl: Each
layer 0/ solid which is deposited on the dendrite skeleton differs in composition/rom the
preceding layer and when temperature t2 is reached there still remains some liquid richer in
copper than X2 which solidifies at some temperature ta. The alloy consists of a number of cored
crystals whose average composition is X, but in each the primary skeleton is rich in nickel and
the interdendrite spaces are rich in copper. Many commercial alloys have this type of structure
in the cast form and a typical photograph is shown in Fig. 65. Suitable annealing eliminates the
cored structure by allowing diffusion of the atoms to occur (Fig. 67).

Fig. 6.2: Equilibrium diagram for two metals completely soluble in the liquid and solid states

Zone refining is a process used for purifying metals, particularly silicon and germanium for
transistors. It uses the fact revealed in Fig. 41, namely that the first crystals deposited are much
purer in one component than the liquid at the same temperature. A narrow zone in a bar of the
impure metal is melted at one end and caused to move along the bar so that metal is melting into
the zone on one side and freezing out at the other. The first solid frozen out is purer than the
average composition while the liquid becomes enriched in solute which is deposited at the other
end of the bar. Repeated cycling in one direction can reduce the impurity to below 1 part in 108•

6.2.3 COMBINATION TYPES

Where, among other factors, the two kinds of atoms are very different in size, each metal may be
capable of dissolving only a limited percentage of the other. Then the equilibrium diagram
formed may be classed as intermediate between the two types just discussed, and consists of two
parts, one resembling a simple eutectic and the other which may be regarded as a part of a
complete solid solution curve.
 Fig. 6.3: Combination of eutectic and solid solutions

6.3 EUTECTIC AND SOLID SOLUTIONS

A typical diagram is shown in Fig. 6.3 of the copper-silver system. The small inset drawing
shows the components. The liquidus AEC is precisely similar to that shown in the simple
eutectic. The solidus ABEDC, however, has two sections, AB and CD, resembling parts of the
solidus in Fig. 6.2. In fact, alloys containing less than 8·8 % or more than 92 % copper will
solidify forming cored solid solutions in a manner exactly as has been already described in the
case of a simple solid solution series. *
The point B denotes the maximum amount of copper which can dissolve in silver when the
alloy is just solid, while the point D gives the corresponding information regarding silver soluble
in copper. All alloys between B and D solidify as described for the simple eutectic, except that,
instead of pure metals separating from the melt we can only have solid solutions Band D, which
will be cored unless the cooling is exceptionally slow.
Changes in the solid state
The solubility of the metals in each other after solidification will undergo changes upon further
cooling, as shown by the curves BG, DH.
Consider the changes occurring during the solidification of an alloy of composition x (80 %
copper).
(1) Solidification will commence at a temperature represented by point Xl on liquidus, and solid
of composition YI will separate out.
(2) The temperature will fall to that of the eutectic E. Ignoring the effect of coring, the alloy will
now consist of a solid solution whose composition is denoted by D and liquid of composition E
(28· 5 % silver), the relative proportions of liquid to solid being in proportion to the lengths of
X2D to x2E.
(3) The liquid will solidify completely at this temperature into a eutectic composed of two solid
solutions, Band D, in the proportions of ED to EE.
(4) Upon further cooling the solid solutions Band D in the eutectic will become respectively
poorer in copper and silver. Their compositions at any temperature, say 600°C, are P and Q and
the relative proportions are given by the lengths of EIQ and EIP.
(5) Similarly, the primary dendrites of composition D will split up into two solid solutions of Q
and P in the proportion of PDI to QDI. These changes in the solid state take considerable time to
complete themselves and may be partially if not completely prevented by quenching. Herein lies
a fact of which advantage is repeatedly taken in heat-treatment processes.
 Fig. 6.4: Equilibrium diagram showing presence of intermetallic compound
6.4 INTERMEDIATE PHASES
In many binary alloy systems mutual solubility of the metals is limited and intermediate phases
(called β, γ, δ) are formed, which may be classed as two types.
(1) Intermetallic compounds of fixed composition which obey the usual valency laws, like
ordinary chemical compounds (e.g. NaCl). A typical example is Mg2Sn containing 29·08 %
magnesium. The constitutional diagram is shown in Fig. 6.4. The compound has a definite
melting-point which is lowered by addition of excess magnesium, or of tin. The diagram
consists in fact, of two eutectic diagrams placed together, each resembling and not therefore
calling for further observation.
(2) Intermetallic compounds of variable composition which do not obey the valency law; known
as electron compounds. Many of these fall into three classes according to the ratio of valency
electrons to the number of atoms:
(a) Ratio !-beta (), e.g. CuZn, Cu3Al.
(b) Ratio -H-gamma (y), e.g. CusZns, CugA14• (c) Ratio t-epsilon (e),
e.g. CuZn3, Cu3Sn.

Peritectic diagram
In many systems of alloys a reaction takes place, at a definite temperature, between the definite
proportion of the solid already deposited and the residual melt (BP: BA in Fig. 44) to form
another solid solution or compound of a composition intermediate between that of the first solid
and the liquid. This is known as a peritectic reaction and it gives rise to a diagram such as is
shown below.

Fig. 6.5: equilibrium diagram showing peritectic reaction (Cu-Sn)

If the effect of coring is ignored any alloy up to 13-2 % tin (A) will solidify as described for a
solid solution, as will also alloys with more than 25·5 % tin .
Consider alloy x; primary crystals y form and as the liquid cools the solid (0() changes to A, while
the liquid changes its composition along the liquidus CP to P. The liquid which remains (Ax2 to
Px2) rt'acts with the solid crystals A to form a new intermediate phase (B). Since X2 lies between
A and B, all the liquid P will be used up before the crystals A, and the alloy will then consist of
solid x and ~ crystals of composition A and B respectively. An alloy of composition Z again
commences to solidify by depositing 0( solid solution which changes in composition to A at
798°C. Theoretically, these 0( crystals are then completely converted to ~ crystals of
composition B, since Z lies between Band P, and the excess liquid P , solidifies by depositing ,
which changes in composition along solidus BR to Zl.
In practice these peritectic reactions rarely go to completion owing to the fact that primary 0(
crystals become coated with a skin of which prevents the diffusion of the tin rich material to
the central regions. Even in alloys of composition Z, a core of 0( remains. A typical example of
this effect for an alloy of 30 % copper in tin. The Cu3Sn (0:) is coated with Cu3Sn3 (7) and the
background is eutectic of 7) + Sn.
WEEK 7

7.1 EXTRACTION OF METALS FROM ORES

In Ore is an unimpressive looking rock that may contain only 30% iron. The source of all
ferrous material is iron ore, a chemical compound of iron and oxygen in the earth crust. The
production of iron involves the separation of iron from its oxide, known chemically as a reducing
process carried in blest furnace Iron Ore as a sort of earth or rock containing iron. This Ore is
found intermixed in rock, gravel, clay, sand or even mud Getting pure iron out of this form is
very costly, but necessary. The following are some of the classes of iron ore.

MAGNETITE- (Fe3 04) (Ferrous ferric oxide) color (Green, blue). This contains about
72.4% Iron when pure. It is magnetic and this feative makes it easy for its exploration.

HAEMATITE – (Fe2 03) (Ferric Oxide) colour (Red, black and green) this contains about
70% Iron.

LIMINITE – (2Fe2O3 .3H2O) Ferric Oxide colour (yellow, red, brown and black) this is
another type of Ore which is among the hydroxides Ores and has a composition ranging from
about 60% Iron.

SIDERITE – (FeCo3) Iron Carbonate colour (Green, brown and yellow) this contains about
48% Iron and is in the family of Carbonate Ore.

7.2. BENEFICIATION OR PRELIMINARY, TREATMENT OF IRON

ORE FOR SMELTING.
The term Beneficiation with regard to iron ore refers to all methods used to improve its chemical
and physical properties in ways that will make it a more desirable feed for the blest furnace or
increase the efficiency of the smelting process.
Since iron ores are mined from earth crust it is considerably rich in earthly materials. This
material and other compounds which are combined in nature with iron ores are usually reduced
before smelting in blast furnace the manufacture of Pig Iron. Some of the methods used are as
follows.

1. CUTTING – Is accomplished by crushers such as gyrators and jaw crusher. The iron
ore is broken into smaller suitable pieces by large crushers. The purpose is to avoid handling
of problems due to oversize.
2. GRINDING – Is the process whereby coarse material are reduced to fine powders. For
grinding we have ball mills, steel rod mills e.t.c
Grinding is mainly carried out in ball mills or in similar equipment (tube,
peddle, and rod mill).the typical ball shape is a barrel shaped vessel rotating on it’s
horizontal axis. It has special replaceable cylindrical liners, lifters, and end plates and is
loaded to just under half full with balls of steel or cast iron.
The linings and end walls have traditionally been made of high alloyed steels including
13% Mn “Hadfield” steel or special iron. The section being design of replacement in so far as
is possible.

FIG 7.1. GRINDING

 WEEK 8

8.0 CONCENTRATION OF ORES

8.1. CONCENTRATION –
This is the removal as much as possible, the earthly waste or gangue which would other
wise take up useful space in the blast furnace and thus reducing output one of the processes
for concentration of ores are:-

(iii) Heavy media separation process –

This is based on the sink and float process. When a mixture of particles of two minerals
are placed in a liquid having an intermediate Specific gravity between the two minerals. The
mineral with high specific gravity will sink while the lower one will float.
(iv) Magnetic Separation Process –
After grinding the ore and the waste is passed over a rotating drum, whereby the ore is
magnetized to the drum and the waste will flow away. In the case of magnetic the unwanted
materials are removed by magnetic separation.

FIG. 8.1. CONCENTRATION

(iii) Washing with water to separate the ore from the waste.

(iv) CALCINATION –
This involve roasting in an excess air. This operation is effected in a kiln and is usually
applied to ores which contain a large amount of moisture or carbon dioxide. Calcinations of
the hydrated ores drive off moisture and combined water and leaves the ore more porous.
These substances may cause irregular working in the blast furnace and are best removed
before the ore is smelted. This operation also helps to remove sulphor by oxidizing it to
sulphur dioxide. This converts ferrous carbonate to ferrous oxide.

(v) AGGLOMERATION –
During the processes mentioned above, a large amount of iron may be found in the resulting
dust. This dust rich in iron can be reclaimed but cannot be charged into the blast furnace in
dust form. This is because the dust will fill up the spaces between the winps of the charge
thus impeding the upward flow of gases or may be blown out of the furnace.

Agglomeration may be defined as method of coalescing small iron particles lost driving
concentration under the influence of heat to form large particles or masses. The dust can be
conditioned as follows to enable it be charged into the furnace.
(i) Sintering –

Schematic Dwight Lloyd sintering machine

The dust is mixed with small amount of coke or breeze and fed to a Duight – Liog machine.
Ignition of the coke, assisted by air drawn through the pellets generates sufficient heat to frit
together the particles of ore producing a porous and easily reducible sinter.
(ii) Palletizing –
Dust is mixed with a little starch and water and rolled in a drown so that small balls are
formed. Coal dust is then added and the small balls rolled on to a grate of a sintering
machine where they are first dried and then baked at 1000o c to harden them.
It can be defined as a method of agglomeration in which balls or pellets which are
subsequently harden by heat treatment.
(iii) Nodulizing –
This is a process of forming an aggreme ration of fine materials by rolling at high
temperature in a rotating kiln.
 WEEK 9

9.1. MANUFACTURE OF PIG IRON

The principal raw material for all ferrous metals (cast iron, wrought iron and steel) is Pig
Iron. Pig Iron is extracted from Iron Ore. The first stage in the production of pig iron is to
reduce iron ore to iron. This operation is termed smelting which is carried out in a container
called blast furnace. Blast furnace is a reltical steel shell that is roughly cylindrical in shape
and is lined with a refractory material. Modern blast furnaces are about 30 meters tall (taller
than a 12 storey building) and 9 meters in diameter.
The materials (iron ore, coke and limestone) are fed into the furnace, and are often called
the charge. The solid raw materials are charged in alternate layers from the top surface.
Iron ore – This forms about 1/20 of the earth crust and is sort of rock containing iron.

Coke – Is a form of carbon. It serves as a fuel to generate heat. Heat is provided by

burning the coke with hot air.
The hot air is introduced at the bottom of the furnace through large dusts called TUYERES
to burn with the coke, producing intense heat (raising the temperature to about 1150o C). The
purpose of coke is to produce heat and carbon monoxide (a reducing gas meaning that it
removes oxygen) which in turn reacts with iron ore to produce iron and carbon dixiode. The
coke burns first, it in turn, melts the iron ore and limestone, and a chemical reaction takes
place that produces free iron. The purpose of hot air is to aid combustion.
The use of hot air instead of cold air reduces the amount of coke consumption needed by
more than 70%. The air is heated in air pre-heaters or stoves. The hot gases work their way
to the top of the furnace and are collected, after being filtered by dust catchers. These hot
gases are then routed through the stove. At the same-time the limestone melts and removes
 imporities or wastes (gangue) from the iron ore to form a fluid called slag. As the smelting
continues the molten iron is the heaviest it sinks to the base of the furnace and the slag floats
on top of molten iron. As shown in the diagram below the furnace is provided with two
taping holes. The slag is first drawn from the upper hole and the molten iron is allowed to
run from the lower hole into moulds. The blocks (moulds) of iron so formed are termed
‘Pigs’ and are refered to collectively as ‘Pig iron’ iron are produced and tapped from the
furnace every three to four hours. The pig iron is tapped at a temperature of about 1427o C.
the slag is used in brick making, as an asphalt filler, and as a spread on ice to prevent falling.
Chemical reactions taking place are as follows:-
The removal of oxygen from the iron oxide is brought about by the chemical reaction known
as reduction or reducing process. The reducing agent in this case bring carbon monoxide gas
(co) which readily combines with oxygen and becomes carbon dioxide gas (CO2), leaving
iron. Coke in the region of tuyeres burns completely.
C + O2 ___________ CO2
Carbon dioxide is reduced by coke to carbon monoxide
CO2 + C __________ 2CO
C + ½ O2 _________ CO
Carbon monoxide reduces iron ore in three stages
3Fe2 o3 + CO _______ 2Fe3o4 + CO2
2Fe3 O4 + 2CO _____ 6FeO + 2CO2
Fe O + CO _________ Fe + CO2
The operation of blast furnace is a continuous process and they are normally shut down
only for re-linig and over heavy. They are operated in groups so that shut downs, taken in
rotation, do not stop production.
The five major elements present in pig iro are carbon, silicon, manganese, phosphoros and
sulphur.

9.2. COMPOSITION OF PIG IRON

Pig iron contains 3-4% carbon with silicon, phosphous manganese and surphurous varying
anicots and larger dependent on the type of ore smelted. A high phosphorous ore will give a
high phosphorous iron, known as BASIC IRON whilst the haematite ores give low
phosphorous iron, known as ACID IRON.
DEFERENCES IN THE COMPOSITION OF ACID AND BASIC IRONS
ELEMENT PERCENTAGE IN PERCENTAGE IN
BASIC IRON HAEMATITE IRON
CARBON (C) 3.50 3.75
SILICON (S) 0.85 2.00
SURPHUR (S) 0.08 0.04
PHOSPHORUS (P) 1.60 0.045
MANGANESE (MN) 1.00 0.50

CARBON – Is the most important. It is found in iron in two forms

(1) Combined with elemental iron, forming iron carbide (cementite)
(2) As free carbon (Graphite) in flake form.
SILICON – A high silicon content is associated with a high carbon content and
it influences the form which the carbon takes in iron. It makes steel fevid. It
tends to produce giaphilisation (the brake down of cementite to produce
(graphite) causing the steel to become weak.
MANGANESE – It tends to make the harmful effect of surphur is also useful
as it to form manganese sulphide which has a high melting point and is only
sparingly soluble in the metal carbon steel contain up to 1% manganese.
SILICON – Is a very good deoxidizer. It removes the gases and an oxide
prevents blow holes and thereby makes the steel together and harder.
MANGANESE – Also serves as a good deoxidizing and purifying agent. It
also combines with sulphur to form manganese sulphur and thereby reduces the
harful effects of sulphur remaining in the steel. When used in ordinary low
carbon steel, it makes the metal luctile and sulphur – this may come from the
coke or it may be present in the ore. It forms ferros sulphide which has a
comparatively low melting point and is very brittle. It is a very undersirable
impority as it makes both iron and steel brittle and weak and for this reason as
always kept as low as possible about 0.05%. The ferrous sulphide or iron
sulphide collects at the grain boundaries making steel cold – shot (unsuitable
for cold working) because of it brittleness, it also makes steel hot – short
(unsuitable for hot working) because it melts a hot working temperatures and of
so cause the steel to crumble.
PHOSPHORUS – Almost all of the phosphorous I the ore is absorbed by the
iron during smelting. Because it imparts a hardness and brittleness to the metal
at normal temperatures, it is always kept to minimum. It does, however, give
flirty to melten iron and this is useful when casting intricate shape involving
thin component parts. The proportion of phosphorus present in Pig iron will
determine whether the acid or the basic process should be used in steel making.
Iron Ores are graded according to their phosphorus content.
There are two major steel making processes, although they offer widely in
method of operation they are identical in principle. In both cases, the excess
carbon and other unwanted impurities are oxidized out. The steel melted.
 WEEK 10

10.0 STEEL MAKING PROCESSES

10.1. BESSEMER PROCESS

This method of steel making was invented by Sir Henry Bessemer and does not use a
furnace but a converter. The Bessemer converter is a pear – shaped steel vessel that is open
method, refractory – lined, and upon a trunnion, so that it can be swing into a horizontal
position for charging and pouring and into a vertical position for blowing.
The converter is title to the horizontal position to receive the charge of molten Pig Iron
because it does not melt metal and operates only on molten charges and when about half
filled, it is turned up.
Air is blown into the converter. The oxygen in the air oxidizes (combine) the carbon
together with the impurities present. As the impurities are oxidized and the metal becomes
purer, its melting point uses considerably but this presents no problem because the action is
highly exothermic, lie much heat is generated during the oxidation. The temperature is
entirely dependent on the impurities in the metal and a shortage of these materials would
result in a smaller temperature rise which might not keep the metal fully molten.
The below with a converter is a spectacular performance beginning with a great agitation
of the metal and an increasingly large agitation of the metal and an increasingly large flame
from the mouth. Silicon is oxidized first, followed by manganese and finally carbon, the
elimination of which causes the boil with a violent reaction as carbon monoxide is which dies
away as the carbon is exhausted. The metal still contains dissolved oxides and will need the
addition of carbon to bring it to the required level.
At the end of the blow the Bessemer is titled back to the horizontal. Both de-oxidation and
recarbonizing are achieved with the addition of ferro-manganese, an alloy of iron, manganese
and carbon to give the required carbon content the open hearth charge consist of molten.
Pig Iron, steel scrap which limestone is added to form slag which floats on the surface of the
mental and absorbs impurities. Excess silicon, manganese and carbon are moved from the
metal by the oxidizing action of the flames in much the same manner as in the bessema
converter.

10.2. OPEN HEARTH PROCESS

The making of steel in an open hearth furnace take many hours as against approximately
forty five minutes in a Bessemer converter. The Ore hearth can be roughly divided into two.
(1) The hearth is a rectangular steel chamber line with a suitable fire resisting material and
shaped at the bases to form a hallow depression to hold metal.
(2) Four pre-heating chambers, brickwork built below the heart and arranged in pairs, each
consisting of chamber for air and a chamber for gas. The hearth is heated by a mixture
of gas and air is made to pass through one pair of chambers previously heated by the hot
waste gases from the hearth whilst the other pair of chambers is being heated in the same
manner ready to receive in its turn the incoming gas and air. At suitable interval the
 direction of flow is reversed and in this manner. The temperature of the gas and air are
raises to the degree necessary to maintain the intense heat at the hearth.

hFig. 10.1. open hearth

NOTE : Beth the Bessemer and open hearth processes in either case can be said to be “acid”
or “basic” the acid process were so called because the utilized low phosphorus pig iron and
therefore did not require the addition of lime to the charge. The slag formed was acid since it
contained an excess of silica bricks.
Those pig iron rich in phosphorus require the charge to be treated with lime and this produces
a basic slag. This basic slag would quickly attach ordinary acid silica brick furnace used in
basic steel making had to be lined with a basic refractory such as burn magnesite (mgo) or
burnt dolomite (mgo. CaO)
 WEEK 11

11.1. CAST IRON

Is alloy of iron and carbon containing between 2- 6.67% carbon. Cast iron is widely used
for the manufacture of numerous components in automobile engines. Other elements like
manganese, sulphor, silicon and phosphorus may be found in traceable amount. The
manganese and silicon inclusion in cast iron is beneficial while effort is usually made to get
rid of the phosphorus and solphur in view of their adverse effect on the final structure of this
material is manufactured from the copola furnace.

It has relatively low melting point ranging from 1130 – 1250 C. this is advantageous
because it can be easily melted, requires less-fuel and more easily operated in furnaces. This
makes it economically a cheap material on account of its cheap refining process.
The fluidity property of this material increase its ability to easily fills intricate moulds
completely. This property gives cast iron good casting impression more than can be obtained
from molten steel. While shrinkage in the mould is much less, thus permitting the production
in thin section and intricate casting.
Cast iron is a brittle material, therefore it cannot be used in those part which are subjected
to shocks. The properties of cast iron which makes it a valuable material for engineering
purposes are its low cost, good casting characteristics, high compressive strength, wear
resistance, and excellent mach inability. Has a reasonable degree of corrosion resistance at
low and elevated temperatures. It is a rigid material with partially self lubrication properties
on account of the presence of graphite. The compressive strength of cast iron is much greater
than its tensile strength compressive = 400 to 1000 MPa
Tensile = 100 to 200 MPa
It has ability to absorb and dampenvibration modification of cast iron structure can be made
by varying the cooling rate, in the mould, by varying the composition at a suitable stage in its
molten state or by heat treatment. As a result of these modification processes, cast iron is
now available in the following grades.

Grey cast iron-contains about 3-3.5% carbon. The grey colour is due to the fact that the
carbon is present in the form of free graphite. Here carbon exists in free form called graphite
as resort of rate. The existence of graphite in the microstnucture is in flake form on a matrix
of ferrite or pearlite or a combination of these two background.
Properties
High compressive strength and no doctility low tensile strength. Machineability – it is
cassily machined. A very good property of grey cast iron is that the free graphite in its
structure acts as a lubricant. Due to this reason, it is very suitable for those parts where
sliding to make good casting.
Good resistance to corrosion. It is hard and britle because of the graphite flakes in its
structure. The brittleness of grey cast iron slops this material being use where shock loads
are likely to be encountered.
Es – Natural for machine beds and frame, machine tool bodies, automobile cylinder blocks,
crank case, brake drum, pipes and pipe fitting and agricultural implements.
11.2. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION – high silicon, low sulphur
White Cast Iron – contains 2-2.3% carbon nongragca. The carbon combine with iron in the
form of hard iron carbide known as cementile, which is the hardest consititivent of iron. The
cementite is caused bu rapid or quick cooling of molten iron when fracture, the broken
surface appears whites hence the name white cast iron. The carbon is completely dissolved in
iron forming a solid solution of martensitic. This however to some extentent depends on the
carbon content.

Properties – High tensile strength

Low compressive strength
Hard and brittle and machininable since it is hard, it is difficult to by grinding.
Resistance to abrasion and wear.

Uses
It is used for inferior casting and in place of car wheels. Is also used as raw material in the
production malleable cast iron and wrought iron. Crushing machine parts as rolls for
crushing grains grinding mill plate, furnace components.

FIG.11.1. CRUSHING AND GRINDING

11.3. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION – Low silicon, High sulphur.

Malleable Cast Iron.
The malleable cast iron is obtained from white cast iron by a suitable heat treatment
process (the annealing). The annealing process separates the combined carbon of the white
cast iron into noduces of free graphite.
 hypoeutetic
White cast iron

hypereutetic

FIG.11.2. structure of malleable cast iron

Properties
Ductile – may be bent without breaking or fracture. Its tensile strength is usually higher than
that of grey cast iron.

Uses
Are used for making thin or (small) castings particularly where shock words are likely e.g
pipe fittings, door hinges, locks, brake supports, parts agricultural machinery, hubs of wagon
wheels, small fittings for railway rolling stock e.t.c.

The malleable cast iron is available in three forms through heat treatment of white cast iron
because of it extreme hardness which render the iron much sufter. White hearth, Black
hearth and Pearlitic, the names being descriptive of the microstructure.

White hearth Malleable Cast Iron

If the white iron has a high carbon content, process used is the ‘whiteheart’ process in
which some of the carbon is removed. The cast iron are closely packed with haematile ore in
a box or sealed containers and are heated to 900-1000C for two to three

Surface carbon is oxidized (decarburized) by contain with the ore, combinig with oxygen and
escaping as carbon dioxide gas. Much of the combined carbon at the center diffuses
outwards and is also oxidized, and in heavy sections or core, any remaining carbon will form
a combination of ferrite evenly or nodules. The iron is very whit after this process – hence
the name ‘White heart’.

Properties
High tensile strength
Good ductility
Good machinability

Uses
Wheel hub, steering column housing for agric machines, brakes and thread grides for lextile
machines. Ack heart malleable cast iron if the white iron has a low carbon content, the
process used is called ‘Black heart’ process to which no attempt is made to remove the
carbon. The cast iron are closely packed to container with non – reactive (inert) materials
such as crushed slag or gravel to prevent cecarburization of the surface and annealing takes
place at 850-940C, with a soaking period of between 3 to 4 days. The cementite decomposed
into iron and fine graphite, which is precipited in the form of nodules within the iron. The
dull black appearance of the metal gives it the name ‘Black heart’.

BLACK HEART
Properties
High tensile strength
Good ductility
Uses
Automobile industries, axle boxes, brake parts, coupling for rail way rolling stocks and
pedals, rear axle housings, wheel hubs, differential carries pearlitic malleable cast iron – is
made by heat treating white.

Properties – high tensile strength,good ductility, good machineability

Uses – axli and defferential housings, camshafts and gears

Nodular or spheroidal graphite cast iron

Is also known as duclite or high strength cast iron. The nodular cast iron is produced by
adding magresive to the molten cast iron. The magnesion converts the graphite of cast iron
fron flake form to spheroidal or nodular form. This way, the mechanical properties are
considerably improved. The nodular cast iron behaves like steel.

Properties
High tensile strength is greater than any other found of cast iron.
Ductile
Readity machineable.
Uses
Pipes, fittings for gas, oil, water, sewage and chemicals. Automobile parts cylinder blocks,
crankshafts, connecting rods, exhaust manifolds, water pumps, timing gears, gearbox casings,
steering boxes etc

11.4. ALLOY CAST IRON

The micro-structural effects which alloying elements have on a cast iron are, in most cases,
similar to the effects these elements have on the structure of steel. Alloying elements can
therefore be used to improve mechanical properties (strength, wear resist are to refer again, to
increase hardness by stabilizing cementite and forming hardescarbides and

FIG 11.3. ALLOY CAST IRON

Desirable, martensitic and austenitic structures at ambient temperatures. Improvements in

resistance to atmosopheric corrosion and also deterioration at high temperatures are also
attainable. Some of the alloying elements are Nickel chrominion, molybolenun, vanadium,
coppet etc.
 WEEK 12

12.0 PROPERTIES AND APPLICATION OF NON FERROUS METAL

12.1. NON –FERROUS METALS

Non ferrous metal are metals that contain little or no iron the certain a metal other than iron as
their main constituent the non ferrous metals are usually employed in industry due to the
following characteristic.
Easy to fabricate (casting, rolling, forging and machining.)
Resistance to corrosion
Very good
Electrical and thermal conductivity
Low weight
Attractive appearance
1. ALUMINIUM– is grayish white produced by electrical process from the oxide
(alumina), which is prepared from a clay mineral called bauxite (Al2O3 2H2O)
PROPERTIES
Pure aluminum (melting point 660 oC) is light weak, soft. It is malleable and ductile and can
easily be machined, forged, rolled and extruded. It is a good conductor of electrical and heat next
to copper.
Aluminum is not generally used in a pure state, since it is too soft and weak it is alloyed with
other metals to form alloys are used extensively in industry.
USES
It is extensively used in aircraft and automobile components (Crankcases & pistons for internal
combustion engine where saving of weight is an advantage. Its specific gravity is about 2.68
compared with 7.8 for steel.
High resistance to corrosion and its non-toxicity makes it a useful metal for cooking utensils
under ordinary conditions.
Aluminum foil for food wrappers and bottle cups. In super-pure form it is used as a decorative
medium e.g in wheel and other car triums used for overhead cables because of its good electrical
conductivity. Ladder, T.V. aerial.
2. COPPER
Is reddish brown coloured metal refined from copper ore (copper sulphide).
PROPERTIES
Melting point is 108oC. its specific gravity is 8.9
It has high electrical and thermal conductivity
It is malleable and ductile and is easily change into wire and bubing. It can be casted, rolled,
forged.etc.
Good resistance to corrosion.
USES
It is largely used in making electrical cables and wires. Electroplating in making coins and
household utensils. Used for making communitions soldering in water pipe, castings, forgings,
sheets. Used for making useful alloys with tin, zinc, nickel and aluminum. Alloyed with zinc to
form brass or with tin to form bronze. Electric motor. wi

3. ZINC
Us bluish -white (lustrous) metals Zinc ore are widely distributed throughout the world and much
of the extraction is from the sulphide ores Zinc often associated with lead, silver and sometimes
gold.
PROPERTIES
Melting point 420 0C
It shows extremely good resistance to atmospheric corrosion.
It is brittles coarse and crystalline, easiest corrosion
USES
It is used for covering steel sheets to form galvanizes in due to it high resistance to atmospheric
corrosion. The covering is done by dipping the sheets, wire, nails and piping into a molten zinc
bath after initial fluxing
When rolled into sheets, zinc is used for roof covering and for providing a damp proof non-
corrosive lining to container. Use in the manufacture of brasses. And in due field to produce
automotive parts (carburetors), soldering flux, battery cans washing machine parts, padlocks and
model toys.
4. TIN
Is silvery white, produced from tinstone (SnO2). When bar of tin is bent, a sound called ‘cry’ of
tin is heard.
PROPERTIES
Melting point 232oC
It is soft, malleable and ductile. It can be rolled into very thin sheet (foil). Good corrosion
resistance in moist atmospheric condition. When polished has a high light reflectivity. It has a
crystalline structure.
USES
It is used as a protective coating on other metals, such as iron and steel sheets to form tin plate,
mainly in the canning industry. Is used for food stuff containers because the tin resists attack by
fruit juices.
It is used in making soft solders.
It is used for making tin foil used as moisture proof packing.
5. LEAD
Produced from galena (Lead Sulphide PbS). Has a bright silvery grey (lustrous, shining) colour.
When cut, the surface soon tarnishes (oxidize) to drill grey when exposed to air.
PROPERTIES
Is one of the heaviest common metals with specific gravity of 11.36. It has a low melting point of
327oC. low strength and low electrical conductivity. It is very soft and malleable and is easily cut
with a knife high corrosion resistance. Lead is resistant to many acids, but oddly enough, is
attacked by pure water.
USES
Used for making solders e.g. plumber and tin man’s solder. As lining for acid tanks sheaths
(cover) for power and telephone cables. In manufacture of connectors and grids in and acid
batteries. It is used in chemical and plumbing industries. Is a good insulator against nuclear
radiation.

6. NICKEL
Silvery white metal capable of taking a high polish. Its specific gravity is 8.85 and melting point
1425oC
PROPERTIES
Resistance to corrosion and oxidation. It resists the attacks of most of the acids. But it dissolves
readily in nitric acid. Strong and harder than iron.
USES
It is used extensively for electroplating. It’s most important application is in the manufacture of
stainless and alloy steels for b decorative and corrosion protection.
7. PURPOSES
Is the lightest metal used as an engineering material with specific gravity of 1.74 while is about
two-thirds that of aluminum. Its melting (650oC) point is slightly lower than that of aluminum
and readily combines with oxygen.
PROPERTIES
It is harder than aluminum. It soft, Low tensile strength. It is preferable when it is light in weight
is important, because of its low density of 1.74
USES
In aircraft and missile industries for the production of rockets, signals and flares. It is employed
in photographic flash bulbs and thermite bulbs.
8. MAGNESIUM
Magnesium plates are used to prevent corrosion by saltwater in underwater fittings on ship hulls.
Magnesium rods, when inserted in galvanized domestic water tanks, will prolong the life of the
tank.
Most important non-ferrous alloy
9. ALLOY
Is a mixture of two or more metals.
10. COPPER ALLOYS
Brass—colour (yellow)
Is an alloy of 60% copper and 40% zinc. There are many different grades employed for special
purpose the properties and colour depend upon the protections of the two elements. Example the
60% copper and 40% zinc is called yellow brass
PROPERTIES
Cast well, corrosion resistance
USES
Water pipe filtings, electrical (plug pins) fittings, screws, nuts, bolts hinges, door handles, keys
Bronze – colour (dark yellow)
Is an alloy of 90% copper and 10% tin called phosphor bronze.
PROPERTIES
Cast well, good resist surface wear bearing material, bronzes are superior to brasses in corrosion
resistance. Bronzes are more costly than the brasses and hence are used only when cheaper alloys
do not prove to be satisfactory.
USES
Bearing sleeves and bushes, water pump castings, warm
11. TIN ALLOY
Tin man’s solder:
Is an alloy of 62% tin and 38% lead soft, little strength
USES
For making solder
12. ALIMINIUM ALLOY
Duralumin –colour (grayish white)
Is an alloy of 96% Aluminum and 4% copper.

PROPERTIES
Light, cast well, medium strength.
USES
Aircraft parts, Engine cylinder head, Crank cases, pistons, window frames.
13. ZINC ALLOY
Die – cast metal – colour (grey)
Is an alloy of 4% Aluminum and 96%.
PROPERTIES
Weak, cast well, brittle
USES
Petrol pumps, car door handles, carbureting wing mirrors, low cost cast parts.

14. NON METALLIC MATERIALS

Are classified as organic if they contain animal or vegetable cells (dead or alive) or carbon.
Leather and wood are examples, materials are classified as inorganic if they are other than
animal, vegetables or carbon bearing.
There are fundamental differences between organic and inorganic materials. Organic materials
will usually dissolve inorganic liquids, such as alcohol or carbon tetrachloride, but will not
dissolve in water. In general, inorganic materials resist heat more effectively than organic
substances examples of inorganic materials are minerals, cement, ceramic, Glass, Graphite
examples of organic materials are plastics, petroleum products, wood, paper rubber, leather
liquid, solid, gaseous- the form of existence of matter.
Liquid- The state of substance which can permit easy deformation or flow and take shape
containing vessel.
Solid- The feature which show geometrical pattern in terms of shape.
Gaseous- The form of a substance which has higher tendency for expansion if not limited by
boundary.
Melting point- The temperature at which a material is change from solid to liquid state.
Lustre property- Which give a material a shining and reflective surface.
 WEEK 13

13.0 HOT WORKING AND COLD WORKING PROCESSES

13.1. MECHANICAL SHAPING OF METALS

Working involves the manipulation of material when in the solid state it usually
produces mechanical properties that are better than those of a cast material.
Working metal must be ductile or malleable, or be made so as a result of
heating or heat treatment. They are often of a simple micro structure. Shaping
of metal can be divided into two.
Hot working operations and cold working operations

Hot working can be carried out more rapidly, since less power is required.
While cold working process, in the other hand are used in the final stages of
shaping of materials, so that a high quality surface finish can be obtained or
suitable strength and hardness developed in the material.
The grain structure produced by working is different from that of casting.
The figure below illustrates the grain structure a casting. The grain at the
outside are small due the rapid cooling and those just below the surface are
columnar because the grow towards the core, which is the last to solidify, the
grain at the core are coarse and equiaxed because the core will cool very slowly.
(Worked) wrought parts usually display grain flow or grain fibre, when teset
along the grain they show a greater strength than across the grain and by
arrangeing the grain fibre, the required directional strength can be obtained.

Hot working processes

Hot working is a deformation process which is carried out at a temperature
above that of re crystallization for the material. It produce large deformation
without causing residual stresses consequently, deformation and re
crystallization take place at the same time the material remains malleable during
the working process. Intermediate annealing processes are therefore not
required, so working takes place very rapidly.

Advantages
Less amount of energy is needed for hot working of metal.
The coarse grain structure is refined
Materials are left in the fully annealed condition and are suitable for cold
working there by making deformation easy.
Scales are formed on the surface which gives some protection against corrosion
during storage
Porosity in metal is eliminated.
Disadvantages
Poor surface finish rough and scaly
Dimensional accuracy is due to shrinkage on cooling
Due to distortion on cooling, hot working leads to geometrical inaccuracy.
Damage to tools from abrasive scale on metal surface
Low strength and rigidity for metal considered
Fully annedled condition of the material coupled with a relatively coarse grain
leads to a poor finishes
Hot working equipment and maintainace cast are high

13.2. HOT ROLLING

This is chiefly applied for the braking down of large steel ingots to sections,
strip sheet and rod of various sizes. This operation involves subjecting the
ingot at high temperature to train of rolls either of two-high reversing mill or
three high mills. The rollers could be plain or grooved according to the section
or type of product being manufactured.
Hot rolling is also applied to most non-ferrous alloys in the initial stages of
braking down, but finishing is more likely to be a cold rolling operation.

13.3. HOT EXTRUSION

A wide variety of sections can be produced by the process including round rods,
hexagonal brass sections, tube. The hot extrusion process consist of taking a
round cylindrical cast billet of metal which has been heater to above the critical
temperature, planning it in a cylindrical container of slightly large diameter,
close at one end by a ram or piston and all the other end by a die. The die has
an opening or openings out in it having cross-section of the required product.
On moving the piston along the cylinder against the billet, the billet is forced
against the die under the influence of the enormors pressure generated in thr
billet, the metal is force to extrude the orifice cut in die. Sometimes the
cylinder is heated prior to extrusion to avoid excessive cooling of the billet.
The use of lubricant is employed during extrusion to reduce friction between
the billet and the cylinder.

TYPES OF EXTRUSION
Direct extrusion – In this process the hot billet is placed into the container and
the ram or piston moved forward which now force the billet to move relative to
the container wall. There is frictional force between the billet and the container
wall. The billet pass under pressure through the die to produce the section
replice of the opening on the die

Indirect extrusion – Is similar to direct extrusion exce that the extruded part is
forced through the ram. Less force required by this method, since there is no
frictional force between the billet and the container. The weakening of the ram
when it is made hallow and the impossibility of providing adequate support for
the extruded part constitute limitation of this process.

IMPACT EXTRUSION – Is a method used for producing such items as tooth-

past tubes and other collapsible tubes in lead or aluminums cigar tubes in
aluminums and dry battery cases in zinc?
A small slug or blank of the metal to be formed is placed in a die and punch
delivers a very high impact force to the blank. The metal of the blank is force
through the small clearance between punch and die and travels up the sides of
the punch forming a thin walled tube.

HAND FORGING – This involves the application of successive hammer

blows on hot metal ingot and represent the most ancient method of shaping
metal by blacksmiths. Various ferrous and non-ferrous metals can be shaped by
this means and a relatively fine grain structure. Is obtained after forcing, than
the coarse as cast structure obtained in casting.

DROP FORGING (Drop stamping) – if a large number of identical forged

components are required, then it is convenient to make them by drop forging
process. In this process a shaped die is used, one half being attached to the
hammer and to the anvil. The hammer working between two vertical guides is
mechanically lifted some distances above the anvil and allowed to fall under its
own weight onto the metal being forged, which must be hot and force it into the
cavity.

HEADING OR UPSETTING – Is employed for the manufacture of bolts,

rivets e.t.c. the stock bar is heated for a portion of its length and then forged. In
general the operation involve increase in diameter at the expense of the length.

HOT PRESSING – Is a development of drop forging process. The hammer of

drop forging is replaced by hydraulically driven ram so that instead of receiving
rapid successive hammer blows, the metal is gradually squeezed into the cavity
by the pressure of the ram.
 WEEK 14

14.0 COLD WORKING PROCESSES

14.1. Cold working – Is a plastic deformation performed at the metal. Do not
permit large deformation without frequent heat treatment to soften the metal.
Cold working causes residual stresses and so increases the hardness and
strength of the metal. During cold working the crystal structure becomes
broken up and distorted and the material becomes straines or work hardened.

Advantages of cold working

1. it improves mechanical strength and hardness with corresponding loss in
ductity.
2. high dimensional accuracy (tolerance)
3. good surface finish is obtained no scalecoxidation
4. uniform structure or relatively high geometrical accuracy.
5. working hardnesses improveds the machining characteristic of the metal.

Disadvantages of cold working

1. high cost than hot worked materials. It is only a finishing process for
material previously hot-worked therefore the processing cost is added to the
hot worked cost.
2. material loss ductility due to work hardening and are less suitable for
bending etc.
3. clean surface is easily corrected
4. availability limited to road and bars also sheets and strip, solid drawn tubes.

14.2. TYPES OF COLD WORKING PROCESS

1. COLD ROLLING – This is a deformation process for finishing operation
to obtained a standard size roll material using rolls. This is used for the
production of sheet and strips materials. The majority of cold rolling
operation are carried out on 4-high mills. In the 4-high mill, the two small
diameter work roll are power driven and the large backing rolls are for
transmitting pressure to the work rolls thus preventing excessive deflection
under load of work rolls. Component or section to be cold rolled is first
broken down near to the finishing size by hot working and then pickles
(immersed in hot dilute sulphuric acid) to remove surface scales or oxides
caused by hot rolling before cold rolling. For the production of minor finish,
metal foils, the rolling is carried out with a well polished rolls in a controlled
atmosphere. Cold rolling is usually carried with inter-stage – annealing
 process under controlled atmosphere to avoid scaling. Bright – mild steel is
one of the typical products of cold rolling.

2. DRAWING – This is used for the production of wire, rods and tubing. This
is a process of reduction of diameter of rod or wires by passing it through an
orifice in a die. Is exclusively a cold working process, because it relies on
the ductility of the annealed material being pulled or drawn through a die
with a reducing diameter. In the manufacture of wire, the material is pulled
through the die by winding it on to a rotating drum. While In the production
of tube the bore is maintained by the use of a mandrel. The material is
lubricated with or soap before it enters the die aperture. Drawing die are
made from high carbon steel, tungsten, carbide and diamond.

14.3. COLD PRESSING AND DEEP DRAWING

These processes are closely related to each other the operations range from
making suitable pressing in one stage to cupping followe by a nuber of
redrawings. In each case the components are produces from sheet stock, and
range from mild-steel motor car bodies to cartriage very high ductility in the
sheet stock, and only a limited range of alloys are, therefore available for the
process. Example brass, copper, pure aluminum. Very ductile metals in sheet
form, can be drawn and stretched into a cup like shape usinf punch and die, this
is shown in figure below.

Cold pressing is very widely used and alloys which are not quite sufficiently
ductile for deep drawing are generally suitable for shaping by simple press
work. Sheet metal can be pressed into shape between formers as chown in
figure below. Motor car bodies are produced I this way.

14.4. COINING AND EMBOSSING

COINING – Is a cold forging process in which deformation takes place
entirely by compression. It is comfined mainly to the manufacture of coins,
medals, keys and small plaques. Coinig operation is carried out in a closed die.
It is a method of impressing an image or enragving in a die on a metal. Coining
causes thin metal being coined to flow and fills the cavity on the dies during
compression or by local indentation and extrusion process as shown in figure
below.

EMBOSSING – Differs from coining in that virtually no change in thickness

takes place during pressing. This process can be regarded as local bending and
forming consequently, the force necessary to emboss metal is much less than in
coining. The material used for embossing the process is effected by using male
and female dies. Typical embossed products include badges, military buttons,
nameplates and identification tags.

SPINING – Is the operation of shaping thin sheet metal (blank) that is

sufficiently soft and ductile by pressing or forcing it against a rotating formed to
produce a hallow solid of revolution. The original process is a hand process that
employs a simple lathe, a modern development of this process is power
spinning which is basically the same as hand spinning but the metal is worked
by a roller.
Is a relatively simple process in which a circular blank of metal is fixed to the
spinning chuck of a lathe? As the blank rotates it is forced up into shape by
means of hand operated tools of blunt steel or hardwood, supported on a hand
rest.
The function of the hand tool is to press the metal into contact with a form of
the desired shape. This form is also fixed to the rotating chuck. The operation
is in some respects similar to that of a potter’s wheel in which the lump of clay
is replaced by a flat disc of metal. Large reflectors aluminium teapots and hot
water bottles and other domestic hollow ware are frequently produced by
spinning.

14.5. FLOW FORMING

Is a similar process to spinning, but the displacement of the metal is paralled to
the axis of rotation, the diameter of the blank is almost the same as that of the
finished component, but it thickness is greater. Flow forming is done using a
machine that is heavier than that used for power spinning, and has been used to
advantage for parts such as turbine shafts and diaphragms that ere previously
turned from necessary heavy forgings.
 WEEK 15

15.0 PROPERTIES AND APPLICATION OF NON METALLIC

MATERIALS

15.1 GLASS
Glass may be defined as a hard, brittle, transparent material chiefly composed of silica,
combined with varying proportion of oxides of sodium, potassium calcium, magnesium, iron and
other. Material
15.1.1 CONSTITUENTS OF GLASS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
1. Silica – Is the principal constituent of glass if silica alone is used in the manufacture of
glass, it could be fused only at a very high temperature but it would give a good glass on
cooling. However, it is imperative to add some alkaline materials (sodium or potassium
carbonate) and lime in suitable proportions to make the molten silica glass sufficiently
viscous to make it amply workable and resistant against weathering agencies.
2. Sodium – Is an alkaline material, added in suitable proportion to reduce the melting point
of silica and to impart viscosity to the molten glass.
3. lime- I added in the form of chalk its imparts durability to the glass in place of lime,
sometimes, lead oxide is also added it makes the glass bright and shining.
4. Manganese Dioxide – Is added in suitable proportion to correct the colour of glass due to
the presence of iron in raw materials of glass.
5. Cullet – Is old broken glass of the same type as that which is intended to be prepared. It is
added in small quantity to provide body to the glass.
6. Colouring Substance- While manufacturing a coloured glass, a suitable colouring
substance is added at fusion stage to provide the desired colour to the glass.
WOOD/TIMBER
Withstands shocks and bumps.
PROPERTIES
Good material for compression member, non conductor of heat and electricity, light weight,
easy to shape, suitable for sound proof.
APPLICATIONS- Tool handles, foundry patterns, packaging, furnitures, rafters, ladders,
doors, windows.
CERAMIC
High compressive strength
PROPERTIES
High strength at high temperature, hard, brittle, high resistance to wear, good electrical
insulation properties, high melting point, good chemical stability, good thermal stability.
High corrosion resistance.
APPLICATIONS- Extrusion dies, cutting tools, refractory materials, sanitary wares,
abrasives, insulators and semi-conductors.
GLASS
PROPERTIES
Hard, brittle, transparency, crystalline, resistance to corrosion, poor resistance to thermal
shock.
APPLICATIONS- Laboratory wares, bottles, mirrors, lenses, windows, thousands fo
items in the body of a guided missile are made of glass. Glass linings are applied on
equipments likely to be affected by chemical corrosion such as valves.
ASBESTOS
PROPERTIES
Brittle, fire resistant, heat resistant does not break down under heat.
APPLICATIONS- Roofing sheets, ceiling, fire proof pants, building sheets, break linings,
tiles.
RUBBER
Plasticity of rubber makes it amenable to all manufacturing process.
PROPERTIES
Elastic, electrical insulator, strong and tough, highly impermeable to both water and air, great
resistance to acids, petroleum products etc.
Applications- Transmission belt, seals, packings, tyres and tubes, hose pipes, thermal
insulation
Damping pad for engine mounting.
Thermal insulation.