Brady V NFL - Players Brief

No.
11-1898
_________________________
IN THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

FOR THE EIGHTH CIRCUIT
_________________________
TOM BRADY et al.,
Plaintiffs-Appellees,
v.
NATIONAL FOOTBALL LEAGUE et al.,
Defendants-Appellants.
_________________________
On Appeal From The United States District Court

For The District Of Minnesota
_________________________
BRIEF FOR APPELLEES

_________________________
James W. Quinn Theodore B. Olson

WEIL, GOTSHAL & MANGES LLP Counsel of Record
767 Fifth Avenue Andrew S. Tulumello
New York, NY 10153 Scott P. Martin
(212) 310-8000 GIBSON, DUNN & CRUTCHER LLP
1050 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.
Jeffrey L. Kessler Washington, DC 20036
DEWEY & LEBOEUF LLP (202) 955-8500
1301 Avenue of the Americas (202) 530-4238 (facsimile)
New York, NY 10019
(212) 259-8000
Counsel for Appellees

[Additional Counsel Listed on Inside Cover]
Barbara P. Berens Bruce S. Meyer
Justi Rae Miller WEIL, GOTSHAL & MANGES LLP
BERENS & MILLER, P.A. 767 Fifth Avenue
3720 IDS Center New York, NY 10153
80 South Eighth Street (212) 310-8000
Minneapolis, MN 55402
(612) 349-6171 David G. Feher
David L. Greenspan
Timothy R. Thornton DEWEY & LEBOEUF LLP
BRIGGS & MORGAN, P.A. 1301 Avenue of the Americas
2200 IDS Center New York, NY 10019
80 South Eighth Street (212) 259-8000
(612) 977-8550 Travis D. Lenkner
John F. Bash
GIBSON, DUNN & CRUTCHER LLP
Washington, DC 20036
(202) 955-8500

SUMMARY OF THE CASE
The district court granted a preliminary injunction against a
group boycott instituted by the NFL and its 32 member teams in the
market for player services. The court concluded, among other things,
that the boycott is a per se violation of the Sherman Act, and that it is
causing severe and immediate harm to the players, which cannot be
remedied by damages alone. The issue on appeal is whether the district
court abused its discretion in granting the injunction.
The Court has scheduled this case for oral argument on June 3,
2011 and has allotted 30 minutes of argument per side.
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 1
COUNTER-STATEMENT OF ISSUES
PRESENTED FOR REVIEW........................................................... 5
STATEMENT OF FACTS ......................................................................... 7
SUMMARY OF ARGUMENT ................................................................. 12
STANDARD OF REVIEW....................................................................... 15
ARGUMENT............................................................................................ 16
I. The Norris-LaGuardia Act Does Not Preclude The

District Court From Enjoining The NFL’s Illegal Group
Boycott ................................................................................... 16
A. The Norris-LaGuardia Act Is Inapplicable

Because This Case Does Not “Involve Or Grow
Out Of A Labor Dispute” ............................................. 20
1. The Term “Labor Dispute” Encompasses

Only Disputes Involving Organized Labor........ 21
2. A Case Cannot “Grow Out Of” A Labor

Dispute That No Longer Exists ......................... 34
B. The District Court’s Injunction Fully Complies

With The Norris-LaGuardia Act ................................. 37
1. Section 4(a) Does Not Encompass Lockouts...... 37
2. The Injunction Complies With Section 7 Of

The Norris-LaGuardia Act ................................. 50
ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(continued)
Page
II. The Implied Labor Exemption To The Antitrust Laws

Does Not Protect The NFL’s Boycott ................................... 56
A. The Non-Statutory Labor Exemption Does Not

Apply Where There Is No Collective-Bargaining
Relationship ................................................................. 57
B. The Lockout Does Not Concern A “Mandatory

Subject Of Bargaining” ................................................ 69
III. The District Court Did Not Abuse Its Discretion In

Declining To Stay This Litigation Under The Primary-
Jurisdiction Doctrine ............................................................ 70
A. The NFL Misstates The Standard For Applying

The Primary-Jurisdiction Doctrine............................. 71
B. The District Court And This Court Have The

Institutional Competence And Capability To
Decide This Case.......................................................... 73
1. There Is No Reasonable Argument That The

NFLPA’s Disclaimer Was A “Sham”.................. 75
2. The NFL Waived Any Argument That The

Disclaimer Was A “Sham” .................................. 81
C. Any Conceivable Benefit From Obtaining The

NLRB’s Views Is Far Outweighed By The Delay
Involved ........................................................................ 83
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(continued)
Page
IV. The Remaining Preliminary-Injunction Factors

Strongly Support The Injunction ......................................... 84
A. The Group Boycott Is Causing The Players

Irreparable Harm “Now” ............................................. 84
B. The NFL Has Not Demonstrated Irreparable

Harm From The Injunction ......................................... 86
C. The Public Interest Supports The Injunction............. 88
CONCLUSION ........................................................................................ 88
iv
TABLE OF AUTHORITIES
Cases Page(s)
Abuelhawa v. United States,

129 S. Ct. 2102 (2009) ........................................................................ 42
Access Telecomms. v. Sw. Bell Tel. Co.,

137 F.3d 605 (8th Cir. 1998)................................................... 16, 71, 75
Allen Bradley Co. v. IBEW,

325 U.S. 797 (1945) ............................................................................ 26
Alpharma, Inc. v. Pennfield Oil Co.,

411 F.3d 934 (8th Cir. 2005)...................................................... passim
Amalgamated Meat Cutters v. Jewel Tea Co.,

381 U.S. 676 (1965) ................................................................. 58, 69, 76
Am. Ass’n of Cruise Passengers v. Cunard Line, Ltd.,

31 F.3d 1184 (D.C. Cir. 1994) ............................................................. 73
Am. Needle, Inc. v. NFL,

130 S. Ct. 2201 (2010) ........................................................... 1, 3, 66, 87
Am. Ship Bldg. v. NLRB,

380 U.S. 300 (1965) ............................................................................. 68
Am. Steel Foundries v. Tri-City Cent. Trades Council,

257 U.S. 184 (1921) ............................................................................. 40
Am. Sunroof Corp.,

243 N.L.R.B. 1128 (1979).................................................................... 65
Auto. Transp. Chauffeurs v. Paddock Chrysler-Plymouth, Inc.,

365 F. Supp. 599 (E.D. Mo. 1973)....................................................... 50
Avco Corp. v. Int’l Ass’n of Machinists,

390 U.S. 557 (1968) ............................................................................. 52
v
(continued)
Cases (continued) Page(s)
Barry v. United States,

528 F.2d 1094 (7th Cir. 1976)............................................................. 44
BE & K Constr. Co. v. NLRB,

23 F.3d 1459 (8th Cir. 1994)............................................................... 64
Bowman v. NFL,
402 F. Supp. 754 (D. Minn. 1975)................................................... 6, 85
Boys Mkts., Inc. v. Retail Clerks Union,

398 U.S. 235 (1970) ............................................................................. 28
Bhd. of Locomotive Eng’rs v. Balt. & Ohio R.R.,

310 F.2d 513 (7th Cir. 1962)........................................................... 5, 48
Bhd. of R.R. Trainmen v. Chi. River & Ind. R.R. Co.,

353 U.S. 30 (1957) ............................................................................... 17
Brown v. Pro Football, Inc.,

50 F.3d 1041 (D.C. Cir. 1995) ............................................................. 43
Brown v. Pro Football, Inc.,

518 U.S. 231 (1996) ..................................................................... passim
Burlington N. R.R. v. Bhd. of Maint. of Way Employes,

481 U.S. 429 (1987) ............................................................................. 29
Carcieri v. Salazar,
129 S. Ct. 1058 (2009) ......................................................................... 45
Carter v. United States,

135 F.2d 858 (5th Cir. 1943)............................................................... 54
Charles D. Bonanno Linen Serv., Inc. v. NLRB,

454 U.S. 404 (1982) ....................................................................... 68, 69
vi
(continued)
Chelsea Indus., Inc. v. NLRB,

285 F.3d 1073 (D.C. Cir. 2002) ........................................................... 77
Chicago Midtown Milk Distribs. v. Dean Foods Co.,

Nos. 18577 & 18578, 1970 WL 2761 (7th Cir. July 9, 1970) ............ 49
Clune v. Publishers Ass’n,

214 F. Supp. 520 (S.D.N.Y. 1963)....................................................... 50
Colo. River Water Conservation Dist. v. United States,

424 U.S. 800 (1976) ............................................................................. 71
Congreso de Uniones Industriales v. VCS Nat’l Packing Co.,

953 F.2d 1 (1st Cir. 1991) ................................................................... 49
Connell Constr. Co. v. Plumbers & Steamfitters,

421 U.S. 616 (1975) ........................................................... 30, 56, 68, 73
Crystal Clear Commc’ns, Inc. v. Sw. Bell Tel. Co.,

415 F.3d 1171 (10th Cir. 2005)........................................................... 73
Dataphase Sys., Inc. v. C L Sys., Inc.,

640 F.2d 109 (8th Cir. 1981)............................................................... 15
De Arroyo v. Sindicato de Trabajadores Packinghouse,

425 F.2d 281 (1st Cir. 1970) ............................................... 5, 38, 42, 47
DeBruce Grain, Inc. v. Union Pac. R.R.,

149 F.3d 787 (8th Cir. 1998)............................................................... 72
Donnelly Garment Co. v. Dubinsky,

154 F.2d 38 (8th Cir. 1946)................................................................. 52
Dow Chem. Co. v. NLRB,

660 F.2d 637 (5th Cir. 1981)............................................................... 63
vii
(continued)
Drywall Tapers & Pointers v. Natasi & Assocs. Inc.,

488 F.3d 88 (2d Cir. 2007) .................................................................. 52
Drywall Tapers & Pointers v. Operative Plasterers &

Cement Masons,
537 F.2d 669 (2d Cir. 1976) .................................................... 51, 54, 55
Duplex Printing Press Co. v. Deering,

254 U.S. 443 (1921) ....................................................................... 26, 29
Dura Art Stone, Inc.,

346 N.L.R.B. 149 (2005)...................................................................... 65
Emery Air Freight, Corp. v. Int’l Bhd. of Teamsters,

185 F.3d 85 (2d Cir. 1999) .................................................................. 30
Far E. Conference v. United States,

342 U.S. 570 (1952) ............................................................................. 72
Farrand Optical Co. v. Int’l Union of Elec. Workers,

143 F. Supp. 527 (S.D.N.Y. 1956)....................................................... 35
Foss v. Portland Terminal Co.,

287 F. 33 (1st Cir. 1923) ..................................................................... 40
GCB Commc’ns, Inc. v. U.S. S. Commc’ns, Inc.,

— F.3d —, Nos. 09-17646 & 10-16086,
2011 WL 1613152 (9th Cir. Apr. 29, 2011) ........................................ 16
Goss Int’l Corp. v. Man Roland Druckmaschinen

Aktiengesellschaft,
491 F.3d 355 (8th Cir. 2007)............................................................... 15
Grace Co. v. Williams,

96 F.2d 478 (8th Cir. 1938)................................................................. 37
viii
(continued)
Grace Healthcare v. U.S. Dep’t of Health & Human Servs.,

603 F.3d 412 (8th Cir. 2009)............................................................... 52
Hall v. Johnson,
169 P. 515 (Or. 1917) .......................................................................... 22
Hartz Mountain Corp.,

260 N.L.R.B. 323 (1982)...................................................................... 78
Haywood v. NBA,
401 U.S. 1204 (1971) ..................................................................... 32–33
Houston Oilers, Inc. v. Neeley,

361 F.2d 36 (10th Cir. 1966)............................................................... 33
IBEW (Texlite, Inc.),

119 N.L.R.B. 1792 (1958).................................................................... 79
ICC v. Chi., Rock Island & Pac. R.R.,

501 F.2d 908 (8th Cir. 1974)............................................................... 74
Int’l Ass’n of Machinists v. Panoramic Corp.,

668 F.2d 276 (7th Cir. 1981)............................................................... 30
Int’l Ass’n of Machinists v. Street,

367 U.S. 740 (1961) ............................................................................. 29
Int’l Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union v. NLRB,

366 U.S. 731 (1961) ............................................................................. 65
Jackson v. NFL,
802 F. Supp. 226 (D. Minn. 1992)............................................... 6, 8, 85
John Morrell & Co. v. United Food & Commercial Workers,

804 F.2d 457 (8th Cir. 1986)............................................................... 48
ix
(continued)
Johnson v. United States,

130 S. Ct. 1265 (2010) ......................................................................... 24
Kan. City S. Transp. Co. v. Teamsters,

126 F.3d 1059 (8th Cir. 1997)........................................... 13, 19, 54, 55
L. Vogelstein & Co. v. United States,

56 Ct. Cl. 362 (1921) ........................................................................... 22
Law v. NCAA,
134 F.3d 1010 (10th Cir. 1998)........................................................... 33
Leocal v. Aschroft,
543 U.S. 1 (2004) ................................................................................. 24
Levitz Furniture Co.,

333 N.L.R.B. 717 (2001)...................................................................... 65
Linden Lumber Div. v. NLRB,

419 U.S. 301 (1974) ............................................................................. 64
Lumber & Sawmill Workers Union v. Cole,

663 F.2d 983 (9th Cir. 1981)........................................................... 5, 47
Mackey v. NFL,
407 F. Supp. 1000 (D. Minn. 1975)..................................................... 53
Mackey v. NFL,
543 F.2d 606 (8th Cir. 1976)....................................................... passim
Massachusetts v. EPA,
549 U.S. 497 (2007) ............................................................................. 25
McDermott Int’l, Inc. v. Wilander,

498 U.S. 337 (1991) ............................................................................. 23
x
(continued)
McNeil v. NFL,
764 F. Supp. 1351 (D. Minn. 1991)......................................... 58, 80, 81
McNeil v. NFL,
Civ. No. 4-90-476, 1992 WL 315292
(D. Minn. Sept. 10, 1992) ...................................................................... 8
Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner & Smith Inc. v. Dabit,

547 U.S. 71 (2006) ............................................................................... 40
Morton v. Mancari,
417 U.S. 535 (1974) ............................................................................. 57
Movie Sys., Inc. v. MAD Minneapolis Audio Distribs.,

717 F.2d 427 (8th Cir. 1983)............................................................... 87
NBA v. Williams,
857 F. Supp. 1069 (S.D.N.Y. 1994)..................................................... 59
NLRB v. City Disposal Sys., Inc.,

465 U.S. 822 (1984) ............................................................................. 29
NLRB v. Cont’l Baking Co.,

221 F.2d 427 (8th Cir. 1955)......................................................... 68, 69
NLRB v. Gissel Packing Co.,

395 U.S. 575 (1969) ............................................................................. 63
NLRB v. Sears, Roebuck & Co.,

421 U.S. 132 (1975) ............................................................................. 78
Nat’l Woodwork Mfrs. Ass’n v. NLRB,

386 U.S. 612 (1967) ............................................................................. 28
New Engl. Patriots Football Club, Inc. v. Univ. of Colo.,

592 F.2d 1196 (1st Cir. 1979) ............................................................. 33
xi
(continued)
New Negro Alliance v. Sanitary Grocery Co.,

303 U.S. 552 (1938) ................................................................. 30, 31, 32
News-Press Publishing Co.,

145 N.L.R.B. 803 (1964)................................................................ 79, 80
N.Y. Football Giants, Inc. v. L.A. Chargers Football Club, Inc.,

291 F.2d 471 (5th Cir. 1961)............................................................... 33
N.I.S. Corp. v. Swindle,

724 F.2d 707 (8th Cir. 1984)............................................................... 26
Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Servs., Inc.,

523 U.S. 75 (1998) ............................................................................... 27
Order of R.R. Telegraphers v. Chi. & Nw. Ry. Co.,

362 U.S. 330 (1960) ........................................................... 18, 27, 28, 44
Otis Elevator Co. v. Int’l Union of Elevator Constructors,

408 F.3d 1 (1st Cir. 2005) ................................................................... 55
Ozark Air Lines, Inc. v. Nat’l Mediation Bd.,

797 F.2d 557 (8th Cir. 1986)............................................... 5, 12, 21, 32
Pac. Bell Tel. Co. v. Linkline Commc’ns, Inc.,

129 S. Ct. 1109 (2009) ......................................................................... 67
Pa. Sys. Bd. of Adjustment v. Pa. R.R.,

1 F.2d 171 (3d Cir. 1924) .................................................................... 22
Phila. Marine Trade Ass’n v. Int’l Longshoremen’s Ass’n,

368 F.2d 932 (3d Cir. 1966) ................................................................ 35
Pittsburgh Steelers, Inc.,

No. 6-CA-23143, 1991 WL 144468
(N.L.R.B.G.C. June 26, 1991) ................................................... 6, 76, 77
xii
(continued)
Plumbers & Steamfitters v. Morris,

511 F. Supp. 1298 (E.D. Wash. 1981) ................................................ 50
Powell v. NFL,
930 F.2d 1293 (8th Cir. 1989)..................................................... passim
Purex Corp. v. Auto. Employees Union,

705 F.2d 274 (8th Cir. 1983)............................................................... 48
Radovich v. NFL,
352 U.S. 445 (1957) ............................................................................... 1
Ry. Express Agency, Inc. v. Bhd. of Ry. Clerks,

437 F.2d 388, 395 (5th Cir. 1971)................................................. 51, 55
Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians v. Barlow,

846 F.2d 474 (8th Cir. 1988)............................................... 6, 72, 73, 83
Reiter v. Cooper,
507 U.S. 258 (1993) ....................................................................... 71, 72
Reves v. Ernst & Young,

494 U.S. 56 (1990) ............................................................................... 24
Ricci v. Chi. Mercantile Exch.,

409 U.S. 289 (1973) ....................................................................... 72, 73
Rockwell Int’l Corp. v. United States,

549 U.S. 457 (2007) ............................................................................. 52
Rogers Group, Inc. v. City of Fayetteville,

629 F.3d 784 (8th Cir. 2010)......................................................... 15, 84
Rowe v. N.H. Motor Transp. Ass’n,

552 U.S. 364 (2008) ............................................................................. 40
xiii
(continued)
Silverman v. MLB Player Relations Comm., Inc.,

67 F.3d 1054 (2d Cir. 1995) ............................................................ 6, 85
Sinclair Ref. Co. v. Atkinson,

370 U.S. 195 (1962) ............................................................................. 37
Swift & Co. v. United States,

276 U.S. 311 (1928) ............................................................................. 52
Tejidos de Coamo, Inc. v. Int’l Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union,

22 F.3d 8 (1st Cir. 1994) ......................................................... 37, 49, 54
Texas & N.O. R.R. v. Bhd. of Ry.,

281 U.S. 548 (1930) ............................................................................. 22
Truax v. Corrigan,
257 U.S. 312 (1921) ............................................................................. 22
Twin Cities Galleries, LLC v. Media Arts Group, Inc.,

476 F.3d 598 (8th Cir. 2007)............................................................... 52
UAW v. Lester Eng’g Co.,

718 F.2d 818 (6th Cir. 1983)............................................................... 30
United Air Lines, Inc. v. Int’l Ass’n of Machinist & Aerospace

Workers, 243 F.3d 349 (7th Cir. 2001) ............................................... 30
United Mine Workers v. New Beckley Mining Corp.,

895 F.2d 942 (4th Cir. 1990)............................................................... 49
United Mine Workers v. Pennington,

381 U.S. 657 (1965) ............................................................................. 58
United States v. Finley,

612 F.3d 998 (8th Cir. 2010)......................................................... 15, 85
xiv
(continued)
United States v. Henderson,

416 F.3d 686 (8th Cir. 2005)............................................................... 16
United States v. Hutcheson,

312 U.S. 219 (1941) ..................................................... 26, 28, 29, 68, 69
United States v. Radio Corp. of Am.,

358 U.S. 334 (1959) ....................................................................... 72, 74
United States v. W. Pac. R.R.,

352 U.S. 59 (1956) .............................................................. 6, 72, 73, 74
United States v. Women’s Sportswear Mfrs. Ass’n,

336 U.S. 460 (1949) ............................................................................. 22
United Steelworkers of Am. v. Bishop,

598 F.2d 408 (5th Cir. 1979)............................................................... 34
U.S. Cartridge Co. v. United States,

62 Ct. Cl. 214 (1926) ........................................................................... 22
VFL Tech. Corp.,

332 N.L.R.B. 1443 (2000).................................................................... 78
Wagner & Brown v. ANR Pipeline Co.,

837 F.2d 199 (5th Cir. 1988)............................................................... 71
White v. NFL,
822 F. Supp. 1389 (D. Minn. 1993)....................................................... 8
White v. NFL,
836 F. Supp. 1508 (D. Minn. 1993)................................................. 3, 74
White v. NFL,
— F. Supp. 2d —, No. 4-92-906, 2011 WL 706319
(D. Minn. Mar. 1, 2011) ........................................................................ 2
xv
(continued)
White v. NFL,
41 F.3d 402 (8th Cir. 1994)................................................................... 8
White v. NFL,
585 F.3d 1129 (8th Cir. 2009)............................................. 7, 10, 62, 63
Wilkes-Barre Publ’g Co. v. Newspaper Guild of Wilkes-Barre,

Local 120, 647 F.2d 372 (3d Cir. 1981) .............................................. 54
Winter v. NRDC,
129 S. Ct. 365 (2008) ........................................................................... 88
Statutes
15 U.S.C. § 1 ............................................................................................... 5
15 U.S.C. § 26 ........................................................................................... 85
18 U.S.C. § 3692........................................................................................ 35
29 U.S.C. § 52 ........................................................................................... 39
29 U.S.C. § 101............................................................................................ 5
29 U.S.C. § 102.................................................................................. passim
29 U.S.C. § 103.......................................................................................... 42
29 U.S.C. § 104.................................................................................. passim
29 U.S.C. § 106.......................................................................................... 45
29 U.S.C. § 107.................................................................................. passim
xvi
(continued)
Statutes (continued) Page(s)
29 U.S.C. § 113.............................................................................. 24, 32, 34
29 U.S.C. § 152.......................................................................................... 23
29 U.S.C. § 157................................................................................ 3, 67, 69
29 U.S.C. § 158.................................................................. 12, 23, 64, 70, 71
29 U.S.C. § 159.......................................................................................... 81
29 U.S.C. § 163.................................................................................... 67, 69
29 U.S.C. § 176.......................................................................................... 43
Legislative History
75 Cong. Rec. (1932) ................................................................................. 46
H.R. Rep. No. 72-669 (1932)............................................................... 38, 44
S. Rep. No. 71-1060, pt. 1 (1930).............................................................. 44
S. Rep. No. 72-163, pt. 1 (1932).............................................. 23, 38, 45, 46
Other Sources
Altman, James M., Antitrust: A New Tool for Organized Labor?,

131 U. Pa. L. Rev. 127 (1982) ............................................................. 47
Black’s Law Dictionary (9th ed. 2009)..................................................... 39
Frankfurter, Felix & Nathan Greene,

The Labor Injunction (1930)....................................................... passim
xvii
(continued)
Other Sources (continued) Page(s)
Higgins, Jr., John E., The Developing Labor Law

(5th ed. 2006)....................................................................................... 78
Henderson, Gerard C., Book Review,

36 Harv. L. Rev. 1045 (1923) .............................................................. 23
Leslie, Douglas D., Essay: Brown v. Pro Football,

82 Va. L. Rev. 629 (1996) .................................................................... 68
Mack, Kenneth W., Rethinking Civil Rights Lawyering and

Politics in the Era Before Brown, 115 Yale L.J. 256 (2005) .............. 31
NFL, Commissioner Goodell Kicks Off Series of Fan

Conference Calls, Apr. 14, 2011.......................................................... 85
NLRB, Casehandling Manual, Part 2—Representation

Proceedings (2007) .............................................................................. 81
Northrup, Herbert R., Organized Labor and the Negro (1944).............. 31
Sitkoff, Harvard, A New Deal for Blacks (2009) ..................................... 31
Webster’s New International Dictionary (1933)................................. 38, 39
xviii
INTRODUCTION
This appeal presents the straightforward but immensely impor-
tant question whether a federal law enacted to protect the rights of em-
ployees may be manipulated to preclude provisional, equitable relief in-
tended to prevent irreparable injury to employees from a blatantly
unlawful group boycott. That perverse outcome can be predicated only
on a seriously erroneous construction of labor law, abetted by a misap-
prehension of the facts of this dispute.
The following propositions provide an indisputable foundation for
this appeal:
1. The NFL is a cartel that the Supreme Court has repeatedly
and, just last year, unanimously held to be subject to the restraints
against anticompetitive conduct contained in the Sherman Act. See Am.
Needle, Inc. v. NFL, 130 S. Ct. 2201, 2206–07, 2214 n.7 (2010); Rado-
vich v. NFL, 352 U.S. 445, 452 (1957); see also Mackey v. NFL, 543 F.2d
606, 618 (8th Cir. 1976).
1
2. The collective bargaining agreement (“CBA”), which for many
years bound the cartel members and their employees together, and
which provided the NFL with a limited non-statutory antitrust exemp-
tion, was prematurely and unilaterally terminated by the NFL in the
midst of its agreed-upon term, after which the NFL, also unilaterally,
immediately imposed a lockout of its employees.
3. The NFL lockout is incontrovertibly a “per se unlawful group
boycott and price-fixing agreement in violation of antitrust law.”
D.E. 99 (“Op.”), at 83 (quotation marks omitted). Two district court
opinions have found the NFL’s lockout planning and implementation to
be both unlawful and unconscionable. Id. at 83–84; White v. NFL, —
F. Supp. 2d —, No. 4-92-906, 2011 WL 706319, at *8 (D. Minn. Mar. 1,
2011).
4. In the face of the NFL’s unlawful and injurious conduct, the
employees (the “players”) legally, formally, and officially terminated
their union and all their rights—and responsibilities—as members of a
union. The players’ decision to abandon their union was a legitimate
exercise of their absolute and unequivocal statutory and constitutional
right to “refrain” from “join[ing] . . . labor organizations” or “bar-
2
gain[ing] collectively.” National Labor Relations Act § 7, 29 U.S.C.
§ 157; see also Norris-LaGuardia Act § 2, 29 U.S.C. § 102. Freed from
the constraints imposed on them as members of a union, the players be-
came fully entitled to assert their rights under the antitrust laws.
5. The players’ decision to abandon their union was not only their
lawful right, but the NFL contractually and unequivocally waived the
right to challenge such a decision in the 1993 settlement of White v.
NFL, 836 F. Supp. 1508 (D. Minn. 1993), aff’d, 41 F.3d 402 (8th Cir.
1994)—a position they reaffirmed in 1996, 1998, 2002, and 2006, in the
CBA.
6. Neither the antitrust laws, nor the absence of a CBA or a un-
ion, will or should inhibit the NFL’s ability to proceed to conduct profes-
sional football. See Am. Needle, 130 S. Ct. at 2216 (“Football teams that
need to cooperate are not trapped by antitrust law.”). Indeed, for much
of its history, the NFL has operated its business without a unionized
workforce.
7. The players—1,500 to 2,000 of them—are unquestionably sus-
taining immediate, daily, immeasurable, and irreparable injury as long
as the unlawful boycott remains in place. On the other side of the eq-
3
uity scale, the profitable constituent business enterprises which com-
prise the NFL assert that they will suffer an intangible blow to their
“negotiating position” and “leverage” in collective-bargaining negotia-
tions that no longer exist, and that under federal labor law cannot law-
fully take place. The overwhelming inequity in that imbalance is pat-
ently obvious.
In light of this stark background, the NFL’s defense to the pre-
liminary injunction cannot be sustained. The NFL’s principal line of de-
fense, while beguilingly simple, is simply wrong: the Norris-LaGuardia
Act does not apply in the absence of organized labor activity. And even
if the Act does apply to this antitrust lawsuit, this Court has held—in
virtually identical circumstances—that the Act does not preclude the is-
suance of permanent injunctive relief. See Mackey v. NFL, 543 F.3d 606
(8th Cir. 1976). The NFL’s arguments with respect to the labor exemp-
tion and primary jurisdiction also flatly contradict Supreme Court and
controlling Eighth Circuit precedents, including cases in which the NFL
was a party and argued positions directly contrary to those they now
present to this Court.
4
COUNTER-STATEMENT OF ISSUES
PRESENTED FOR REVIEW
1. Whether the district court erred in concluding that the Norris-
LaGuardia Act does not prohibit an injunction against a group boycott
of nonunionized employees.
 Norris-LaGuardia Act, 29 U.S.C. § 101 et seq.
 Mackey v. NFL, 543 F.3d 606 (8th Cir. 1976)
 Ozark Air Lines, Inc. v. Nat’l Mediation Bd.,

797 F.2d 557 (8th Cir. 1986)
 Bhd. of Locomotive Eng’rs v. Balt. & Ohio R.R.,

310 F.2d 513 (7th Cir. 1962)
 De Arroyo v. Sindicato de Trabajadores Packinghouse,

425 F.2d 281 (1st Cir. 1970)
 Lumber & Sawmill Workers Union v. Cole,

663 F.2d 983 (9th Cir. 1981)
2. Whether the district court erred in rejecting the NFL’s claim
that its group boycott is exempt from the Sherman Act under the im-
plied non-statutory labor exemption.
 Sherman Antitrust Act, 15 U.S.C. § 1 et seq.
 Brown v. Pro Football, Inc., 518 U.S. 231 (1996)
 Mackey v. NFL, 543 F.2d 606 (8th Cir. 1976)
 Powell v. NFL, 930 F.2d 1293 (8th Cir. 1989)
5
3. Whether the district court abused its discretion in declining to
stay or refer this case to the National Labor Relations Board.
 United States v. W. Pac. R.R., 352 U.S. 59 (1956)
 Alpharma, Inc. v. Pennfield Oil Co.,

411 F.3d 934 (8th Cir. 2005)
 Red Lake Band of Chippewa Indians v. Barlow,

846 F.2d 474 (8th Cir. 1988)
 Pittsburgh Steelers, Inc.,

No. 6-CA-23143, 1991 WL 144468 (N.L.R.B.G.C.
June 26, 1991)
4. Whether the district court abused its discretion in assessing
the balance of the equities and the public interest.
 Silverman v. MLB Player Relations Comm., Inc.,

67 F.3d 1054 (2d Cir. 1995)
 Bowman v. NFL, 402 F. Supp. 754 (D. Minn. 1975)
 Jackson v. NFL, 802 F. Supp. 226 (D. Minn. 1992)
6
STATEMENT OF FACTS
In 1968, the National Labor Relations Board (“NLRB”) recognized
the NFLPA as the exclusive bargaining representative of all NFL play-
ers. Mackey v. NFL, 543 F.2d 606, 610 (8th Cir. 1976). Although the
NFL suggests this has continuously been the case, see Br. 4, that is in-
correct: No union existed between 1989 and 1993. Following “organ-
ized strikes in 1982 and 1987” that “failed to win free agency or other
desired changes in League rules,” the NFLPA “chose to decertify as a
union” in 1989, “abandon[ing] collective bargaining” in favor of “anti-
trust litigation.” White v. NFL, 585 F.3d 1129, 1134 (8th Cir. 2009).
The NFLPA’s abandonment of union status in 1989 flowed from
this Court’s decision in Powell v. NFL, which suggested—as the NFL
conceded at the time—that any exemption to the Sherman Act “implied”
from federal labor policy terminated when “the affected employees
ceased to be represented by a certified union.” 930 F.2d 1293, 1303 &
n.12 (8th Cir. 1989). After Powell, the players could obtain the protec-
tions of the Sherman Act only by abandoning their union—which is pre-
cisely what they did. See White, 585 F.3d at 1134.
7
Following dissolution of the union in 1989, individual players pur-
sued litigation against the NFL, resulting in a judgment that the NFL
had violated the antitrust laws. See McNeil v. NFL, Civ. No. 4-90-476,
1992 WL 315292 (D. Minn. Sept. 10, 1992). Individual players also filed
numerous other antitrust actions challenging NFL player rules, includ-
ing White v. NFL, 822 F. Supp. 1389 (D. Minn. 1993), and Jackson v.
NFL, 802 F. Supp. 226 (D. Minn. 1992). Facing liability in these cases,
the NFL entered into a court-approved class action settlement in 1993
with the players in White v. NFL. See Op. 11; see also White v. NFL, 41
F.3d 402, 406 (8th Cir. 1994).
The NFL describes the players’ re-entry into a union in 1993 as a
“resurrection,” Br. 37, but the formation of a new union was a condition
of settlement demanded by the NFL in order to obtain the benefits of
the non-statutory labor exemption, see Op. 11–12; see also App. 342–43
¶ 14 (quoting id. at 364). The players only reluctantly agreed to that
demand, and did so only on the explicit condition that the NFL un-
equivocally waive any challenge to the validity of any future union dis-
solution. See Op. 11–12. At the players’ insistence, this waiver was
8
therefore included as a provision in the White settlement. App. 93–94
¶ 8.
The parties thereafter entered into a CBA that replicated the
terms of the White settlement agreement, with both documents govern-
ing their conduct going forward. Op. 11–12. The waiver provision is
expressly set forth in Article LVII, Section 3 of the most recent CBA.
See App. 331–32. Section 3 provides that, at expiration of the CBA’s
term or at any time thereafter, the players have the right to abandon
the NFLPA as a union. In unambiguous language, that provision bars
the NFL from contending that such a disclaimer is a “sham, pretext, in-
effective, requires additional steps, or has not in fact occurred.” Id. at
332.
As this Court recently observed, “[w]hen the settlement was ap-
proved, both the League and the Association were well aware that the
existence of a collective bargaining relationship would preclude the
players’ antitrust lawsuits.” White, 585 F.3d at 1137. “The applicabil-
ity of the nonstatutory labor exemption was what caused the Associa-
tion to decertify” in 1989, and “it is presumably what led the League to
insist on recertification and resumption of collective bargaining as part
9
of the settlement.” Ibid. The NFL and the union therefore have long
understood—and contractually endorsed—the players’ right to abandon
the union and invoke the protections of the antitrust laws. This under-
standing formed the core of the White settlement in 1993. See App. 93–
94 ¶ 8, 920–21.
The NFLPA and NFL amended and extended the CBA in 1996,
1998, 2002, and 2006, at which point the parties extended it to Febru-
ary 2013. Op. 12; see also App. 95 ¶ 12. In May 2008, however, the
NFL unilaterally renounced the CBA two years before its scheduled ex-
piration, triggering an expedited termination date of March 2011. As
that termination date approached, the players once again confronted
the stark choice that this Court in Powell recognized awaited them: con-
tinue as a union under the protective umbrella of federal labor law, or
abandon the union to return to the protection accorded by the antitrust
laws. The players overwhelmingly decided—twice—to dissolve the un-
ion, as the NFL had known for years they might. Op. 13–14; see also
App. 97 ¶ 18, 347 ¶ 25, 372–412.
The NFL has inaccurately described the dissolution as “condi-
tional.” Br. 6. On the contrary, the players’ vote most assuredly did not
10
say that the union would dissolve “only in the event of a lockout.” Id. at
36. The players voted, unequivocally and unconditionally, to end the
NFLPA’s status as a union as of 4 p.m. on the day the CBA expired. See
App. 97 ¶ 18. The dissolution was complete and effective, and it left the
players unprotected by a union but at liberty to protect their rights un-
der the antitrust laws.
The NFL characterizes the dissolution as “purported” and “tacti-
cal,” and as a “ploy.” Br. 7. Not only are those characterizations false,
but the NFL made repeated and legally binding pledges as part of the
White settlement and in the CBA that it would not raise such objec-
tions. Moreover, every single player in the NFL sacrificed numerous
rights and protections by terminating their union. App. 99 ¶ 27. The
players no longer: (1) have union representation in grievances and dis-
ciplinary appeals, id. at 98 ¶ 24; (2) benefit from union regulation of
player agents, including enforcement of maximum fees charged to play-
ers for their services and union oversight of player-agent disputes in ar-
bitration, id. at 98 ¶ 25; or (3) receive the union’s assistance and advo-
cacy in benefit applications to the NFL Player Retirement Plan and re-
lated plans, including for line-of-duty disability, football degenerative
11
disability, and dementia and other neurological disability, id. at 99
¶ 26. Most fundamentally, they gave up all their rights to collectively
bargain and strike, and “all other labor-law rights that are only avail-
able to unionized employees.” Id. at 99 ¶ 27 (emphases added); see also
29 U.S.C. § 158(a)(5).
Having relinquished these labor-law rights, the players now seek
the protections of the Sherman Act to challenge, as relevant here, the
NFL’s group boycott against all current and potential players.
SUMMARY OF ARGUMENT
The district court did not abuse its discretion in granting the pre-
liminary injunction.
I. The Norris-LaGuardia Act (“NLGA”) does not apply here be-
cause this is not a “labor dispute.” The courts, including this circuit,
have held that a “labor dispute” requires collectively organized employ-
ees engaged in “concerted labor activity.” Ozark Air Lines, Inc. v. Nat’l
Mediation Bd., 797 F.2d 557, 563 (8th Cir. 1986). The NFL does not
cite any case that has ever held that disputes between employers and
individual nonunionized employees fall under the NLGA. Any such
holding would vastly expand the reach of the statute to encompass in-
12
numerable routine employment disputes. Nor does this case “grow out
of” a labor dispute. The statutory definition of “grow out of” makes
clear that the phrase expands the universe of parties who can invoke
the NLGA, but does not expand the NLGA’s reach to cases where no
“labor dispute” exists.
In any event, the injunction complies with the NLGA’s require-
ments. The First, Seventh, and Ninth Circuits have held that Section
4(a) of the NLGA prohibits only injunctions against employee strikes—a
conclusion that is squarely consistent with the text and history of Sec-
tion 4(a). And the district court made the findings required by Section
7. Indeed, this Court held in Mackey v. NFL, 543 F.2d 606 (8th Cir.
1976), that materially indistinguishable findings complied with Section
7. The district court was not required to hold an evidentiary hearing
because the NFL did not timely request one and because, in any event,
there were no disputed material facts. Kan. City S. Trans. Co. v. Team-
sters, 126 F.3d 1059, 1067–68 (8th Cir. 1997).
II. The non-statutory labor exemption does not immunize the
NFL from the antitrust laws because the exemption does not apply after
the collective-bargaining relationship has ended. Brown v. Pro Foot-
13
ball, Inc., 518 U.S. 231, 250 (1996). The exemption is designed to avoid
placing employers in the Catch-22 of violating either the antitrust laws
or the labor laws, but once a union is terminated, the employers do not
violate the labor laws when imposing terms of employment outside the
collective-bargaining process. Additionally, the group boycott is not
protected by the non-statutory labor exemption because it does not con-
cern a mandatory subject of collective bargaining. Powell v. NFL, 930
F.2d 1293, 1297 (8th Cir. 1989).
III. This case should not be stayed while the NLRB considers the
NFL’s meritless unfair-labor-practice charge. The NLRB’s General
Counsel has already validated a disclaimer in precisely analogous cir-
cumstances, and the NFL has waived the right to raise its “sham” ar-
gument. There is no reasonable likelihood that the agency will pursue
the NFL’s charge.
IV. The balance of the equities and the public interest decidedly
favor the injunction. The NFL’s only interest in preserving the lockout
is to use its overwhelming bargaining power to force the players to re-
unionize. By contrast, the lockout is imposing immediate, career-
14
threatening harm on players and may deprive the public of the 2011
professional football season.
STANDARD OF REVIEW
The district court granted a preliminary injunction after consider-
ing “(1) the threat of irreparable harm to the movant; (2) the state of
balance between this harm and the injury that granting the injunction
will inflict on other parties litigant; (3) the probability that movant will
succeed on the merits; and (4) the public interest.” Dataphase Sys., Inc.
v. C L Sys., Inc., 640 F.2d 109, 114 (8th Cir. 1981) (en banc).
This Court reviews that decision for abuse of discretion. Rogers
Group, Inc. v. City of Fayetteville, 629 F.3d 784, 787 (8th Cir. 2010).
The Court reviews the district court’s “material factual findings for
clear error,” Goss Int’l Corp. v. Man Roland Druckmaschinen Aktienge-
sellschaft, 491 F.3d 355, 362 (8th Cir. 2007) (quotation marks omitted),
and may overturn those findings only “where, viewing the record as a
whole,” the Court is “left with the definite and firm conviction that a
mistake has been committed,” United States v. Finley, 612 F.3d 998,
1002 (8th Cir. 2010) (quotation marks omitted). The district court’s le-
gal conclusions are reviewed de novo. Goss, 491 F.3d at 362.
15
This Court has not squarely decided the standard for reviewing
the denial of a stay request under the primary-jurisdiction doctrine.
See Access Telecomms. v. Sw. Bell Tel. Co., 137 F.3d 605, 608 (8th Cir.
1998) (reserving the question); see also United States v. Henderson, 416
F.3d 686, 691 (8th Cir. 2005). The overwhelming majority of other cir-
cuits review primary-jurisdiction issues for abuse of discretion. See,
e.g., GCB Commc’ns, Inc. v. U.S. S. Commc’ns, Inc., — F.3d —, Nos. 09-
17646 & 10-16086, 2011 WL 1613152, at *2 (9th Cir. Apr. 29, 2011); see
also Op. 32–33 n.22.
ARGUMENT
I. THE NORRIS-LAGUARDIA ACT DOES NOT PRECLUDE THE

DISTRICT COURT FROM ENJOINING THE NFL’S ILLEGAL
GROUP BOYCOTT.
With the fullest respect for the seriousness with which this Court
engaged the NLGA questions in the stay order, this is a case in which
the Court’s initial “doubts” (Stay Order 11) are more than adequately
answered by the law. At several fundamental points, the NFL’s reading
of the NLGA conflicts with the plain text and controlling interpretations
of that statute.
16
First, the NFL elides the widely accepted meaning in the NLGA of
“labor dispute,” which confines that term to cases involving collectively
organized employees. Section 13(c), which the Court cited in the stay
order, does not expand the definition of “labor dispute” beyond that set-
tled meaning, but rather confirms that the NLGA applies to secondary
boycotts—precisely the reason the NLGA was enacted. Similarly, the
phrase “grows out of a labor dispute” does not mean that the NLGA ap-
plies when a labor dispute no longer exists. Instead, it describes the
reach of the NLGA when there is a “labor dispute,” extending the stat-
ute’s coverage to cases involving parties other than the immediate par-
ticipants in the dispute.
Second, if there were any ambiguity about the scope of Section 13,
it would be resolved by Section 2. Section 2 prescribes how courts are to
“interpre[t]” the NLGA, 29 U.S.C. § 102, and emphasizes that the stat-
ute was designed to “protect working men in the exercise of organized,
economic power, which is vital to collective bargaining,” Bhd. of R.R.
Trainmen v. Chi. River & Ind. R.R. Co., 353 U.S. 30, 40 (1957). Courts
must take Section 2 “into consideration in interpreting the [NLGA]’s
language and in determining the jurisdiction and authority of federal
17
courts.” Order of R.R. Telegraphers v. Chi. & Nw. Ry. Co., 362 U.S. 330,
335–36 (1960). Yet the NFL fails to consider the import and signifi-
cance of this congressionally enacted mandate. Interpreting the NLGA
as stretching beyond the context of organized labor would amount to a
sweeping expansion of the statute that cannot be reconciled with Sec-
tion 2’s interpretive command.
Third, the NFL’s analysis of Section 4(a) is novel, unprecedented,
and contrary to both the text and purpose of that provision. In the 80
years since the NLGA was enacted, Appellees are aware of no appellate
decision ever holding that lockouts fall within the “no injunction zone” of
Section 4. To the contrary, the First, Seventh, and Ninth Circuits have
concluded that Section 4(a) does not apply to employer conduct at all.
Adherence to the stay order’s preliminary analysis is incorrect as a mat-
ter of statutory construction and would bring this Court into direct con-
flict with the decisions of those circuits.
Fourth, the NFL ignores the controlling decision in Mackey v.
NFL, 543 F.2d 606 (8th Cir. 1976). Mackey is the only decision of this
Court that squarely resolved an NLGA challenge in professional foot-
ball, and it did so against the position advanced by the NFL in this case.
18
In Mackey, this Court rejected the NFL’s argument that the NLGA
barred an injunction against restraints in the player market. This
Court expressed considerable doubt about whether the case involved a
“labor dispute” at all, but then held that the district court made the
findings necessary to satisfy Section 7. See id. at 623. Because the
findings in Mackey are materially indistinguishable from the district
court’s findings here, see Op. 71–81, Mackey forecloses the NFL’s cur-
sory argument that the court violated Section 7. Remarkably, and re-
vealingly, the NFL’s brief does not discuss—or even cite—Mackey.
Fifth, the stay order suggested that the district court might have
erred in failing to hold an evidentiary hearing under Section 7. But this
Court has joined numerous other courts of appeals in concluding that
an evidentiary hearing is unnecessary where the facts are undisputed,
as is the case here. See Kan. City S. Transp. Co. v. Teamsters, 126 F.3d
1059, 1067–68 (8th Cir. 1997). Indeed, the NFL never even made such
a request except in passing references in response to questions at oral
argument. See, e.g., App. 521:4–7.
For all of these reasons, the NFL’s interpretation of the NLGA
cannot withstand scrutiny. Indeed, the NFL’s failures to grapple with
19
the congressionally mandated canon of construction in Section 2 of the
NLGA and the right of employee choice safeguarded by the National
Labor Relations Act (“NLRA”), not to mention its failure to mention the
controlling decision in Mackey, expose fundamental flaws in its ap-
proach. The NFL and its amici devote dozens of pages to “policy” con-
cerns that are said to “emanate” from labor-law statutes. They ask this
Court to invoke these notions of “good labor policy” as a basis for ex-
panding a judicially implied exemption from the plain text of the
Sherman Act. But with respect to the NLGA, the NFL and its amici
urge this Court to adopt an interpretation of the statute that does vio-
lence not only to the language of the statute but also to the very inter-
pretive policy Congress enacted. Whatever this Court’s preliminary
views, the Court should not let stand the interpretation of the NLGA re-
flected in the stay order and the NFL’s brief.
A. THE NORRIS-LAGUARDIA ACT IS INAPPLICABLE

BECAUSE THIS CASE DOES NOT “INVOLVE OR GROW
OUT OF A LABOR DISPUTE.”
The NFL propounds an interpretation of “labor dispute” that
would bring within the NLGA all “disputes between employers and em-
20
ployees” plus any case “grow[ing] out of” such disputes. Br. 21, 23–24.
That interpretation conflicts with binding circuit precedent.
This Court held in Ozark Air Lines, Inc. v. National Mediation
Board that a claim by an employee to obtain a retirement benefit was
not a “labor dispute” within the meaning of the NLGA. 797 F.2d 557,
563 (8th Cir. 1986). Even though the retirement benefit was set forth
in a “labor agreement” negotiated by a union, see id. at 559, the NLGA
was inapplicable because “[n]o strike or other concerted labor activity is
enjoined,” id. at 563.
This Court is bound by Ozark Air Lines and should affirm the dis-
trict court’s decision on that basis alone: This case involves individual
challenges to antitrust violations, not “concerted labor activity.” But
even if the Court were somehow to consider the issue anew, the text,
structure, history, and consistent judicial interpretation of the NLGA
confirm that it applies only to disputes involving collectively organized
employees.
1. The Term “Labor Dispute” Encompasses

Only Disputes Involving Organized Labor.
The NFL seeks to extend the NLGA to all manner of cases “affect-
ing the employer-employee relationship,” Br. 19 (quotation marks omit-
21
ted)—cases the NLGA has never, in 80 years of judicial application,
been held to reach. The irony of the NFL teams’ position cannot be
overstated: Seeking shelter for their antitrust violations, they cling to a
statute that expressly protects workers “from the interference, restraint,
or coercion of employers” in the context of collective bargaining. 29
U.S.C. § 102 (emphasis added). “[B]enefits to organized labor cannot,”
however, “be utilized as a cat’s-paw to pull employers’ chestnuts out of
the antitrust fires.” United States v. Women’s Sportswear Mfrs. Ass’n,
336 U.S. 460, 464 (1949).
a. Text. When Congress enacted the NLGA, the phase “labor dis-
pute” was a term of art connoting disputes involving organized labor—
not any dispute touching any aspect of an employment relationship.
Judicial opinions of the time consistently used the term in this manner.
See, e.g., Texas & N.O. R.R. v. Bhd. of Ry., 281 U.S. 548, 560–62 (1930);
Truax v. Corrigan, 257 U.S. 312, 366 (1921) (Brandeis, J., dissenting);
Pa. Sys. Bd. of Adjustment v. Pa. R.R., 1 F.2d 171, 176 (3d Cir. 1924);
Hall v. Johnson, 169 P. 515, 517 (Or. 1917). Contracts frequently in-
cluded “labor dispute clauses” setting forth the consequences if indus-
trial strife impaired performance. See, e.g., U.S. Cartridge Co. v. United
22
States, 62 Ct. Cl. 214, 229 (1926); L. Vogelstein & Co. v. United States,
56 Ct. Cl. 362, 373 (1921). And legal commentators similarly used “la-
bor dispute” to refer only to organized labor. See, e.g., Felix Frankfurter
& Nathan Greene, The Labor Injunction 134 (1930) (Special Add. 109);
Gerard C. Henderson, Book Review, 36 Harv. L. Rev. 1045, 1045 (1923).
This Court must “assume” that “Congress intended” the term “to
have its established meaning.” McDermott Int’l, Inc. v. Wilander, 498
U.S. 337, 342 (1991). And, indeed, Congress was acutely aware of this
settled meaning: The Senate Report expressly noted that the NLGA
would “limi[t] the injunctive powers of the Federal courts only in the
special type of cases, commonly called labor disputes,” “wherein the
courts have been converted into policing agencies” to “coerce employees
into accepting terms and conditions of employment desired by employ-
ers.” S. Rep. No. 72-163, pt. 1, at 25 (1932) (Special Add. 25) (emphases
added).1
1 The NLRA includes a virtually identical definition of “labor dis-

pute,” 29 U.S.C. § 152(9)—a term used throughout the NLRA to refer
only to disputes involving unions and collective bargaining, not em-
ployment issues more generally. See, e.g., id. § 158(d) (“Any employee
who engages in a strike within any notice period specified in this sub-
[Footnote continued on next page]
23
The NFL attempts to escape the settled meaning of “labor dispute”
by mischaracterizing it as a fully defined term under Section 13(c).
Even when construing a statutory definition, a court “‘cannot forget’”
the “‘ordinary meaning’” of the term being defined. Johnson v. United
States, 130 S. Ct. 1265, 1271 (2010) (quoting Leocal v. Aschroft, 543
U.S. 1, 11 (2004)); see also, e.g., Reves v. Ernst & Young, 494 U.S. 56,
62–63 (1990) (“the phrase ‘any note’ [in the definition of ‘security’]
should not be interpreted to mean literally ‘any note’” because notes are
“used in a variety of settings, not all of which involve investments”).
More fundamentally, however, the NFL misunderstands Section 13(c).
Section 13(c) provides that “[t]he term ‘labor dispute’ includes any
controversy concerning terms or conditions of employment, . . . regard-
less of whether or not the disputants stand in the proximate relation of
employer and employee.” 29 U.S.C. § 113(c). Unlike the other subsec-
tions of Section 13, subsection (c) takes as its operative verb the word
[Footnote continued from previous page]

section . . . shall lose his status as an employee of the employer engaged
in the particular labor dispute . . . .”).
24
“includes”—not “means,” as in subsection (d), or even “shall be held to
[be],” as in subsections (a) and (b). This difference in language matters.
The term “includes” is often invoked to signal that the ordinary
definition of a term is being expanded only in one respect. For example,
a clause in a television-rights agreement providing that “‘Monday Night
Football Games’ shall include any game originally scheduled for a Mon-
day night, regardless of when it is actually played,” could not reasona-
bly be read to encompass NBA games—despite the phrase “any game.”
While “the word ‘including’” might sometimes “indicate that what fol-
lows will be an ‘illustrative’ sampling of the general category that pre-
cedes the word,” “[o]ften” what follows is “broader than the general
category, and must be viewed as limited in light of that category.” Mas-
sachusetts v. EPA, 549 U.S. 497, 556–57 (2007) (Scalia, J., dissenting)
(e.g., “any American automobile, including any truck or minivan” (quo-
tation marks omitted)).
Section 13(c) expands the ordinary definition of “labor dispute” to
“includ[e]” disputes where “the disputants [do not] stand in the proxi-
mate relation of employer and employee”—for example, secondary boy-
cotts. In this respect, it directly responds to the Supreme Court’s deci-
25
sion in Duplex Printing Press Co. v. Deering, 254 U.S. 443 (1921), which
held that the NLGA’s predecessor statute—Section 20 of the Clayton
Act—protects only “activities [that] were directed against the employ-
ees’ immediate employers,” Allen Bradley Co. v. IBEW, 325 U.S. 797,
805 (1945) (emphasis added).
Section 13(c) thus “established that the allowable area of union ac-
tivity was not to be restricted, as it had been in the Duplex case, to an
immediate employer-employee relation.” United States v. Hutcheson,
312 U.S. 219, 231 (1941) (emphasis added); see also Frankfurter &
Greene, supra, at 216 & n.30 (Special Add. 135). But that does not re-
motely suggest that the statute abandoned the well-settled meaning of
“labor dispute” in favor of the sweeping definition advanced by the
NFL—a definition that would extend the statute to all manner of em-
ployment disputes, such as actions seeking enforcement of individual
employment contracts. E.g., N.I.S. Corp. v. Swindle, 724 F.2d 707, 710
(8th Cir. 1984) (upholding preliminary injunction enforcing covenants
not to compete).
b. Section 2. Even if any ambiguity remained as to the meaning
of “labor dispute,” Section 2 of the NLGA conclusively resolves it by in-
26
structing this Court to adhere to the only definition that is consistent
with the statutory purpose: construing the NLGA to reach only disputes
involving “concerted activities for the purpose of collective bargaining or
other mutual aid or protection.” 29 U.S.C. § 102.
Section 2 is not legislative history; it is a congressionally enacted
canon of construction to be followed “[i]n the interpretation of this chap-
ter and in determining the jurisdiction and authority of the courts of the
United States.” 29 U.S.C. § 102. Although Congress sometimes goes
“beyond the principal evil” to which a statute was directed to “cover rea-
sonably comparable evils,” Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Servs., Inc.,
523 U.S. 75, 79 (1998), here Congress expressly declared the policy un-
derlying the NLGA and provided an interpretive command that the Su-
preme Court has instructed courts to obey in construing the statute.
See R.R. Telegraphers, 362 U.S. at 335–36. Section 2 forecloses the
NFL’s attempt to expand the scope of the NLGA far beyond its declared
policy.
c. Legislative History. The NFL also ignores the legislative his-
tory and historical concerns that prompted the NLGA. But “[t]here are
few pieces of legislation where the congressional hearings, committee
27
reports, and the language in the legislation itself more clearly point to
the necessity for giving an Act a construction that will protect the con-
gressional policy the Act adopted.” R.R. Telegraphers, 362 U.S. at 335.
Indeed, even in the face of “unambiguou[s]” statutory language, the Su-
preme Court has emphasized that congressional policy “has particular
application in the construction of labor legislation.” Nat’l Woodwork
Mfrs. Ass’n v. NLRB, 386 U.S. 612, 619 (1967) (emphasis added).
The NLGA was designed “to correct the abuses that had resulted
from the interjection of the federal judiciary into union-management
disputes on the behalf of management.” Boys Mkts., Inc. v. Retail
Clerks Union, 398 U.S. 235, 251 (1970) (emphasis added). In the early
1900s, federal courts had routinely invoked the Sherman Act to enjoin
“all manner of strikes and boycotts under rulings that condemned vir-
tually every collective activity of labor as an unlawful restraint of
trade.” Nat’l Woodwork, 386 U.S. at 620.
Congress responded initially by enacting Section 20 of the Clayton
Act, which “withdrew from the general interdict of the Sherman Law
specifically enumerated practices of labor unions by prohibiting injunc-
tions against them.” Hutcheson, 312 U.S. at 229–30 (emphasis added).
28
Section 20 proved ineffective in stopping anti-strike injunctions against
labor unions, see Frankfurter & Greene, supra, at 173–74 (Special
Add. 114–15), and the Supreme Court held in Duplex that it did not
reach secondary boycotts, 254 U.S. at 471–72. In the NLGA, Congress
“responded directly to the construction of the Clayton Act in Duplex,
and to the pattern of injunctions entered by federal judges.” Burlington
N. R.R. v. Bhd. of Maint. of Way Employes, 481 U.S. 429, 438 (1987).
The history of the NLGA thus confirms that it was focused specifi-
cally on organized labor—and, in particular, the difficulties that labor
unions faced before Lochner-era judges. Contrary to the NFL’s asser-
tion, there is no evidence that Congress intended the NLGA to apply to
disputes in which nonunionized employees act as individuals, whether
alone or as representatives of a class of individuals, rather than through
collective organizations.
d. Precedent. Courts have uniformly recognized that the NLGA’s
scope is limited to disputes involving organized labor. The Supreme
Court has repeatedly made clear that “[t]he Norris-LaGuardia Act re-
moved the fetters upon trade union activities.” Hutcheson, 312 U.S. at
231 (emphasis added); see also NLRB v. City Disposal Sys., Inc., 465
29
U.S. 822, 834 (1984) (“peaceful union activities”); Connell Constr. Co. v.
Plumbers & Steamfitters, 421 U.S. 616, 622 (1975) (“union activities, in-
cluding secondary picketing and boycotts”); Int’l Ass’n of Machinists v.
Street, 367 U.S. 740, 772 (1961) (“activities of labor unions”). The courts
of appeals have also recognized that the NLGA applies only to disputes
involving organized labor.2
The NFL relies on New Negro Alliance v. Sanitary Grocery Co.,
303 U.S. 552 (1938), for its claim that disputes not involving collectively
organized employees fall within the compass of the NLGA. Br. 21–23.
But in New Negro Alliance, the only question the Court addressed was
whether racial discrimination could be the proper subject of a “labor
dispute,” rather than only traditional issues like wages and hours. See
303 U.S. at 561. It did not discuss whether the NLGA applies to em-
ployees who are not collectively organized.
2 The Sixth Circuit, for instance, has explained that a “labor dis-
pute” exists “where an employer and a union representing its employees
are the disputants, and their dispute concerns the interpretation of the
collective bargaining agreement that defines their relationship.” UAW
v. Lester Eng’g Co., 718 F.2d 818, 823 (6th Cir. 1983) (emphasis added);
see also, e.g., United Air Lines, Inc. v. Int’l Ass’n of Machinist & Aero-
space Workers, 243 F.3d 349, 362 (7th Cir. 2001); Emery Air Freight,
Corp. v. Int’l Bhd. of Teamsters, 185 F.3d 85, 89 (2d Cir. 1999).
30
Moreover, the organization in New Negro Alliance was a body of
collectively organized workers modeled on traditional labor unions. It
adopted “the traditional tactics of organized labor” because the Alliance
understood that “‘equal opportunity to work’ was coming to mean oppor-
tunity to engage in collective organizing analogous to that of labor un-
ions.” Kenneth W. Mack, Rethinking Civil Rights Lawyering and Poli-
tics in the Era Before Brown, 115 Yale L.J. 256, 319, 324 (2005). The
Alliance’s unique role was necessitated by the racial prejudice that
prompted most labor unions in the 1930s to either exclude African-
Americans entirely or offer them fewer benefits. See, e.g., Herbert R.
Northrup, Organized Labor and the Negro 2–5 (1944) (Special
Add. 203–06); Harvard Sitkoff, A New Deal for Blacks 127 (2009) (Spe-
cial Add. 219). Thus, in its brief to the Supreme Court, the Alliance—
represented by Thurgood Marshall—explained that “the racial prejudice
of white union members ha[d] discouraged the entrance of colored peo-
ple into established unions,” and that the New Negro Alliance had been
“organized for more effective struggle on a broader base than is the tra-
ditional labor union.” Pet’rs Br. 25, 28 (Special Add. 181, 184) (empha-
ses added).
31
The application of the NLGA to the New Negro Alliance was
therefore fully consistent with Section 2’s command that the statute be
construed in light of the national policy of ensuring each employee “full
freedom of association, self-organization, and designation of representa-
tives of his own choosing, to negotiate the terms and conditions of his
employment.” 29 U.S.C. § 102. As a collectively organized body of Afri-
can-American workers shut out of traditional labor unions, the New
Negro Alliance directly advanced that objective. The decision in New
Negro Alliance does not remotely support the proposition that private
antitrust litigation involving no “concerted labor activity” falls under
the NLGA. Ozark Air Lines, 797 F.2d at 563.
Adopting the NFL’s view of “labor dispute,” by contrast, would
disrupt settled expectations confirmed by more than 80 years of judicial
interpretation of the NLGA. Courts have often enjoined sports leagues
in “controvers[ies] concerning terms or conditions of employment” with
no regard for the NLGA. 29 U.S.C. § 113(c). Justice Douglas, who
served on the Court in every significant NLGA case for 30 years,
reinstated an injunction against the NBA permitting a college athlete
signed in violation of league rules to play. Haywood v. NBA, 401 U.S.
32
1204 (1971) (in chambers). In Law v. NCAA, the Tenth Circuit affirmed
injunctive relief barring the NCAA from enacting salary limitations on
assistant coaching positions. 134 F.3d 1010 (10th Cir. 1998), aff’g 902
F. Supp. 1394, 1408 n.9 (D. Kan. 1995). These examples would plainly
constitute a “labor dispute” under the NFL’s definition.
Moreover, the NFL teams have repeatedly sought injunctive relief
under circumstances that would constitute a “labor dispute” under their
newly discovered, situation-driven definition of the term as extending to
every “controversy” over a “term or condition of employment.” Br. 17;
see, e.g., New Eng. Patriots Football Club, Inc. v. Univ. of Colo., 592
F.2d 1196, 1198 (1st Cir. 1979) (affirming injunction preventing univer-
sity from employing Patriots’ head coach); Houston Oilers, Inc. v.
Neeley, 361 F.2d 36, 38 (10th Cir. 1966) (granting injunction restraining
player “from playing professional football” for other teams); N.Y. Foot-
ball Giants, Inc. v. L.A. Chargers Football Club, Inc., 291 F.2d 471,
474–75 (5th Cir. 1961) (declining to enjoin a player under an employ-
ment contract based on the plaintiff team’s unclean hands).
33
2. A Case Cannot “Grow Out Of” A Labor
Dispute That No Longer Exists.
As a fallback, the NFL contends that this case “grows out of” a la-
bor dispute even if no labor dispute exists. Br. 23–24. Although Section
13(a) of the NLGA offers a complete definition of what it means to “grow
out of” a labor dispute, the NFL ignores that definition and argues that
a case may “grow out of” a terminated labor dispute if there is merely
some relation between the current case and the prior, concluded dis-
pute. That is wrong. As the district court determined, the NFL’s “tem-
poral gloss” has no support in the statute. Op. 58.
The plain text of Section 13(a) provides only that, when a labor
dispute exists, a court action may “grow out of” that dispute even if the
parties are not themselves the disputants, so long as they have some
“indirect interes[t]” in the dispute or relationship to the disputants. 29
U.S.C. § 113(a); see, e.g., United Steelworkers of Am. v. Bishop, 598 F.2d
408, 414–15 (5th Cir. 1979) (applying the NLGA to bar an injunction
remedying a breach of contract caused by an ongoing strike). But Sec-
tion 13(a) nowhere suggests that a case may “grow out of” a labor dis-
pute that no longer exists. It would be inconsistent with the text and
purposes of the NLGA to hold that it applies, even where a union has
34
ceased to exist, merely because the employees were once members of a
union. See supra at 22–27.
That is why the few courts to consider the issue have held that a
case does not “grow out of” a labor dispute that is over. In Philadelphia
Marine Trade Ass’n v. International Longshoremen’s Ass’n, 368 F.2d
932, 934 (3d Cir. 1966), rev’d on other grounds, 389 U.S. 64 (1967), the
Third Circuit considered whether the district court had properly held a
union in contempt for failing to comply with an arbitration award in a
labor dispute. The union claimed entitlement to a jury trial under a
provision of the NLGA that requires a jury trial for contempt proceed-
ings in cases “involving or growing out of a labor dispute,” 18 U.S.C.
§ 3692.
The Third Circuit rejected the union’s argument because the con-
tempt proceeding did not “involve or grow out of a labor dispute”: The
labor dispute “had been settled by the arbitrator’s award” and “was no
longer alive.” 368 F.2d at 934. Rather, the contempt “order arose . . .
from the union’s conduct in failing to carry out the Court’s order” en-
forcing the award. Ibid.; see also Farrand Optical Co. v. Int’l Union of
Elec. Workers, 143 F. Supp. 527, 532 (S.D.N.Y. 1956) (holding that, be-
35
cause a settlement agreement had “terminated the labor dispute,” a
subsequent action enforcing a provision of the settlement agreement did
not “grow out of [the] labor dispute”). It follows that here, where the la-
bor dispute is “no longer alive” by virtue of the union’s dissolution, the
players’ separate antitrust case does not “grow out of” a labor dispute.
Moreover, the NFL is unable to formulate any coherent limiting
principle for its theory that the “grows out of” language is a temporal
extension of the NLGA, as opposed to a description of the scope of the
statute’s coverage during a labor dispute. The NFL argued below
(a) that there was no temporal “stopping point,” App. 619:4, but then (b)
that after some undefined period, a case would no longer “grow out of” a
labor dispute, see id. at 516–18, 617:15–17. This is an unworkable and
implausible reading of the statute. Tellingly, the NFL cannot cite any
case concluding that antitrust claims will be deemed to “grow out of” a
labor dispute depending on whatever a particular judge determines is
the required number of days, months, or hours that must elapse after
the collapse of collective bargaining and abandonment of the labor un-
ion. There is no principled basis on which courts could apply the NFL’s
ill-conceived test.
36
B. THE DISTRICT COURT’S INJUNCTION FULLY COMPLIES
WITH THE NORRIS-LAGUARDIA ACT.
Even if the Court were to conclude that this case does involve a
“labor dispute,” or that it “grows out of” one, the district court’s injunc-
tion should be affirmed. The NLGA “does not forbid the granting of in-
junctions in all cases of labor disputes; in fact, it clearly contemplates
that injunctions may be granted in such cases.” Grace Co. v. Williams,
96 F.2d 478, 480 (8th Cir. 1938). The NLGA draws a distinction be-
tween activities that may never be enjoined—setting forth “an unquali-
fied ‘no injunction’ zone” in Section 4—and other activities that may be
enjoined if the procedural requirements of Section 7 are satisfied. Teji-
dos de Coamo, Inc. v. Int’l Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union, 22 F.3d 8,
14 (1st Cir. 1994) (Boudin, J). Contrary to the NFL’s argument, em-
ployer lockouts are not among the narrow categories of activities enu-
merated in the “no injunction zone” of Section 4, and the injunction in
this case fully complies with Section 7.
1. Section 4(a) Does Not Encompass Lockouts.
Section 4(a) forbids injunctions prohibiting persons from “[c]easing
or refusing to perform any work or to remain in any relation of employ-
ment.” 29 U.S.C. § 104(a). This provision is “merely declaratory of the
37
modern common law right to strike.” Frankfurter & Greene, supra, at
217–18 (Special Add. 136–37), cited as authoritative in, e.g., Sinclair
Ref. Co. v. Atkinson, 370 U.S. 195, 203 n.16 (1962), H.R. Rep. No. 72-
669, at 12 (1932) (Special Add. 51), and S. Rep. No. 72-163, pt. 1, at 8,
21 (Special Add. 8, 21).
a. Text. Section 4(a) differentiates between temporary work stop-
pages (“perform any work”) and permanent work stoppages (“remain in
any relation of employment”). 29 U.S.C. § 104(a) (emphases added).
Thus, the statutory language clarifies that “employee strikes could not
be enjoined either if the employees claimed to have ceased or refused to
work temporarily or if they claimed to have completely ended their em-
ployment relation with their employer.” De Arroyo v. Sindicato de Tra-
bajadores Packinghouse, 425 F.2d 281, 291 (1st Cir. 1970).
“Ceasing or refusing to perform any work” is something only
workers and employees can do; employees “perform” work, employers do
not. See Webster’s New International Dictionary 2349 (1933) (Special
Add. 151) (defining “work” as “[e]xertion of strength or faculties for the
accomplishment of something”). It follows that the phrase “or to remain
in any relation of employment” describes other activities of employees.
38
There is no basis for reading Section 4(a) as referring only to employees
in the temporary-stoppage clause but to both employers and employees
in the permanent-stoppage clause. Instead, the word “employment” in
the latter clause is most naturally read to mean the “state of being em-
ployed.” Webster’s New International Dictionary, supra, at 718 (Special
Add. 150); see also Black’s Law Dictionary 604 (9th ed. 2009) (defining
“employment” as “[w]ork for which one has been hired and is being paid
by an employer” or the “state of being employed”). It is, of course, work-
ers—not employers—who become “employed.”
Moreover, the language of Section 4(a) was drawn from Section 20
of the Clayton Act, which prohibits injunctions against “terminating
any relation of employment,” “ceasing to perform any work or labor,” or
“recommending, advising, or persuading others by peaceful means to do
so.” 29 U.S.C. § 52; see also Frankfurter & Greene, supra, at 217 (Spe-
cial Add. 136) (noting that Section 4(a) is a “paraphrase of like language
in the Clayton Act”). In the years before Congress passed the NLGA,
the Supreme Court had authoritatively construed Section 20 as barring
injunctions against “recommending, advising or persuading others by
peaceful means to cease employment and labor,” thus protecting “peace-
39
able persuasion by employees, discharged or expectant, in promotion of
their side of the dispute.” Am. Steel Foundries v. Tri-City Cent. Trades
Council, 257 U.S. 184, 203 (1921) (emphases added). Other courts like-
wise construed the “relation of employment” language as limited to em-
ployees “peaceably leaving the service of their employer.” See, e.g., Foss
v. Portland Terminal Co., 287 F. 33, 36 (1st Cir. 1923).
“[W]hen judicial interpretations have settled the meaning of an
existing statutory provision, repetition of the same language in a new
statute indicates, as a general matter, the intent to incorporate” those
“judicial interpretations as well.” Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner &
Smith Inc. v. Dabit, 547 U.S. 71, 85 (2006) (quotation marks omitted).
That reasoning applies here and further confirms that Section 4(a) is
limited—as was its predecessor statute—to employee strikes.
If further analysis were needed, the inapplicability of Section 4(a)
is conclusively demonstrated by the fact that more than 1,000 players
are still under contract to NFL clubs, and the NFL has made clear that
those players are, in its view, still in those employment relationships.
See App. 371 (advising players to “structure any alternative employ-
ment so you can return to the Club promptly after a new labor agree-
40
ment is reached”). For example, Patriots owner Robert Kraft has not
terminated Tom Brady from his “employment” relationship with the
New England Patriots, any more than Saints owner Tom Benson has
released Drew Brees from his player contract. Even on their interpreta-
tion of the statute, the NFL teams are not refusing to “remain” in any
employment relationship; they are simply banding together on a con-
certed basis, refusing to deal with these players, and boycotting their
services, until the players accept a smaller share of the revenue their
efforts generate.
Finally, it is difficult to imagine how Section 4(a) could be read to
cover a lockout that applies to free agents or rookies. NFL teams can-
not “refus[e]” to “remain” in an employment relationship that never ex-
isted for rookies and does not exist now for free agents. The word “re-
main” is yet another textual indication that Section 4(a) refers to the
choices workers make to remain in an employment relationship with an
employer or not.
Even if this Court were somehow to accept the NFL’s awkward
and unprecedented reading of the statute, Section 4(a) would (on this
flawed view) at most encompass employers that permanently sever ties
41
with existing employees—but that would not apply to even a single NFL
player. There is no rational reading of Section 4(a) that would shield
the NFL’s boycott.
b. Structure. Section 4(a) is silent as to employers, but other sec-
tions expressly apply to both employers and employees. See De Arroyo,
425 F.2d at 291 (“the drafters did specifically include employers when
protection was intended for them”). Indeed, the very next subsection—
Section 4(b)—applies to “employer[s]” as well as “labor.” 29 U.S.C.
§ 104(b). Section 3, which governs promises to “withdraw from an em-
ployment relation,” goes out of its way to refer to “[e]ither party” to an
employment contract, and to “employer[s]” and “labor” alike. Id. § 103.
“This shows that Congress knew how to be clear” in extending certain
provisions of the NLGA to cover employers, “and it only highlights Con-
gress’s decision to limit” Section 4(a) to injunctions of employee activity.
Abuelhawa v. United States, 129 S. Ct. 2102, 2107 n.4 (2009).
This structural analysis negates one premise of the stay order’s
reasoning, which is that the NLGA is “phrased in an evenhanded man-
ner to protect employer conduct in labor disputes as well as that of un-
ions.” Stay Op. 11 (citing the discussion of the Clayton Act and Section
42
4(b) of the NLGA in Brown v. Pro Football, Inc., 50 F.3d 1041, 1055
(D.C. Cir. 1995), aff’d, 518 U.S. 231 (1996)). While it may be true that
some provisions of the NLGA are “evenhanded” in the sense that they
address both employer and employee conduct, the text of each particu-
lar provision in the statute must be analyzed independently to deter-
mine its scope. It is inappropriate to impose a rule of “even-
handed[ness]” onto every provision of the NLGA when Congress ex-
pressly specified when employer conduct was protected.3
c. Section 2. Even if the text of Section 4(a) were ambiguous, the
plain text of Section 2 commands that courts “interpre[t]” the Act in a
manner to protect employees from “interference, restraint, or coercion”
by employers. 29 U.S.C. § 102. The policy expressed in Section 2 pro-
vides no justification for placing lockouts within the “no injunction”
zone of Section 4(a). To the contrary, immunizing employer lockouts
3 The NFL claims that provisions of the Labor Management Rela-

tions Act permitting the President to enjoin “a threatened or actual
strike or lockout” (29 U.S.C. § 176) and exempting such action from the
NLGA show that Section 4(a) applies to lockouts. See Br. 28. That
makes no sense. The exemption for lockouts is necessary because, in a
unionized workplace, they would otherwise be subject to Section 7 of the
NLGA.
43
from injunctions, even where the procedural protections of Section 7
have been satisfied, is an outright repudiation of that policy. See R.R.
Telegraphers, 362 U.S. at 335–36.
d. Legislative history. In addition to the plain text and structure
of the NLGA, the legislative history confirms that Section 4(a) does not
apply to employer lockouts.
Both House and Senate Reports reflect the clear understanding
that Section 4(a) protects employees’ right to strike—and nothing more.
See, e.g., H.R. Rep. 72-669, at 7 (Special Add. 46) (noting that Section
4(a) prohibits injunctions against employees’ “ceasing to work”); S. Rep.
No. 71-1060, pt. 1, at 8 (1930) (Special Add. 63) (considering an earlier,
identical version of the bill and describing Section 4(a) as “confer[ring]
an absolute right to strike”). And that is precisely how then-Professor
Frankfurter described the pending bill—of which he was a “principal
drafter,” Barry v. United States, 528 F.2d 1094, 1100 (7th Cir. 1976)—
that would become the NLGA upon passage in 1932. See Frankfurter &
Greene, supra, at 217–18 (Special Add. 136–37). As drafter, Frank-
furter’s views are “an unusually persuasive source as to the meaning of
44
the relevant statutory language.” Carcieri v. Salazar, 129 S. Ct. 1058,
1065 n.5 (2009).
The NFL cites a single phrase from the entire history of the
NLGA: the “‘same rule throughout the bill, wherever it is applicable,
applies both to employers and employees.’” Br. 25. That statement is
from a committee’s discussion of “Section 6 of the bill,” S. Rep. No. 72-
163, pt. 1, at 19 (Special Add. 19), which by its terms applies to any par-
ticipant on any side of a labor dispute—including employers, see 29
U.S.C. § 106. The committee report confirms only that the “same rule”
applies to employers and employees where Congress expressly made it
so—which it did in multiple sections of the Act but did not do in Section
4(a). See supra at 42–43.
The NFL complains that Section 4(a) is asymmetrical in its pro-
tection of employees, but that was by congressional design—just as em-
ployees, but not employers, are given the asymmetrical power in Sec-
tion 7 of the NLRA to decide whether an industry will be unionized or
subject to the forces of free-market competition. The NLGA was largely
45
one-sided for the simple reason that courts had been one-sided in issu-
ing injunctions against unions in labor disputes.4
Indeed, the full Senate rejected an amendment to the NLGA pre-
cisely because it could have led courts to shield employers from injunc-
tions of anticompetitive conduct. 75 Cong. Rec. 4766 (1932) (Special
Add. 100). The proposal would have amended Section 2 to state that
“both the employer and the employee shall” be “free from any interfer-
ence, restraint, or coercion in their efforts toward mutual aid or protec-
tion.” Id. at 4762 (Special Add. 96). The Senate rejected this amend-
ment because there was no “obstruction” to employers’ “associating with
each other for the purpose of mutual aid and protection in the prosecu-
tion of their business, so long as they do not violate the antitrust act.”
Id. at 4763 (Special Add. 97) (emphasis added). The defeat of this
amendment “makes it quite clear that in passing the Norris-LaGuardia
Act Congress had no intent to relieve employers of any liability under
4 See, e.g., S. Rep. No. 72-163, pt. 1, at 25 (Special Add. 97) (describ-
ing courts as “aiding employers to coerce employees”); 75 Cong. Rec.
5478 (1932) (Rep. LaGuardia) (“If the courts had administered even jus-
tice to both employers and employees, there would be no need of consid-
ering a bill of this kind now.”).
46
the antitrust laws.” James M. Altman, Antitrust: A New Tool for Or-
ganized Labor?, 131 U. Pa. L. Rev. 127, 153 (1982).
e. Precedent. The Stay Order surmised that the “most apposite
authorities” make Section 4(a) applicable to employer lockouts. In fact,
the “most apposite” authorities are two appellate decisions that exten-
sively discuss the issue and hold that Section 4(a) does not apply to in-
junctions against employers. In De Arroyo, the First Circuit, after re-
viewing the NLGA’s text and history, concluded that Section 4(a) “was
not intended as a protection for employers.” 425 F.2d at 291. The
Ninth Circuit adopted that holding in Lumber & Sawmill Workers Un-
ion v. Cole, explaining that “section 4(a) was not intended as a protec-
tion for employers, and that when employers were intended to be pro-
tected, as in section 4(b), they were specifically named.” 663 F.2d 983,
985 (9th Cir. 1981) (quotation marks omitted). That interpretation, the
Court reasoned, “is supported by section 2 of the [NLGA],” which “com-
mands the courts to apply” a pro-union “policy in the interpretation of
the statute” and “is also consistent with prior Supreme Court pro-
nouncements of the purpose of the Act.” Ibid.
47
And nearly 50 years ago, the Seventh Circuit reached the same
conclusion on even broader grounds, holding that “our study of th[e] his-
tory and the language” of the NLGA “convinces us that the purpose of
Congress in this respect was to protect only employees and unions,” and
that there is “nothing in the statement of policy to indicate any inten-
tion to deny jurisdiction to issue injunctions against employers,” aside
from certain “isolated exceptions.” Bhd. of Locomotive Eng’rs v. Balt. &
Ohio R.R., 310 F.2d 513, 518 (7th Cir. 1962). The “language used,” the
court held, “clearly negatives any intention to recognize any general re-
ciprocity of rights of capital and labor.” Ibid.
This Court could not hold that Section 4(a) is applicable here
without directly conflicting with the First, Seventh, and Ninth Circuits
on the scope of that provision. Nor could it do so consistent with this
Court’s own interpretation of Section 4(a) as “prohibit[ing] federal
courts from enjoining strike activities.” Purex Corp. v. Auto. Employees
Union, 705 F.2d 274, 276 (8th Cir. 1983) (emphasis added); see also
John Morrell & Co. v. United Food & Commercial Workers, 804 F.2d
457, 459 (8th Cir. 1986) (per curiam) (describing Section 4(a) as a “con-
48
gressional limitation on a federal court’s jurisdiction to issue orders en-
joining a strike”).
In stark contrast, the unpublished decision in Chicago Midtown
Milk Distributors v. Dean Foods Co., Nos. 18577 & 18578, 1970 WL
2761 (7th Cir. July 9, 1970) (per curiam)—to which the NFL resorts as
its leading authority—does not even cite Section 4, see App. 549:15–16,
while the prior published decision of the Seventh Circuit in Brotherhood
of Locomotive Engineers squarely held that Section 4(a) does not apply
to employers. The other appellate decisions cited by the NFL do not so
much as suggest that Section 4(a) applies to lockouts. See, e.g., United
Mine Workers v. New Beckley Mining Corp., 895 F.2d 942, 945 (4th Cir.
1990).5 And another of the NFL’s cases analyzes a lockout under Sec-
tion 7, which would have been unnecessary if the court believed that
Section 4(a) applied. See Auto. Transp. Chauffeurs v. Paddock Chrysler-
5 The NFL cites a First Circuit case because of a stray citation to

Section 4 for the demonstrably incorrect dictum that the NLGA “prohib-
its federal courts from issuing injunctions in cases involving labor dis-
putes,” Congreso de Uniones Industriales v. VCS Nat’l Packing Co., 953
F.2d 1, 2 (1st Cir. 1991)—a view the First Circuit clearly does not hold,
see Tejidos de Coamo, 22 F.3d at 14. The First Circuit’s authoritative
construction of Section 4(a) is found in de Arroyo.
49
Plymouth, Inc., 365 F. Supp. 599, 601–02 (E.D. Mo. 1973). Similarly,
the cases cited by the Chamber of Commerce (at 24 n.16) show only that
the NLGA can apply to injunctions against employers, not that injunc-
tions against lockouts fall within the NLGA’s “no injunction zone.”
That is hardly the sort of persuasive authority that might justify adopt-
ing an interpretation of this important federal statute that is flatly in-
consistent with the law of the First, Seventh, and Ninth Circuits.6
2. The Injunction Complies With Section 7 Of

The Norris-LaGuardia Act.
Because the district court’s injunction is not categorically prohib-
ited by Section 4(a), it can easily be sustained under this Court’s deci-
sion in Mackey—a case the NFL apparently has not read or has chosen
to ignore. Br. viii. The latter possibility might be understandable be-
6 The few district-court decisions that offer even colorable support

for the NFL’s position are fatally flawed. The decision in Plumbers &
Steamfitters v. Morris, 511 F. Supp. 1298 (E.D. Wash. 1981), to the ex-
tent its brief citation of Section 4 suggests that lockouts might fall un-
der Section 4(a), was promptly abrogated by the Ninth Circuit in Lum-
ber & Sawmill Workers. And the opinion in Clune v. Publishers Ass’n,
214 F. Supp. 520 (S.D.N.Y. 1963), block-quoted multiple subsections of
Section 4 and held, with no analysis of text or history, only that it was
“doubtful” that the lockout there could be enjoined.
50
cause Mackey forecloses the NFL’s contention that Section 7 bars the
district court’s injunction.
a. As a threshold matter, the NFL forfeited its Section 7 argu-
ment when it did not raise that argument below. See Drywall Tapers &
Pointers v. Operative Plasterers & Cement Masons, 537 F.2d 669, 674
(2d Cir. 1976) (finding no Section 7 violation where “[a]ppellants were
obviously content to rest on [affidavit] evidence, as they never requested
a further hearing”); Ry. Express Agency, Inc. v. Bhd. of Ry. Clerks, 437
F.2d 388, 395 (5th Cir. 1971) (finding no Section 7 violation where “ap-
pellants appear to have waived oral testimony by witnesses”). The NFL
did not cite Section 7 in its district-court briefing, see App. 634–90,
much less make an “express request” for an evidentiary hearing, as it
now claims, Br. 3. Instead, its opposition relied solely on the Section
4(a) argument. See App. 655–57. The NFL first mentioned Section 7
well into oral argument, and only in response to questioning from the
district court. See id. at 521:4–7.7
7 Although the NFL included a fleeting reference to Section 7 in a

footnote of its opposition brief in the later-filed Eller case, even there it
made no request for a hearing. See App. 1070 n.2.
51
It was the NFL’s tactical choice not to ask for discovery, cross-
examination, or an evidentiary hearing until midway through oral ar-
gument in the district court, despite having had nearly a month to
make such a request. Statutory rights like the right to a Section 7 hear-
ing are plainly waivable. See Grace Healthcare v. U.S. Dep’t of Health
& Human Servs., 603 F.3d 412, 416 n.4 (8th Cir. 2009).8 The NFL can-
not manufacture reversible error through a belated demand for a hear-
ing. See Twin Cities Galleries, LLC v. Media Arts Group, Inc., 476 F.3d
598, 602 n.1 (8th Cir. 2007) (“Because this point was raised for the first
time at oral argument, and has not been briefed, it is waived.”).
b. In any event, this Court has already rejected the Section 7 ar-
guments advanced by the NFL. In Mackey, this Court affirmed an in-
8 “Norris-LaGuardia is a limit on remedial authority, not subject

matter jurisdiction.” Drywall Tapers & Pointers v. Natasi & Assocs.
Inc., 488 F.3d 88, 93 (2d Cir. 2007) (quotation marks omitted). The Act
“is facially a limitation upon the relief that can be accorded, not a re-
moval of jurisdiction over ‘any case involving or growing out of a labor
dispute.’” Rockwell Int’l Corp. v. United States, 549 U.S. 457, 469–70
(2007) (quoting 29 U.S.C. § 104); see also Avco Corp. v. Int’l Ass’n of Ma-
chinists, 390 U.S. 557, 561 (1968) (“Any error in granting or designing
relief does not go to the jurisdiction of the court.” (quotation marks
omitted)). Any historical suggestion to the contrary, e.g., Donnelly Gar-
ment Co. v. Dubinsky, 154 F.2d 38 (8th Cir. 1946), has accordingly been
superseded.
52
junction of an NFL free-agency rule that violated the Sherman Act. See
543 F.2d at 623. The NFL opposed the injunction on the ground that
the district court “fail[ed] to comply with the limitations” contained in
the NLGA, contending, as here, that the court had not made the requi-
site findings that the defendants committed “unlawful acts” or that
“public officers” were unable to “furnish adequate protection.” See NFL
Mackey Br. 26, 28 (Special Add. 261, 263) (quoting 29 U.S.C. § 107).
This Court nonetheless upheld the injunction under Section 7 because
“the district court made the required findings of fact”—including that
the players had “been injured in their business or property” based on
“the effect of the [free-agency rule] upon player movement and salaries.”
543 F.2d at 622–23.
Mackey is controlling in this case. Here, as in Mackey, the district
court made detailed factual findings that the players are suffering ir-
reparable harm to “their business or property,” 543 F.2d at 623, and
those findings are not clearly erroneous, see infra at 84–86. Indeed, the
findings in Mackey mirror the findings made below. Compare Mackey v.
NFL, 407 F. Supp. 1000, 1006–07, 1011 (D. Minn. 1975), with Op. 71–
81.
53
The NFL claims that the players cannot obtain an injunction un-
der Section 7 absent a showing of “violence.” But the plain text of Sec-
tion 7 requires a finding only of “unlawful acts,” 29 U.S.C. § 107(a), not
“violence,” see Tejidos de Coamo, 22 F.3d at 13–14. There is no question
that the players have challenged “unlawful acts” here; indeed, the NFL
has not even argued that its lockout complies with either the antitrust
laws or the players’ tort-based and contractual rights. See App. 60–68.
And again, the NFL’s argument is foreclosed by Mackey, which involved
the same type of injury as this case—and certainly did not involve “vio-
lence” or damage to physical property. See 543 F.2d at 623. Mackey is
consistent in this respect with numerous decisions of this Court and
others that have affirmed injunctions under Section 7 even absent any
allegation of violent acts.9
c. The Court’s stay order suggests that the district court was re-
quired to hold an evidentiary hearing under Section 7 with live testi-
9 See Kan. City S. Transport Co., 126 F.3d at 1067–68; Drywall Ta-
pers & Pointers, 537 F.2d at 674; see also, e.g., Tejidos de Coamo, 22
F.3d at 13–14; Wilkes-Barre Pub. Co. v. Newspaper Guild of Wilkes-
Barre, Local 120, 647 F.2d 372, 379 n.5 (3d Cir. 1981); Carter v. United
States, 135 F.2d 858, 862 (5th Cir. 1943).
54
mony and cross-examination. Stay Order 11 n.*. That is not correct.
An evidentiary hearing is “unnecessary” when “the relevant facts” are
“undisputed.” Kan. City S. Trans., 126 F.3d at 1067–68.10 Here, the
facts supporting the district court’s findings were set forth in undis-
puted affidavits submitted by the players. The NFL “offered little, if
any, evidence to directly rebut the Players’ affidavits.” D.E. 117 (“Stay
Op.”), at 13.
* * *
After a five-hour hearing and an exhaustive inquiry into the re-
cord, the district court made the precise findings endorsed by Mackey,
while following a procedure this Court has routinely approved. There is
no procedural error.11
10 Accord Otis Elevator Co. v. Int’l Union of Elevator Constructors,

408 F.3d 1, 6–7 n.5 (1st Cir. 2005); Int’l Ass’n of Machinists v. Pano-
ramic Corp., 668 F.2d 276, 290 (7th Cir. 1981); Drywall Tapers & Point-
ers, 537 F.2d at 674; Ry. Exp. Agency, 437 F.2d at 395.
11Even if this Court were otherwise to agree with the NFL’s argu-
ments, it is limited to seeking a remand for additional factual findings
under Section 7 of the NLGA.
55
II. THE IMPLIED LABOR EXEMPTION TO THE ANTITRUST LAWS
DOES NOT PROTECT THE NFL’S BOYCOTT.
The NFL teams next contend that their boycott is immunized from
antitrust scrutiny under an implied, judge-made “non-statutory labor
exemption.” Connell Constr., 421 U.S. at 622. That argument is fore-
closed by Brown v. Pro Football, Inc., 518 U.S. 231 (1996), Powell v.
NFL, 930 F.2d 1293 (8th Cir. 1989), and Mackey, 543 F.2d 606. Those
cases make clear that any implied exemption to the Sherman Act does
not apply where the collective-bargaining relationship has ended.
That is the precise interpretation of the federal labor laws that the
NFL itself endorsed in Brown. The NFL represented to the Supreme
Court that, “[o]nce the employees give up their bargaining rights, the
employers could not take any affirmative steps, exercise their economic
weapons under the bargaining process.” See Brown Tr. 25 (Special Add.
370). Counsel for the NFL also engaged in the following exchange:
The Court: [I]n this respect you are agreeing, if I under-

stand you correctly, totally with Judge Edwards [in the rul-
ing below] on that, it ends when the union decertifies so that
there’s no more bargaining regime?
[Counsel]: I would like to add this wrinkle, Your Honor, that

certainly after the union decertifies . . . , affirmative exercise
of economic weapons taken by the employers is not protected
by the nonstatutory labor exemption. There is a question
56
which the courts have not addressed about what happens to
steps that the employers have taken prior to decertification
that remain in place after the union decertifies.
Id. at 31–32 (Special Add. 376–77) (emphasis added). That position was
correct then, and it is correct now.
A. THE NON-STATUTORY LABOR EXEMPTION DOES NOT

APPLY WHERE THERE IS NO COLLECTIVE-BARGAINING
RELATIONSHIP.
The non-statutory labor “exemption lasts” only until the “collapse
of the collective-bargaining relationship.” Brown, 518 U.S. at 250. That
was the stated view of at least eight Justices in Brown, all three D.C.
Circuit judges in Brown, and three judges of this Court in Powell.
1. The non-statutory labor exemption is an “implied” repeal of the
Sherman Act where imposing antitrust liability would conflict with
“federal labor statutes.” Brown, 518 U.S. at 236. “[T]he only permissi-
ble justification for a repeal by implication is when the earlier and later
statutes are irreconcilable.” Morton v. Mancari, 417 U.S. 535, 550
(1974). Courts have therefore applied the non-statutory labor exemp-
tion only where “it would be difficult, if not impossible,” to enforce the
labor laws if the antitrust laws applied. Brown, 518 U.S. at 237.
57
The NLRA’s requirement that employers and unions bargain over
terms of employment, for instance, would be futile if any resulting
agreement were deemed an antitrust violation. See Amalgamated Meat
Cutters v. Jewel Tea Co., 381 U.S. 676, 691 (1965) (plurality). Similarly,
because the labor laws allow multiemployer bargaining, business com-
petitors are permitted to act jointly in bargaining with a union even
where the Sherman Act would otherwise bar them from doing so. See
United Mine Workers v. Pennington, 381 U.S. 657, 664 (1965).
When employees are not represented by a union, however, there is
no conceivable conflict between labor law and the Sherman Act because
the labor-law provisions governing collective bargaining do not apply.
Faced with no conflict, a court must enforce the antitrust laws as writ-
ten. See, e.g., McNeil v. NFL, 764 F. Supp. 1351, 1358 (D. Minn. 1991);
NBA v. Williams, 857 F. Supp. 1069, 1078 (S.D.N.Y. 1994), aff’d, 45
F.3d 684 (2d Cir. 1995).
2. The NFL contends that, under Brown and Powell, the non-
statutory exemption continues to apply until “some point” (Br. 48) that
is “‘sufficiently distant in time and in circumstances from the collective-
58
bargaining process.’” Id. at 41 (quoting Brown, 518 U.S. at 250). That
is wrong.
In Brown, the issue was whether the non-statutory exemption
permits members of a multiemployer bargaining group to jointly im-
plement their “last best bargaining offer” after reaching impasse with
the union. 518 U.S. at 234. In holding that it does, the Supreme Court
hewed closely to the rationale for the exemption: “to give effect to fed-
eral labor laws and policies and to allow meaningful collective bargain-
ing to take place.” Id. at 237.
Because of the “direc[t]” and “consider[able]” labor-law regulation
of their conduct following impasse, employers in a multiemployer bar-
gaining unit would find themselves with no lawful option unless the
non-statutory labor exemption shielded the imposition of post-impasse
terms from antitrust scrutiny. 518 U.S. at 238. “If all impose terms
similar to their last joint offer, they invite an antitrust action premised
upon identical behavior (along with prior and accompanying conversa-
tions).” Id. at 241. But “[i]f any, or all, of them individually impose
terms that differ significantly from that offer, they invite an unfair la-
bor practice charge.” Id. at 241–42.
59
That tension between labor law and antitrust law does not exist
where, as here, the parties “have moved beyond collective bargaining
entirely.” Op. 45. Unlike Brown, where a union still existed, NFL clubs
that “individually impose terms” or take other individual action would
not “invite an unfair labor practice charge.” 518 U.S. at 241–42. By
disbanding their union and terminating the collective-bargaining proc-
ess, the players have given up the right to charge any individual team
with an unfair labor practice for refusing to bargain collectively in good
faith. Brown, 50 F.3d at 1057. The NFL teams are not forced to choose
between complying with federal labor law and complying with the
Sherman Act because their labor-law obligations to the union have been
discharged, and their implied immunity from the antitrust laws has
ended.
The “sufficiently distant” language in Brown addressed the en-
tirely different issue whether, “after impasse but within the still-
existing collective bargaining framework, it might be appropriate to lift
the protection of the non-statutory exemption.” Op. 45 n.31 (emphasis
added). The Supreme Court acknowledged that some cases might be
“sufficiently distant in time and in circumstances from the collective-
60
bargaining process that a rule permitting antitrust intervention would
not significantly interfere with that process,” but it deferred any deci-
sion “whether, or where, within . . . extreme outer boundaries to draw
that line.” Brown, 518 U.S. at 250. The Court identified “collapse of the
collective-bargaining relationship, as evidenced by decertification of the
union,” as such an “extreme outer boundar[y],” ibid. (emphases added)—
thus confirming that the non-statutory exemption would no longer ap-
ply once the union ceased to exist. The NFL is simply wrong to claim
that the Supreme Court held—or even suggested—that the exemption
endures for some unspecified period after de-unionization.
The NFL’s reliance on Powell is similarly misplaced. Like Brown,
Powell held that the non-statutory exemption continues to apply even
when the parties reach impasse during an “ongoing collective bargain-
ing relationship.” 930 F.2d at 1303 (emphasis added). This Court ac-
knowledged, as the Supreme Court had, that the exemption might
eventually terminate notwithstanding the collective-bargaining rela-
tionship, ibid., but it did not even begin to suggest (let alone hold) that
the exemption would continue even after the collective-bargaining rela-
tionship had ended. To the contrary, Powell suggested, and the NFL
61
expressly conceded, that “the Sherman Act could be found applicable” if
“the affected employees ceased to be represented by a certified union.”
Id. at 1303 n.12.12
The dissent observed that, under the Court’s opinion, “the labor
exemption will continue until the bargaining relationship is terminated
either by a NLRB decertification proceeding or by abandonment of bar-
gaining rights by the union.” Powell, 930 F.2d at 1305 (Heaney, J., dis-
senting) (emphases added). That is exactly what happened on remand
in Powell. See White v. NFL, 585 F.3d 1129, 1137 (8th Cir. 2009). The
NFL indisputably understood after Powell what it now purports to dis-
pute: The non-statutory exemption does not apply after collective bar-
gaining has ended.
3. Unable to avoid the clear command of Brown and Powell, the
NFL has marshaled a series of “labor law policies” that purportedly jus-
tify repeal of the Sherman Act for their boycott. According to the NFL,
12 As this Court recognized in Powell, the NFL conceded, as it did

later in Brown, that the non-statutory exemption applied only where
“the affected employees continue to be represented by a labor union
vested with collective bargaining authority under the labor laws.” NFL
Powell Br. 17–18 (Special Add. 310–11).
62
“multiemployer bargaining could not function” if previously unionized
employees could assert antitrust claims after abandoning their union
because permitting such claims would “impede, stifle, and hinder the
collective bargaining process from its outset.” Br. 45. That view of labor
policy conflicts with what the NFL told the Supreme Court in Brown
and, in any event, contains a number of unstated and unproven as-
sumptions, including that a union’s disclaimer is merely a step to ad-
vance the employees’ bargaining position that can easily be undone at a
convenient opportunity. Precisely the opposite is true.
When a union dissolves, workers abandon their rights under the
labor laws to challenge, as unfair labor practices, the refusal of individ-
ual employers to bargain collectively. See NLRB v. Gissel Packing Co.,
395 U.S. 575, 596 (1969); Dow Chem. Co. v. NLRB, 660 F.2d 637, 657
(5th Cir. 1981). Thus, following the disclaimer, individual employers
are free to impose any terms and conditions they desire without collec-
tive bargaining, so long as they do not conspire with competitors in vio-
lation of the antitrust laws. They can fire employees, lower wages, and
alter workplace rules in fundamental ways that otherwise would violate
63
the NLRA’s ban on unfair labor practices if the employees were still un-
ionized. See Op. 47–48; see also supra at 60.
The decision to disclaim is a weighty choice for another reason—it
can be very difficult to reverse. When employees are organized as a un-
ion, their employer cannot refuse to collectively bargain with that union
without committing an unfair labor practice. 29 U.S.C. § 158(a)(5). But
when non-unionized employees attempt to reconstitute their union, the
employer has the right to force them to seek an NLRB-supervised elec-
tion, even if a majority of those employees have already signed authori-
zation cards recognizing the union. See Linden Lumber Div. v. NLRB,
419 U.S. 301, 309–10 (1974). There is no guarantee that the workplace
can be reorganized. A disclaimer is “not a mere tactic because it results
in serious consequences for the Players.” Op. 40.
The NFL’s view of labor policy is premised on its belief that the
right of the majority of a workforce to change or remove a union is un-
available once the union engages in collective bargaining. That position
directly conflicts with the rights guaranteed to workers by Section 7 of
the NLRA. See BE & K Constr. Co. v. NLRB, 23 F.3d 1459, 1462 (8th
Cir. 1994) (“The right to refrain from joining or assisting a union is an
64
equally protected right with that of joining or forming a union.”). In-
deed, the NLRB has held that a valid disclaimer can occur during the
term of a CBA—and that, if such a disclaimer occurs, the employees
have the right to elect a new union that would not be bound by the
predecessor’s CBA. See Am. Sunroof Corp., 243 N.L.R.B. 1128, 1129–30
(1979). It follows a fortiori that a disclaimer on or after expiration of
the CBA—in this case, by early termination of the CBA by the em-
ployer—is both permitted and protected by Section 7 of the NLRA.
Moreover, it is unlawful under the NLRA for an employer and un-
ion to negotiate a new CBA after the parties are given notice that a ma-
jority of workers no longer authorize the union to represent them in col-
lective bargaining. See Dura Art Stone, Inc., 346 N.L.R.B. 149, 149 n.2
(2005); see also Levitz Furniture Co., 333 N.L.R.B. 717, 724 (2001).
Here the NFL plainly, and unlawfully, seeks to impose a collective-
bargaining obligation on an unwilling group of workers for the singular
purpose of escaping liability for a blatant violation of the antitrust laws.
See Int’l Ladies’ Garment Workers’ Union v. NLRB, 366 U.S. 731, 737
(1961) (“There could be no clearer abridgment” of Section 7 of the NLRA
than “impressing [a union] upon the nonconsenting majority.”).
65
The NFL teams also contend that, absent an exemption, they
would be “instantly expos[ed]” to “antitrust liability for bargaining-
related conduct or agreements.” Br. 45. That, too, is plainly not true.
Pre-disclaimer activity would be protected by the non-statutory exemp-
tion under Brown; post-disclaimer activity would be regulated by the
antitrust laws but would not put the teams in any “Catch-22” because
their labor-law obligations would be relieved. They could impose terms
or conditions of employment individually without any risk of liability
under the labor or antitrust laws, and they could engage in concerted
activity to impose rules of their business that steer clear of antitrust
violations. See Am. Needle, Inc. v. NFL, 130 S. Ct. 2201, 2216 (2010)
(“The fact that NFL teams . . . must cooperate in the production and
scheduling of games . . . provides a perfectly sensible justification for
making a host of collective decisions.”).
By contrast, permitting antitrust immunity to endure even after
the collective-bargaining relationship has ended would create a “law
free” zone for workers’ rights. If the non-statutory labor exemption ap-
plied even to nonunionized employees for some unspecified period after
they dissolved their union, they would have no remedy under the labor
66
laws or the antitrust laws—leaving employers free to engage in collu-
sive activity to depress wages or to impose other anticompetitive re-
straints. Such a broad-ranging and standardless exemption from the
antitrust laws cannot be reconciled with the policies that underlie the
non-statutory exemption or the need for clear rules in this area. Pac.
Bell Tel. Co. v. Linkline Commc’ns, Inc., 129 S. Ct. 1109, 1120–21 (2009)
(“We have repeatedly emphasized the importance of clear rules in anti-
trust law.”). That is precisely why Brown identified the definitive end of
the collective-bargaining process as the “extreme outer boundaries”
where the exemption no longer applies. 518 U.S. at 250.13
Finally, the NFL protests that deeming multiemployer lockouts to
be antitrust violations will violate the “employer right granted by labor
law” to impose a lockout. Br. 51. Unlike the statutory rights to union-
ize and strike, see 29 U.S.C. §§ 157, 163, the ability of an employer to
lock out employees is not guaranteed by the NLRA or any other statute.
13 Only the rare union membership would forsake collective bargain-

ing for protection under the Sherman Act, because most employee mar-
kets have workers who can readily be replaced; their unions are neces-
sary to limit “wage competition” that “drives wages down.” Douglas D.
Leslie, Essay: Brown v. Pro Football, 82 Va. L. Rev. 629, 645 (1996)
(contrasting sports labor markets).
67
Instead, employers’ ability to lockout employees is implied as a counter-
balance to the express right to strike. See, e.g., Am. Ship Bldg. v.
NLRB, 380 U.S. 300, 315 (1965); NLRB v. Cont’l Baking Co., 221 F.2d
427, 436 (8th Cir. 1955) (stating that a lockout could “be justified as the
assertion of the employer’s corollary to the Union’s right to strike”).
Consistent with these holdings and the NLRA, the foremost purpose of
both the NLGA and the non-statutory labor exemption is to protect un-
ion activities, including strikes, from antitrust scrutiny, while giving
only derivative protection to employers’ right to lock out. See Connell
Constr., 421 U.S. at 621–22; Hutcheson, 312 U.S. at 236. Thus, once
employees renounce their union and give up their labor-law right to
strike collectively without violating the antitrust laws, the employer’s
corresponding ability to lock out necessarily loses its derivative protec-
tion.14
14 The NFL’s argument that allowing unionized employees to dis-

claim their collective-bargaining rights would give employees more
rights than employers within multiemployer bargaining comes three
decades too late. In Charles D. Bonanno Linen Service, Inc. v. NLRB,
the Supreme Court approved the NLRB’s approach of allowing employ-
ers to withdraw from multiemployer bargaining units only in “unusual
circumstances.” 454 U.S. 404, 411–12 (1982). In contrast, employees
68
B. THE LOCKOUT DOES NOT CONCERN A “MANDATORY
SUBJECT OF BARGAINING.”
The district court also correctly concluded that the NFL’s boycott
is not immune from the Sherman Act because “[a] lockout is not a sub-
stantive term or condition of employment.” Op. 86. The district court’s
reasoning followed directly from the Supreme Court’s and this Court’s
precedents.
In Amalgamated Meat Cutters v. Jewel Tea, a plurality of the Su-
preme Court concluded that an hours restriction was “so intimately re-
lated to wages, hours and working conditions that the unions’ successful
attempt to obtain that provision . . . falls within the protection of the
national labor policy and is therefore exempt from the Sherman Act.”
381 U.S. at 689–90. Thus, in Mackey, this Court held that “federal la-
bor policy is implicated sufficiently to prevail” only where the “allegedly
collusive activity concerns a mandatory subject of collective bargaining.”

may always exercise their Section 7 right to withdraw from collective
bargaining, even in the multiemployer context, and their decision to do
so has been never been subject to an “unusual circumstances” standard.
Cf. id. at 421 (Burger, C.J., dissenting) (arguing that the “unusual cir-
cumstances” rule “create[s] an artificial and unwarranted imbalance of
economic weapons”).
69
543 F.2d at 614 (citing Jewel Tea) (emphasis added). This Court reaf-
firmed that rule in Powell, concluding that the exemption extended to
the post-impasse imposition of terms on “a mandatory subject of collec-
tive bargaining.” 930 F.2d at 1303. And the terms imposed in Brown
also related to a mandatory subject of bargaining. See 518 U.S. at 250.
The group boycott here does not concern a mandatory subject of
collective bargaining such as “wages, hours, and other terms and condi-
tions of employment.” 29 U.S.C. § 158(d). Jewel Tea, Mackey, Powell,
and Brown foreclose the NFL’s attempt to secure an antitrust exemp-
tion for conduct and practices outside mandatory subjects of collective
bargaining.
III. THE DISTRICT COURT DID NOT ABUSE ITS DISCRETION IN

DECLINING TO STAY THIS LITIGATION UNDER THE PRIMARY-
JURISDICTION DOCTRINE.
The NFL contends that the district court should have stayed this
case to await the NLRB’s resolution of an unfair-labor-practice charge
filed by the NFL in an attempt to delay this litigation. Br. 13. The
NFL’s argument is utterly without merit. This antitrust suit does not
require the expertise of the NLRB, and the NFL’s charge has no chance
of succeeding.
70
A. THE NFL MISSTATES THE STANDARD FOR APPLYING
THE PRIMARY-JURISDICTION DOCTRINE.
The federal courts have a “virtually unflagging obligation” to “ex-
ercise the jurisdiction given them.” Colo. River Water Conservation
Dist. v. United States, 424 U.S. 800, 817 (1976). The Supreme Court
has recognized a narrow exception to this rule where a case involves an
issue within an agency’s “special competence.” Reiter v. Cooper, 507
U.S. 258, 268 (1993). In such a case, “a court otherwise having jurisdic-
tion” may “stay or dismiss the action pending the agency’s resolution” of
that issue. Alpharma, Inc. v. Pennfield Oil Co., 411 F.3d 934, 938 (8th
Cir. 2005). This Court is “always reluctant” to invoke this “primary ju-
risdiction” doctrine, however, “because added expense and undue delay
may result.” Access Telecomms. v. Sw. Bell Tel. Co., 137 F.3d 605, 608
(8th Cir. 1998).
The primary-jurisdiction doctrine is a discretionary doctrine that
permits (but does not require) a district court to defer to an agency.
Wagner & Brown v. ANR Pipeline Co., 837 F.2d 199, 201 (5th Cir.
1988); see also supra at 16. The doctrine can be invoked only in “the
rare case requiring expert consideration and uniformity of resolution.”
Alpharma, 411 F.3d at 939 (quotation marks omitted); see also, e.g.,
71
United States v. W. Pac. R.R., 352 U.S. 59, 64 (1956); DeBruce Grain,
Inc. v. Union Pac. R.R., 149 F.3d 787, 789 (8th Cir. 1998). And even
then, the district court may properly take account of the “added expense
and delay” that would result from a stay. Red Lake Band of Chippewa
Indians v. Barlow, 846 F.2d 474, 476 (8th Cir. 1988) (quotation marks
omitted); see also, e.g., Alpharma, 411 F.3d at 939 (same).
The NFL completely ignores these settled standards. Instead, it
relies on Ricci v. Chicago Mercantile Exchange, 409 U.S. 289 (1973), as
articulating a more permissive primary-jurisdiction standard in anti-
trust cases. See Br. 32. Yet the NFL never raised this argument in the
district court; instead, it agreed that the standard turns on whether an
issue “demands uniform resolution by the expert agency.” App. 662.
The district court did not abuse its discretion by considering the pri-
mary-jurisdiction issue under the standard both parties advanced.
In any event, the NFL’s claim of a special standard for antitrust
claims is foreclosed by precedent. The Supreme Court has consistently
applied the expertise-and-uniformity standard in antitrust cases. See,
e.g., United States v. Radio Corp. of Am., 358 U.S. 334, 346 (1959); Far
E. Conference v. United States, 342 U.S. 570, 574–75 (1952). So have
72
the courts of appeals. See, e.g., Crystal Clear Commc’ns, Inc. v. Sw. Bell
Tel. Co., 415 F.3d 1171, 1179 (10th Cir. 2005); Am. Ass’n of Cruise Pas-
sengers v. Cunard Line, Ltd., 31 F.3d 1184, 1186–87 (D.C. Cir. 1994).
Ricci does not even use the words “primary jurisdiction,” let alone
purport to abandon the well established test. Rather, in discussing
whether “agency adjudication of [the] dispute [would] be a material aid”
to the court, Ricci relied on cases, including Far East Conference and
Western Pacific Railroad, that applied the traditional expertise-and-
uniformity standard. 409 U.S. at 305; see also W. Pac. R.R. Co., 352
U.S. at 64. The NFL’s attempt to dilute the primary-jurisdiction stan-
dard in antitrust cases should be rejected.
B. THE DISTRICT COURT AND THIS COURT HAVE THE

INSTITUTIONAL COMPETENCE AND CAPABILITY TO
DECIDE THIS CASE.
The NFL concedes, as it must, that the primary-jurisdiction doc-
trine does not preclude a court from “decid[ing] labor law issues that
emerge as collateral issues in antitrust litigation.” Br. 31; see also, e.g.,
Connell Constr., 421 U.S. at 626. This Court need go no further to re-
ject the NFL’s primary-jurisdiction argument: The players seek relief
under an “independent federal remed[y],” Connell Constr., 421 U.S. at
73
626, and labor-law issues are relevant (if at all) “only as a defense in an
antitrust and breach of contract action properly filed” in the district
court, Op. 35 n.23. The NFL cannot transform this antitrust case into a
labor dispute merely by declining to argue anything but labor issues.
Even if the non-statutory labor exemption were, as the NFL
claims, “anything but collateral,” Br. 31, that issue does not implicate
the NLRB’s expertise because “legal question[s] [are] for the courts to
determine.” ICC v. Chi., Rock Island & Pac. R.R., 501 F.2d 908, 913
(8th Cir. 1974). “The nonstatutory labor exemption is a judicially cre-
ated doctrine, and the definition of its scope and application must be
made by the federal courts, not the NLRB.” White v. NFL, 836 F. Supp.
1458, 1500 (D. Minn. 1993). This undoubtedly explains why the Su-
preme Court and this Court have repeatedly interpreted the scope of the
exemption without seeking the views of the NLRB. See, e.g., Jewel Tea
Co., 381 U.S. at 691; Mackey, 543 F.2d at 614.15
15 The NFL claims that, under Brown, “the exemption cannot be

deemed by a court to have ended without seeking and considering the
detailed views of the NLRB.” Br. 42. Brown did not address any issue
of primary jurisdiction, and in any event its discussion regarding the
“views of the Board” referred to “whether, or where, within [certain] ex-
74
In any event, the NFL admits that the validity of the NFLPA’s
disclaimer is governed by “longstanding Board precedent,” Stay Mot. 11,
and applying such a consistent line of opinions is “well within the ‘con-
ventional experience of judges,’” Alpharma, 411 F.3d at 939 (quoting
Access Telecomms., 137 F.3d at 608). Indeed, the NFL’s invocation of
NLRB expertise is particularly misplaced since, under settled law, “it is
likely, if not inevitable, that the NLRB will dismiss th[e] charge” with-
out initiating (let alone resolving) a formal complaint. Op. 42. And be-
cause the outcome of the NLRB proceeding is so clear, there is similarly
no risk of inconsistent adjudication. See id. at 43.
1. There Is No Reasonable Argument That The

NFLPA’s Disclaimer Was A “Sham.”
There is no reasonable argument that the disclaimer was a
“sham.” The real sham is the NFL’s unfair-labor-practice charge, which
alleges that the NFLPA “purport[ed] to ‘disclaim interest’ as the repre-

treme outer boundaries to draw th[e] line.” 518 U.S. at 250. Brown
identified “collapse of the collective-bargaining relationship” as such an
“extreme outer boundar[y],” ibid., thus making clear that the NLRB’s
views would be helpful, at most, in line-drawing where the collective-
bargaining relationship is ongoing, see supra at 61.
75
sentative of the NFL players” and that there is “no evidence whatsoever
of any (let alone widespread) disaffection with the Union by its mem-
bers.” App. 314–15 (emphases added). But it is undisputed that the
NFLPA did disclaim its interest in representing the players, see id.
at 466–70, 1094; that a substantial majority of the players twice stated
their desire to give up all of the rights and benefits associated with un-
ion representation, see id. at 97 ¶¶ 18–19, 346–47 ¶¶ 24–25; that the
district court found no conduct by the NFLPA inconsistent with its dis-
claimer; and that the NFL has pointed to none. The NFL cites only
statements by individual players, most of which it lifts entirely out of
context. Compare Br. 9 with App. 229. But nothing in the record sug-
gests that the NFLPA or the players have engaged in any activity in-
consistent with the disclaimer.
The Office of the NLRB’s General Counsel—which has ultimate
authority to decide whether the NFL’s charge merits the filing of a for-
mal complaint—deemed a charge meritless in a case involving the same
parties under nearly identical facts and circumstances. The ruling in
Pittsburgh Steelers, Inc., No. 6-CA-23143, 1991 WL 144468 (NLRB G.C.
June 26, 1991), eliminates any argument that the NFLPA’s disclaimer
76
here is a “sham.”
Pittsburgh Steelers arose out of the players’ disclaimer of the
NFLPA as their collective-bargaining representative in 1989. The Of-
fice of General Counsel concluded that the NFLPA had “effectively dis-
claimed its representational rights” because its disclaimer was “un-
equivocal, made in good faith, and unaccompanied by inconsistent con-
duct.” 1991 WL 144468, at *2 n.8, *4. Addressing the NFL’s objection
that the disclaimer was motivated by the players’ intent to bring an an-
titrust lawsuit, Pittsburgh Steelers explained that “the fact that the dis-
claimer was motivated by ‘litigation strategy,’ i.e., to deprive the NFL of
a defense to players’ antitrust suits and to free the players to engage in
individual bargaining for free agency, is irrelevant so long as the dis-
claimer is otherwise unequivocal and adhered to.” Id. at *2 n.8 (empha-
sis added).
The NFL offers only halfhearted responses to this directly appli-
cable authority. It first argues that Pittsburgh Steelers is not binding
on the NLRB itself. Br. 36–37 (citing Chelsea Indus., Inc. v. NLRB, 285
F.3d 1073, 1077 (D.C. Cir. 2002)). That is irrelevant. The Office of the
General Counsel—not the Board—has “unreviewable authority” to con-
77
sider a charge and “determine whether a complaint shall be filed.”
NLRB v. Sears, Roebuck & Co., 421 U.S. 132, 138 (1975) (citing 29
U.S.C. § 153(d)); see also Stay Op. 17 n.5. In any event, Pittsburgh
Steelers is no different from a host of well-settled NLRB cases dismiss-
ing unfair-labor-practice charges immediately upon the union’s tender
of a disclaimer. See, e.g., VFL Tech. Corp., 332 N.L.R.B. 1443, 1444
(2000); Hartz Mountain Corp., 260 N.L.R.B. 323, 323 (1982); see gener-
ally 1 John E. Higgins, Jr., The Developing Labor Law 552–54 (5th ed.
2006).
The NFL next misleadingly asserts that Pittsburgh Steelers was
“based on a very different factual record,” Br. 37—evidently on the sole
ground that, after the decision, the NFLPA was reconstituted as a union
at the NFL’s insistence. That, according to the NFL, means the Gen-
eral Counsel “likely” will reach a different conclusion in this case. Id. at
38. The NFL’s brief is peppered with unfortunate and rather outra-
geous innuendo casting the players’ integrity into doubt for acceding to
the demands of the NFL to reconstitute their union as part of the White
settlement. The reconstitution of a union—made at the insistence of
the NFL, and only on the express condition that the NFL would not
78
challenge the validity of a later union disclaimer—does not render the
present disclaimer in bad faith or provide any evidence that the dis-
claimer is not valid. In fact, the NFL clearly agreed in advance that
such a decision would be legitimate and would not be challenged.
Instead of supporting its assertions with relevant precedent, the
NFL has scraped together a handful of NLRB decisions that have noth-
ing to do with the issue in this case and certainly do not undermine
Pittsburgh Steelers. In IBEW (Texlite, Inc.), for example, the NLRB
held that a union that continued to exist but claimed it no longer repre-
sented one group of employees had disclaimed in bad faith. 119
N.L.R.B. 1792, 1798–99 (1958). There, however, the workers “continued
to be members” of the union; the union restrained them from striking;
the union continued to receive contributions from the employer on be-
half of the supposedly disclaimed employees; and the union even offered
to sign a new CBA with the employer. Id. at 1799. IBEW has no bear-
ing on this case.
Similarly, the NFL mischaracterizes News-Press Publishing Co.,
145 N.L.R.B. 803 (1964), as holding that votes to terminate a union’s
status are ineffective where they are part of a strategy to obtain better
79
terms and conditions of employment. See Br. 35. What the decision ac-
tually said was that where “there was no real expression of the views of
the employees” because most did not attend the vote, and where the
members who did attend were motivated by a desire to eliminate the
CBA, the union’s disclaimer was not valid. 145 N.L.R.B. at 804. In this
case, by contrast, a substantial majority of the employees twice stated
their desire to end the union, and it is the employers who preemptively
terminated the CBA and imposed their illegal boycott.
Having failed to identify any inconsistent conduct by the NFLPA,
the NFL falsely characterizes the disclaimer as a “paper-thin state-
ment” and claims the players should have pursued a decertification
election supervised by the NLRB. Br. 46 (citing 29 U.S.C. § 159(c)).
But under NLRB procedures, “no decertification election would be held
in a case where a union does not wish to continue as a collective bar-
gaining representative.” McNeil, 764 F. Supp. at 1358 n.7; see also
NLRB, Casehandling Manual, Part 2—Representation Proceedings
§ 11124.2 (2007) (providing that a union’s “disclaimer unaccompanied
by inconsistent action should result in a dismissal” of a decertification
proceeding). A decertification election “may be conducted when either
80
an employer or a competing union seeks to contest a union’s majority
status and the union disagrees,” but on these facts, “requiring a decerti-
fication proceeding makes no sense.” McNeil, 764 F. Supp. at 1358 &
n.7.
2. The NFL Waived Any Argument That The

Disclaimer Was A “Sham.”
In exchange for the players’ agreement to re-unionize, the owners
promised that if the “majority of players indicate that they wish to end
the collective bargaining status of the NFLPA on or after expiration of
[the CBA],” the NFL would “waive any rights they may have to assert
any antitrust labor exemption defense based upon any claim that the
termination by the NFLPA of its status as a collective bargaining repre-
sentative is or would be a sham, pretext, ineffective.” App. 331–32 (em-
phases added). A majority of players have now twice “indicate[d]” that
they wish to disclaim the union, once “on” the day of the CBA’s “expira-
tion,” and once “after expiration” of the CBA. The waiver provision,
therefore, absolutely precludes the NFL’s sham argument.
The NFL argued below that the waiver does not apply unless the
players disclaim after expiration of the CBA. See App. 681. Even if that
were the correct reading of the provision, the argument fails because
81
the players did unambiguously “indicate” the intention to disclaim “af-
ter” the expiration of the CBA. App. 346–47 ¶¶ 23–26. Regardless, the
NFL’s interpretation of the waiver provision is flawed: The waiver re-
quires only that the players indicate that they wish to have the union
disclaim “at that time [of the expiration of the CBA] or any time thereaf-
ter.” Id. at 331 (emphasis added). That is precisely what the players
did here.
The NFL argued below that the players were required to choose
between disclaiming before the CBA expired without the benefit of the
waiver provision, or disclaiming after the CBA expired, in which case a
separate provision of the CBA would bar them from bringing an anti-
trust suit for six months, see App. 681–82, 1080. That is not accurate.
The two provisions of the CBA are not alternatives. The six-month
waiting period is inapplicable because the NFLPA was not “in existence
as a union” after the CBA expired, see id. at 331; the waiver provision
was triggered because a majority of the players indicated that they did
not wish to be in a union following expiration, id. at 97 ¶ 18, 347 ¶ 25.
The NFL cannot raise any assertion of a “sham” disclaimer because it
unequivocally waived the right to assert such a claim.
82
C. ANY CONCEIVABLE BENEFIT FROM OBTAINING THE
NLRB’S VIEWS IS FAR OUTWEIGHED BY THE DELAY
INVOLVED.
Finally, even if this case raised the sort of expertise and uniform-
ity issues that could conceivably warrant a stay in some circumstances,
the district court did not err—let alone abuse its discretion—in conclud-
ing that “[t]he downside of staying the action plainly outweighs what-
ever value this Court might derive from an NLRB decision” because
“the ensuing delay would simply exacerbate the irreparable harm the
Players are incurring every day the so-called ‘lockout’ continues.”
Op. 43.
The NFL claims that “other courts have recognized” that potential
delay is “irrelevant,” Br. 39 n.12, but its focus on “other courts” ignores
that this Court has repeatedly identified delay as a factor courts should
consider in the primary-jurisdiction analysis. See, e.g., Alpharma, 411
F.3d at 939; Red Lake Band, 846 F.2d at 476. And delay is a particu-
larly acute concern here, where the players are suffering additional ir-
reparable harm with each passing day. See Op. 71–79; Stay Op. 13.
83
IV. THE REMAINING PRELIMINARY-INJUNCTION FACTORS
STRONGLY SUPPORT THE INJUNCTION.
In addition to likelihood of success on the merits, the other pre-
liminary-injunction factors also support the injunction below.
A. THE GROUP BOYCOTT IS CAUSING THE PLAYERS

IRREPARABLE HARM “NOW.”
The district court made detailed findings about the “threat” of fu-
ture irreparable harm absent an injunction, which is all the prelimi-
nary-injunction standard requires. Rogers Group, Inc. v. City of Fa-
yetteville, 629 F.3d 784, 787 (8th Cir. 2010). The court also found that
players are suffering irreparable harm under the group boycott “now.”
Op. 71. Those findings were based on sworn evidence that the NFL did
not meaningfully challenge.16 On such a lopsided record, the NFL could
16 The players submitted 11 sworn factual declarations establishing

their irreparable harm. See App. 78–136, 337–412, 1086–1123. The
NFL mustered only five paragraphs on the same topic, see id. at 140–41
¶¶ 10–14, which did not even facially rebut the players’ showings. That
“no individual player is placed at a disadvantage vis-à-vis another” by
the boycott (id. at 140) does not change the fact that the boycott harms
all players. That some players “have chosen to work out on their own in
the offseason” (id. at 141) does not negate the considerable and irrepa-
rable harm from the loss of the offseason. As the NFL Commissioner
himself recently stated, teams “need that work and time in the offsea-
son,” which “is one of the reasons why we have to remove this uncer-
84
not possibly leave this Court with “the definite and firm conviction that
a mistake has been committed”—the controlling standard for clear er-
ror. United States v. Finley, 612 F.3d 998, 1002 (8th Cir. 2010) (quota-
tion marks omitted) (emphases added). Courts have repeatedly recog-
nized the irreparable injury suffered by professional sports players in
this context. See, e.g., Silverman v. MLB Player Relations Comm., Inc.,
67 F.3d 1054, 1062 (2d Cir. 1995); Jackson v. NFL, 802 F. Supp. 226,
231 (D. Minn. 1992); Bowman v. NFL, 402 F. Supp. 754, 756 (D. Minn.
1975); see also Op. 72–74 (collecting cases). And in its stay order, this
Court agreed that the players “will suffer some degree of irreparable
harm.” Stay Order 13.
The NFL proves too much by claiming there is no irreparable
harm because the players “are shielded by the ne plus ultra of protec-
tion against irreparable harm—treble damages.” Br. 14. If treble dam-

tainty as soon as possible.” NFL, Commissioner Goodell Kicks Off Se-
ries of Fan Conference Calls, Apr. 14, 2011, available at
http://nfllabor.com/2011/04/14/commissioner-goodell-kicks-off-series-of-
fan-conference-calls. The players are entitled to an injunction, and the
harm they are suffering today is not “minimize[d]” if this case ulti-
mately is “resolved well before the scheduled beginning of the 2011 sea-
son.” Stay Order 13.
85
ages were such a shield, private plaintiffs in antitrust actions could
never obtain injunctions, which is directly contrary to the antitrust
statutes. See 15 U.S.C. § 26. All of the players’ evidence emphasized
the fragility, brevity, and precariousness of professional football careers.
To suggest that money damages, treble or otherwise, could fully redress
the players’ irreparable harm ignores the realities of the game.
B. THE NFL HAS NOT DEMONSTRATED IRREPARABLE

HARM FROM THE INJUNCTION.
The NFL alleges that it is exposed to two types of irreparable
harm. Neither allegation has merit.
First, the NFL claims that “federal labor law” grants employers a
“right” to lock out employees as part of the bargaining process, and that
enjoining the lockout will disrupt the bargaining power that labor law
intended to bestow upon employers. Br. 54–55. The stay order ap-
peared to endorse this form of “negotiation” harm, relying on cases it
candidly acknowledged arose “in a different context.” Stay Order 12.
Because there is no union and no collective bargaining, however, there
is no “negotiating environment” (ibid.) that labor law requires this
Court to preserve. Indeed, because the players have de-unionized, it
would be unlawful under the NLRA for collective bargaining to occur.
86
See supra at 65. The NFL plainly cannot claim “irreparable harm” from
an alteration in its “negotiation position” in non-existent collective-
bargaining discussions that would be unlawful to conduct.
Second, the NFL contends that enjoining the lockout would make
it hard to “unscramble the eggs” of player transactions. Br. 55–56.
That conclusion is incorrect. The NFL does not suffer irreparable harm
from operating the game of football—especially at a profit. And its
teams can cooperate where necessary to operate that game without vio-
lating the antitrust laws. See Am. Needle, 130 S. Ct. at 2216. More-
over, any harm to the NFL from a supposed inability to “unscramble the
eggs” would be dwarfed by the injury faced by nearly 2,000 men who are
out of work, whose careers last less than four years on average, and who
must decide whether to take jobs, if they can find them, while their skill
and opportunity to play the game diminish.17
17 This Court discounted the players’ affidavit evidence because it

was “untested by cross-examination.” Stay Order 13 (citing 29 U.S.C.
§ 107). The NFL forfeited any request for an evidentiary hearing or live
testimony, see supra at 51–52, but in any event courts routinely grant
preliminary injunctions based on affidavit evidence and without an in-
person hearing. See, e.g., Movie Sys., Inc. v. MAD Minneapolis Audio
Distribs., 717 F.2d 427, 432 & n.6 (8th Cir. 1983).
87
C. THE PUBLIC INTEREST SUPPORTS THE INJUNCTION.
The relevant public-interest concerns cut strongly in favor of the
injunction. As this Court stated, the public interest “surely favors” a
result that “will permit professional football to be played in 2011.” Stay
Order 13. But the stay order saw “no reason to differentiate between
the public interest and the proper application of the federal law regard-
ing injunctions.” Ibid. That statement equates the “public interest”
consideration with the probability-of-success-on-the-merits inquiry. But
the “public interest” is an equitable consideration separate and inde-
pendent from the merits. See, e.g., Winter v. NRDC, 129 S. Ct. 365,
376–77 (2008) (considering broad national interests in case arising un-
der environmental law). Here, there is no question that the interest of
the public—the fans, stadium workers, parking lot attendants, sports
bars and restaurants, and local governments—favors an injunction to
allow football to proceed on whatever lawful terms the NFL Defendants
collectively impose.
CONCLUSION
The case for affirmance is overwhelming. The players face imme-
diate, continuing, severe irreparable injury from unlawful conduct or-
88
chestrated to force them to re-unionize against their will and make im-
mense financial concessions. The NFL, by contrast, claims only a tem-
porary loss of leverage by members of a cartel that is no longer entitled
to any exemption from the antitrust laws. The thoughtfully reasoned
preliminary injunction issued by the district court should be affirmed.
Respectfully submitted,
/s/ Theodore B. Olson

James W. Quinn Theodore B. Olson
Bruce S. Meyer Counsel of Record
WEIL, GOTSHAL & MANGES LLP Andrew S. Tulumello
767 Fifth Avenue Scott P. Martin
New York, NY 10153 Travis D. Lenkner
(212) 310-8000 John F. Bash
Jeffrey L. Kessler 1050 Connecticut Avenue, N.W.
David G. Feher Washington, DC 20036
David L. Greenspan (202) 955-8500
DEWEY & LEBOEUF LLP (202) 530-4238 (facsimile)
1301 Avenue of the Americas
New York, NY 10019 Barbara P. Berens
(212) 259-8000 Justi Rae Miller
BERENS & MILLER, P.A.
Timothy R. Thornton 3720 IDS Center
BRIGGS & MORGAN, P.A. 80 South Eighth Street
2200 IDS Center Minneapolis, MN 55402
(612) 349-6171
80 South Eighth Street
(612) 977-8550
May 20, 2011
89
CERTIFICATE OF COMPLIANCE
WITH TYPE-VOLUME LIMITATION, TYPEFACE
REQUIREMENTS, AND TYPE STYLE REQUIREMENTS
1. This brief complies with the type-volume limitation of Federal
Rule of Appellate Procedure 32(a)(7)(B), as extended by this Court’s or-
der dated May 20, 2011, because it contains 17,927 words, as deter-
mined by the word-count function of Microsoft Word 2003, excluding the
parts of the brief exempted by Federal Rule of Appellate Procedure
32(a)(7)(B)(iii).
2. This brief complies with the typeface requirements of Federal
Rule of Appellate Procedure 32(a)(5) and the type style requirements of
Federal Rule of Appellate Procedure 32(a)(6) because it has been pre-
pared in a proportionally spaced typeface using Microsoft Word 2003 in
14-point New Century Schoolbook LT font.

Theodore B. Olson
May 20, 2011

CERTIFICATE OF COMPLIANCE
WITH EIGHTH CIRCUIT RULE 28A(h)
Pursuant to this Court’s Rule 28A(h), I hereby certify that the
electronic version of this Brief for Appellees and the accompanying ad-
dendum have been scanned for virus and are virus-free.

Theodore B. Olson
May 20, 2011

ADDENDUM OF
STATUTORY PROVISIONS
Section 1 of the Sherman Act, 15 U.S.C. § 1, provides in relevant part:
Every contract, combination in the form of trust or other-

wise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce among
the several States, or with foreign nations, is declared to be
illegal. . . .
Section 16 of the Clayton Act, 15 U.S.C. § 26, provides in relevant part:
Any person, firm, corporation, or association shall be entitled

to sue for and have injunctive relief, in any court of the
United States having jurisdiction over the parties, against
threatened loss or damage by a violation of the antitrust
laws, including sections 13, 14, 18, and 19 of this title, when
and under the same conditions and principles as injunctive
relief against threatened conduct that will cause loss or
damage is granted by courts of equity, under the rules gov-
erning such proceedings, and upon the execution of proper
bond against damages for an injunction improvidently
granted and a showing that the danger of irreparable loss or
damage is immediate, a preliminary injunction may is-
sue . . . .
1a
Section 20 of the Clayton Act, 29 U.S.C. § 52, provides in relevant part:
No restraining order or injunction shall be granted by any

court of the United States, or a judge or the judges thereof,
in any case between an employer and employees, or between
employers and employees, or between employees, or between
persons employed and persons seeking employment, involv-
ing, or growing out of, a dispute concerning terms or condi-
tions of employment, unless necessary to prevent irreparable
injury to property, or to a property right, of the party making
the application, for which injury there is no adequate rem-
edy at law . . . .
And no such restraining order or injunction shall prohibit

any person or persons, whether singly or in concert, from
terminating any relation of employment, or from ceasing to
perform any work or labor, or from recommending, advising,
or persuading others by peaceful means so to do; or from at-
tending at any place where any such person or persons may
lawfully be, for the purpose of peacefully obtaining or com-
municating information, or from peacefully persuading any
person to work or to abstain from working; or from ceasing to
patronize or to employ any party to such dispute, or from
recommending, advising, or persuading others by peaceful
and lawful means so to do; or from paying or giving to, or
withholding from, any person engaged in such dispute, any
strike benefits or other moneys or things of value; or from
peaceably assembling in a lawful manner, and for lawful
purposes; or from doing any act or thing which might law-
fully be done in the absence of such dispute by any party
thereto; nor shall any of the acts specified in this paragraph
be considered or held to be violations of any law of the
United States.
2a
Section 1 of the Norris-LaGuardia Act, 29 U.S.C. § 101, provides:
No court of the United States, as defined in this chapter,

shall have jurisdiction to issue any restraining order or tem-
porary or permanent injunction in a case involving or grow-
ing out of a labor dispute, except in a strict conformity with
the provisions of this chapter; nor shall any such restraining
order or temporary or permanent injunction be issued con-
trary to the public policy declared in this chapter.
In the interpretation of this chapter and in determining the

jurisdiction and authority of the courts of the United States,
as such jurisdiction and authority are defined and limited in
this chapter, the public policy of the United States is de-
clared as follows:
Whereas under prevailing economic conditions, developed

with the aid of governmental authority for owners of prop-
erty to organize in the corporate and other forms of owner-
ship association, the individual unorganized worker is com-
monly helpless to exercise actual liberty of contract and to
protect his freedom of labor, and thereby to obtain acceptable
terms and conditions of employment, wherefore, though he
should be free to decline to associate with his fellows, it is
necessary that he have full freedom of association, self-
organization, and designation of representatives of his own
choosing, to negotiate the terms and conditions of his em-
ployment, and that he shall be free from the interference, re-
straint, or coercion of employers of labor, or their agents, in
the designation of such representatives or in self-
organization or in other concerted activities for the purpose
of collective bargaining or other mutual aid or protection;
therefore, the following definitions of and limitations upon
the jurisdiction and authority of the courts of the United
States are enacted.
3a
Any undertaking or promise, such as is described in this sec-

tion, or any other undertaking or promise in conflict with the
public policy declared in section 102 of this title, is declared
to be contrary to the public policy of the United States, shall
not be enforceable in any court of the United States and
shall not afford any basis for the granting of legal or equita-
ble relief by any such court, including specifically the follow-
ing:
Every undertaking or promise hereafter made, whether writ-

ten or oral, express or implied, constituting or contained in
any contract or agreement of hiring or employment between
any individual, firm, company, association, or corporation,
and any employee or prospective employee of the same,
whereby
(a) Either party to such contract or agreement undertakes

or promises not to join, become, or remain a member of
any labor organization or of any employer organization; or
(b) Either party to such contract or agreement undertakes

or promises that he will withdraw from an employment
relation in the event that he joins, becomes, or remains a
member of any labor organization or of any employer or-
ganization.
4a
No court of the United States shall have jurisdiction to issue

any restraining order or temporary or permanent injunction
in any case involving or growing out of any labor dispute to
prohibit any person or persons participating or interested in
such dispute (as these terms are herein defined) from doing,
whether singly or in concert, any of the following acts:
(a) Ceasing or refusing to perform any work or to

remain in any relation of employment;
(b) Becoming or remaining a member of any labor

organization or of any employer organization, re-
gardless of any such undertaking or promise as is
described in section 103 of this title;
(c) Paying or giving to, or withholding from, any

person participating or interested in such labor
dispute, any strike or unemployment benefits or
insurance, or other moneys or things of value;
(d) By all lawful means aiding any person par-

ticipating or interested in any labor dispute who
is being proceeded against in, or is prosecuting,
any action or suit in any court of the United
States or of any State;
(e) Giving publicity to the existence of, or the

facts involved in, any labor dispute, whether by
advertising, speaking, patrolling, or by any other
method not involving fraud or violence;
(f) Assembling peaceably to act or to organize to

act in promotion of their interests in a labor dis-
pute;
(g) Advising or notifying any person of an inten-

tion to do any of the acts heretofore specified;
5a
(h) Agreeing with other persons to do or not to do
any of the acts heretofore specified; and
(i) Advising, urging, or otherwise causing or in-

ducing without fraud or violence the acts hereto-
fore specified, regardless of any such undertaking
or promise as is described in section 103 of this ti-
tle.

a restraining order or temporary or permanent injunction
upon the ground that any of the persons participating or in-
terested in a labor dispute constitute or are engaged in an
unlawful combination or conspiracy because of the doing in
concert of the acts enumerated in section 104 of this title.
No officer or member of any association or organization, and

no association or organization participating or interested in
a labor dispute, shall be held responsible or liable in any
court of the United States for the unlawful acts of individual
officers, members, or agents, except upon clear proof of ac-
tual participation in, or actual authorization of, such acts, or
of ratification of such acts after actual knowledge thereof.
6a

a temporary or permanent injunction in any case involving
or growing out of a labor dispute, as defined in this chapter,
except after hearing the testimony of witnesses in open court
(with opportunity for cross-examination) in support of the al-
legations of a complaint made under oath, and testimony in
opposition thereto, if offered, and except after findings of fact
by the court, to the effect—
(a) That unlawful acts have been threatened and

will be committed unless restrained or have been
committed and will be continued unless re-
strained, but no injunction or temporary restrain-
ing order shall be issued on account of any threat
or unlawful act excepting against the person or
persons, association, or organization making the
threat or committing the unlawful act or actually
authorizing or ratifying the same after actual
knowledge thereof;
(b) That substantial and irreparable injury to

complainant’s property will follow;
(c) That as to each item of relief granted greater

injury will be inflicted upon complainant by the
denial of relief than will be inflicted upon defen-
dants by the granting of relief;
(d) That complainant has no adequate remedy at

law; and
(e) That the public officers charged with the duty

to protect complainant’s property are unable or
unwilling to furnish adequate protection.
Such hearing shall be held after due and personal notice

thereof has been given, in such manner as the court shall di-
7a
rect, to all known persons against whom relief is sought, and
also to the chief of those public officials of the county and
city within which the unlawful acts have been threatened or
committed charged with the duty to protect complainant’s
property: Provided, however, That if a complainant shall also
allege that, unless a temporary restraining order shall be is-
sued without notice, a substantial and irreparable injury to
complainant's property will be unavoidable, such a tempo-
rary restraining order may be issued upon testimony under
oath, sufficient, if sustained, to justify the court in issuing a
temporary injunction upon a hearing after notice. Such a
temporary restraining order shall be effective for no longer
than five days and shall become void at the expiration of said
five days. No temporary restraining order or temporary in-
junction shall be issued except on condition that complainant
shall first file an undertaking with adequate security in an
amount to be fixed by the court sufficient to recompense
those enjoined for any loss, expense, or damage caused by
the improvident or erroneous issuance of such order or in-
junction, including all reasonable costs (together with a rea-
sonable attorney’s fee) and expense of defense against the
order or against the granting of any injunctive relief sought
in the same proceeding and subsequently denied by the
court.
The undertaking mentioned in this section shall be under-

stood to signify an agreement entered into by the complain-
ant and the surety upon which a decree may be rendered in
the same suit or proceeding against said complainant and
surety, upon a hearing to assess damages of which hearing
complainant and surety shall have reasonable notice, the
said complainant and surety submitting themselves to the
jurisdiction of the court for that purpose. But nothing in this
section contained shall deprive any party having a claim or
cause of action under or upon such undertaking from elect-
ing to pursue his ordinary remedy by suit at law or in equity.
8a
No restraining order or injunctive relief shall be granted to

any complainant who has failed to comply with any obliga-
tion imposed by law which is involved in the labor dispute in
question, or who has failed to make every reasonable effort
to settle such dispute either by negotiation or with the aid of
any available governmental machinery of mediation or vol-
untary arbitration.
No restraining order or temporary or permanent injunction

shall be granted in a case involving or growing out of a labor
dispute, except on the basis of findings of fact made and filed
by the court in the record of the case prior to the issuance of
such restraining order or injunction; and every restraining
order or injunction granted in a case involving or growing
out of a labor dispute shall include only a prohibition of such
specific act or acts as may be expressly complained of in the
bill of complaint or petition filed in such case and as shall be
expressly included in said findings of fact made and filed by
the court as provided in this chapter.
Whenever any court of the United States shall issue or deny

any temporary injunction in a case involving or growing out
of a labor dispute, the court shall, upon the request of any
party to the proceedings and on his filing the usual bond for
costs, forthwith certify as in ordinary cases the record of the
case to the court of appeals for its review. Upon the filing of
such record in the court of appeals, the appeal shall be heard
and the temporary injunctive order affirmed, modified, or set
aside expeditiously.
9a
Section 11 of the Norris-LaGuardia Act, now codified at 18 U.S.C.
§ 3692, provides:
In all cases of contempt arising under the laws of the United

States governing the issuance of injunctions or restraining
orders in any case involving or growing out of a labor dis-
pute, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public
trial by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein
the contempt shall have been committed.
This section shall not apply to contempts committed in the

presence of the court or so near thereto as to interfere di-
rectly with the administration of justice nor to the misbehav-
ior, misconduct, or disobedience of any officer of the court in
respect to the writs, orders or process of the court.
When used in this chapter, and for the purposes of this chap-
ter—
(a) A case shall be held to involve or to grow out

of a labor dispute when the case involves persons
who are engaged in the same industry, trade,
craft, or occupation; or have direct or indirect in-
terests therein; or who are employees of the same
employer; or who are members of the same or an
affiliated organization of employers or employees;
whether such dispute is (1) between one or more
employers or associations of employers and one or
more employees or associations of employees; (2)
between one or more employers or associations of
employers and one or more employers or associa-
tions of employers; or (3) between one or more
employees or associations of employees and one
or more employees or associations of employees;
or when the case involves any conflicting or com-
peting interests in a “labor dispute” (as defined in
10a
this section) of “persons participating or inter-
ested” therein (as defined in this section).
(b) A person or association shall be held to be a

person participating or interested in a labor dis-
pute if relief is sought against him or it, and if he
or it is engaged in the same industry, trade, craft,
or occupation in which such dispute occurs, or has
a direct or indirect interest therein, or is a mem-
ber, officer, or agent of any association composed
in whole or in part of employers or employees en-
gaged in such industry, trade, craft, or occupa-
tion.
(c) The term “labor dispute” includes any contro-

versy concerning terms or conditions of employ-
ment, or concerning the association or represen-
tation of persons in negotiating, fixing, maintain-
ing, changing, or seeking to arrange terms or
conditions of employment, regardless of whether
or not the disputants stand in the proximate rela-
tion of employer and employee.
(d) The term “court of the United States” means

any court of the United States whose jurisdiction
has been or may be conferred or defined or lim-
ited by Act of Congress, including the courts of
the District of Columbia.
If any provision of this chapter or the application thereof to

any person or circumstance is held unconstitutional or oth-
erwise invalid, the remaining provisions of this chapter and
the application of such provisions to other persons or circum-
stances shall not be affected thereby.
11a
All acts and parts of acts in conflict with the provisions of

this chapter are repealed.
Section 3(d) of the National Labor Relations Act, 29 U.S.C. § 153(d),

provides in relevant part:
There shall be a General Counsel of the Board who shall be

appointed by the President, by and with the advice and con-
sent of the Senate, for a term of four years. The General
Counsel of the Board shall . . . have final authority, on behalf
of the Board, in respect of the investigation of charges and
issuance of complaints under section 160 of this title, and in
respect of the prosecution of such complaints before the
Board, and shall have such other duties as the Board may
prescribe or as may be provided by law. . . .
Section 7 of the National Labor Relations Act, 29 U.S.C. § 157, provides:
Employees shall have the right to self-organization, to form,

join, or assist labor organizations, to bargain collectively
through representatives of their own choosing, and to engage
in other concerted activities for the purpose of collective bar-
gaining or other mutual aid or protection, and shall also
have the right to refrain from any or all of such activities ex-
cept to the extent that such right may be affected by an
agreement requiring membership in a labor organization as
a condition of employment as authorized in section 158(a)(3)
of this title.
Section 13 of the National Labor Relations Act, 29 U.S.C. § 163, pro-

vides:
Nothing in this subchapter, except as specifically provided

for herein, shall be construed so as either to interfere with or
impede or diminish in any way the right to strike, or to affect
the limitations or qualifications on that right.
12a
CERTIFICATE OF SERVICE
I hereby certify that on May 20, 2011, I electronically filed the
foregoing Brief for Appellees with the Clerk of the Court for the United
States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit through the CM/ECF
system and served all parties via that system.

Theodore B. Olson
May 20, 2011

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No.

IN THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

TOM BRADY et al.,

NATIONAL FOOTBALL LEAGUE et al.,

On Appeal From The United States District Court

BRIEF FOR APPELLEES

James W. Quinn Theodore B. Olson

Counsel for Appellees

Counsel for Appellees

The district court granted a preliminary injunction against a

causing severe and immediate harm to the players, which cannot be

remedied by damages alone. The issue on appeal is whether the district

court abused its discretion in granting the injunction.

2011 and has allotted 30 minutes of argument per side.

STATEMENT OF FACTS ......................................................................... 7

SUMMARY OF ARGUMENT ................................................................. 12

I. The Norris-LaGuardia Act Does Not Preclude The

A. The Norris-LaGuardia Act Is Inapplicable

1. The Term “Labor Dispute” Encompasses

2. A Case Cannot “Grow Out Of” A Labor

B. The District Court’s Injunction Fully Complies

1. Section 4(a) Does Not Encompass Lockouts...... 37

2. The Injunction Complies With Section 7 Of

II. The Implied Labor Exemption To The Antitrust Laws

A. The Non-Statutory Labor Exemption Does Not

B. The Lockout Does Not Concern A “Mandatory

III. The District Court Did Not Abuse Its Discretion In

A. The NFL Misstates The Standard For Applying

B. The District Court And This Court Have The

1. There Is No Reasonable Argument That The

2. The NFL Waived Any Argument That The

C. Any Conceivable Benefit From Obtaining The

IV. The Remaining Preliminary-Injunction Factors

A. The Group Boycott Is Causing The Players

B. The NFL Has Not Demonstrated Irreparable

C. The Public Interest Supports The Injunction............. 88

Abuelhawa v. United States,

Access Telecomms. v. Sw. Bell Tel. Co.,

Allen Bradley Co. v. IBEW,

Alpharma, Inc. v. Pennfield Oil Co.,

Amalgamated Meat Cutters v. Jewel Tea Co.,

Am. Ass’n of Cruise Passengers v. Cunard Line, Ltd.,

Am. Needle, Inc. v. NFL,

Am. Ship Bldg. v. NLRB,

Am. Steel Foundries v. Tri-City Cent. Trades Council,

Am. Sunroof Corp.,

Auto. Transp. Chauffeurs v. Paddock Chrysler-Plymouth, Inc.,

Avco Corp. v. Int’l Ass’n of Machinists,

Barry v. United States,

BE & K Constr. Co. v. NLRB,

Boys Mkts., Inc. v. Retail Clerks Union,

Bhd. of Locomotive Eng’rs v. Balt. & Ohio R.R.,

Bhd. of R.R. Trainmen v. Chi. River & Ind. R.R. Co.,

Brown v. Pro Football, Inc.,

Brown v. Pro Football, Inc.,

Burlington N. R.R. v. Bhd. of Maint. of Way Employes,

Carter v. United States,

Charles D. Bonanno Linen Serv., Inc. v. NLRB,

Chelsea Indus., Inc. v. NLRB,