PART ONE: MEASUREMENT, MECHANICS AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER

CHAPTER 1

1.1: MEASUREMENT

Physics describes the laws of nature. This description is quantitative and involves measurement
and comparison of physical quantities. To measure a physical quantity we need some standard
unit of that quantity. The reference standard of measurement of a physical quantity is called its
unit.
Fundamental and Derived Quantities
There are large number physical quantities which are measured and every quantity needs a
definition of unit. However, not all the quantities are independent of each other. As a simple
example, if a unit of length is defined, a unit of area is automatically obtained. Similarly, if a unit
of length and a unit of time interval are defined, a unit of speed is automatically obtained. We
can define a set of fundamental quantities as follows:
(i) the fundamental quantities should be independent of each other, and
(ii) all other quantities may be expressed in terms of the fundamental quantities.
In turns out that the number of fundamental quantities is only seven. All the rest may be derived
from these quantities by multiplication and division. The physical quantities which can be
defined/ expressed in terms of fundamental physical quantities are called derived physical
quantities, eg velocity, pressure, force, acceleration, Young’s modulus e.t.c. The unit defined for
the fundamental quantities are called fundamental units. and those obtained for the derived
quantities are called the derived units. The fundamental quantities are also called base quantities.

Table (1.1.1) gives the fundamental quantities and their units in SI.

Table 1.1.1: Fundamental or Base Quantities

Z Quantity SI unit Unit  Symbol Dimension  Symbol
I. Mass Kilogram Kg M
2 Length Metre m L
3. Time Second s T
4. Temperature Kelvin K  or K
5. Electric Current Ampere A I or A
6. Luminous Intensity Candela cd cd
7. Amount of Substances Mole mol mol

The standard unit should be easily made available for comparing with other quantities.

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 DIMENSION
All the physical quantities of interest can be derived from the base quantities. When a quantity is
expressed in terms of the base quantities, it is written as a product of different powers of the base
quantities. The exponent of a base quantity that enters into the expression is called the dimension
of the quantity in that base. For convenience the base quantities are represented by one letter
symbol. Generally, mass is denoted by M, length by L, time by T and electric current by I. The
thermodynamic temperature, the amount of substance and the luminous intensity are denoted by
the symbols of their units K, mol and cd respectively. The physical quantity that is expressed in
terms of the base quantities is enclosed in square brackets to remind that the equation is among
the dimensions and not among the magnitudes. To make it clear, consider the physical quantity
force.
Velocity length /time
Force = Mass × acceleration = Mass × = Mass × = MLT 2
time time
Thus, [ Force ] = MLT 2
Such an expression for a physical quantity in terms of the base quantities is called the
dimensional formula. Thus, the dimensional formula of force is MLT 2 and the dimensions of
force are 1 in mass, 1 in length and 2 in time.

Table 1.1.2: SI units and Dimensions of some Important Physical Quantities

Physical quantity Relation Dimensional formula SI units

Velocity Length [ L] ms-1
Time = L T-1
[ T]
Acceleration Velocity [V] ( L T-1 ) ms
-2

Time = =L T -2
[ T] (T )
Volume ( Length )3 [ V ] = L3 m3
Density Mass [M] (M ) kg m
-3

volume = 3 = ML-3
[V] (L )
Force Mass×accelearation [ M ][ a ] = ( M ) ( LT −2 ) Kgms -2 or N
= ML T-2
Pressure Force [F ] ( ML T -2 )
Area = = ML-1 T -2 Nm-2
[A ] ( L2 )
Energy Force× distance [ F ][ L ] = ( ML T-2 ) ( L )= M L2 T-2 J
Stress Force [F ] ( ML T -2 ) Nm -2
Area = = ML-1 T -2
[A ] ( L2 )
Strain Extension [ L] No units
= M 0 L0 T0
original length [ L]
Young’s modulus Stress [ F/A ] ( M L−1 T −2 ) Nm -2
Strain = =M
⌈ e/L ⌉ ( M 0 L0 T 0 )
-1 -2
L T

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Surface tension Force [ F] ( ML T -2 ) Nm -1
Length = = M T-2
[ L] (L)
Coefficient of Force [ F] kgm -1 s -1 or
viscosity Velocity
( ML T -2 )
Area × [ V] = =M Ns m -2
Length [A ] ( L2 T )
[ L]
-1 -1
L T
Frequency 1 1 s
-1
= T-1
Time period [ T]
Planck’s constant Energy [ E] ( M L2 T -2 ) Js
Frequency = = ML2 T-1
[f ] (T )
-1

Gravitational Force × ( distance )

2
[ F ] [ L ]2 ( ML T -2 )( L2) Nm 2 kg -2
constant 2 = =
( mass ) [M]
2
( M 2)
M -1 L3 T -2
Angle Arc length [ s] (L) No units
radius = = M 0 L0 T0
[r] (L)
Power Energy [ E] kgm 2 s -3 = Js -1
Time = M L2 T-3
[ T]

Homogeneity of Dimensions in an Equation

The most basic rule of dimensional analysis is that of dimensional homogeneity, first formulated
by Newton, who called it the “great principle of similitude”. An equation contains several terms
which are separated from each other by the symbols of equality, plus or minus. The dimensions
of all the terms in an equation must be identical. This is another way of saying that one can add
or subtract similar physical quantities. Thus, a velocity cannot be added to a force or an electric
current cannot be subtracted from the thermodynamics temperature. This simple principle is
called the principle of homogeneity of dimensions in an equation and is extremely useful method
to check whether an equation may be correct or not. If the dimensions of all the terms are not
same, the equation must be wrong

Uses of Dimension
(i) Conversion of units
When we choose to work with a different set of units for the base quantities, the units of all the
derived quantities must be changed. Dimensions can be useful in finding the conversion factor
for the unit of a derived physical quantity from one system to another.
(ii) Deducing relation among the physical quantities.
If one knows the quantities on which a particular physical quantity depends and if one guesses
that this dependence is of product type, method of dimension may be helpful in the derivation of
the relation. Taking an example, suppose the time period of simple pendulum depends on the
length of the string, the mass of the bob and the acceleration due to gravity. We assume that the
dependence of the time period on these quantities is of product type, that is

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 T = k l a m b gc ----------------- (i)
where k is a dimensionless constant and a , b and c are exponents which we want to evaluate.
Taking the dimensions of both sides
c
T = La M b ( L T 2 ) = La+ c M b T 2 c
Since the dimensions on both sides must be identical, we have
a+c=0
b = 0 and
2c = 1
1 1
giving a = , b = 0 and c = 
2 2
Putting these values in equation (i)

T =k
√ l
g
Thus, by dimensional analysis, we ca deduce that the time period of a simple pendulum is
independent of its mass, is proportional to the square root of the length of the pendulum and is
inversely proportional to the square root of the acceleration due to gravity at the place of
observation.
(iii) Checking whether an equation may be correct or not.
Let us check the equation,
1
S = ut + a t 2 for the dimensional homogeneity, where S is the distance travelled by a particle
2
in time t which starts at a speed u and has an acceleration a along the direction of motion.
[ S] = L
Length
[ ut ] = velocity × time = × time = L
time

[ ]
1 2
2
a t = [ a t 2 ] = acceleration × ( time )2 =
Velocity
time
× ( time )2 =
Length /time
time
× ( time )2 = L

Since the dimensions of all the terms in an equation are identical, then equation is correct.
1
Note that the dimension of a t 2 is same as that of a t 2. Pure number is dimensionless.
2
Dimension does not depend on the magnitude. Thus, a dimensionally correct equation need not
to be actually correct but a dimensionally wrong equation must be wrong.

Limitations of the Dimensional Method

Although dimensional analysis is very useful in deducing certain relations, it cannot lead us too
far.
(i) The numerical constants having no dimensions cannot be deduced by the method of
dimensions.
(ii) It cannot be applied, to derive relations or check equations involving trigonometric
or exponential function.

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(iii) Dimensional analysis does not indicate whether a given physical quantity is a vector
or scalar
(iv) It ca not be used to derive a relation if the physical quantity depends on more than
the number of fundamental quantities.
That is, if a particular quantity (in mechanics) depends on more than three quantities
we shall have more unknowns and less equations. The exponents canot be determined
uniquely in such a case.

TYPICAL SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example 1: The frequency f of a vibrating string depends upon the mass per unit length
‘ μ ’ of the string, tension (stretching force), F in the string of length l.
Find the expression for f .
Solution
f =¿ k μa F b l c ---------------------------- ( i )
Taking dimensions on both sides
[ f ] = [ μ]a [ F ]b[ l ]c
( M 0 L0 T-1 ) = ( M l−1 )a ( MlT −2 )b ( l )c
M 0 L0 T-1 = M a+ b l−a +b+ c T −2 b
Equating the dimensions of M, l and T, we have
a+b=0
- a+ b+c=0
-2b = -1
−1 1
solving , we get a= , b = , c = -1
2 2
1 1
f =¿ k μ 2 F 2 l −1

f ¿k
l √ F
μ

Example 2: The acceleration due to gravity g r at a point outside the Earth’s surface at a

Distance, r from the centre of the Earth is given by,g r = g

r ( )
R 2
where g is the

acceleration due to gravity at the Earth’s surface R is the Earth’s radius.

A satellite of mass m is in circular orbit of radius r. It is thought that the orbit
time T = K m a r b g cr where K,a , b and c are dimensionless constants. Use

dimensional analysis to find the value of a,b and c .Hence show that T
3/2
r

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 Solution
T = K m a r b g cr
Taking dimensions on both sides
( M 0 L0 T ) = ( M )a ( L ) b ( LT -2 )c
M 0 L0 T = M a.L b+c T -2c
Equating the dimensions of M, L and T, we have
a=0
b+c=0
-2c =1
1 1
Solving, we geta=0, b = and c = -
2 2
It follows that,
1 −1
T = K m0 r 2 g 2
r

( ) ( )
1 2
r R
T= k 2
but g r = g
gr r
1
1 3
r2 2
r r r 2
T=k =k 1 =k 1
( ( ))
2 1
R 2
g g2 R g2 R
r
Since g and are both constants, then
K
3/2
T= r (= 1 )
g2 R
 T  r 3/2

Example 3: The equation below is called Bernoulli’s equation which is applied to fluid flow
1 2
and states that P+ρgh+ ρ V = k where
2
k = constant, P = pressure, h = height, V = velocity, ρ = density
and g = acceleration due to gravity
(a) Show that the given equation is dimensionally correct
(b) Sate the units of k

Solution
Given,
1 2
P+ρgh+ ρ V = k
2
For the equation to be dimensionally correct, the terms added should have the

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 same dimensions.
Applying dimensional analysis on the left hand side,
[ P ]+ [ ρ ][ g ][ h ] + [ ρ ] [ V ] 2 = k
2
( M L-1 T-2 ) + ( M L-3 .L T -2 .L ) + ( M L-3 ) ( L T -1 ) = k
-1 -2 -1 -2 -1 -2
ML T + ML T + ML T =k
It is clear that the given relation is dimensionally correct.
Since the given equation is dimensionally correct, then
the dimensions of each term on both sides of the equation are the same
 The units of k = kg m -1 s -2
d d + k2 v 2
Example 4: (a) Find the dimensions of k and Y
in the equation, =
k k t2
where Y ¿ Young’s modulus of elasticity, v ¿ velocity and
t = time

(b) The equation of a wave is given by the relation, y = a sin

2π
λ ( )
( c t b) ,

where t = time, λ = wavelength of the wave motion. What are the dimensions
of c and b ?

Solution

d + k2 v 2
(a) Y =
k t2

d k v2
Y = 2 + 2
k t t

For dimensionally correct

d
[ ]
[ Y ] = 2 , [ d/k ] = [ Y ] [ t 2 ]
kt
[ d/k ] = ( M L-1 T-2 ) ( T2 )
[ d/k ] = M L-1 and

[ ]
2
kv
= [Y ]
t2

[k] = [Y ] [ ]
t2
v2
= (M L T )
-1 -2
( T2
L2 T -2 )
[ k ] = M L-3 T2
(b) Given, y = a sin (2πλ ( c t b) ),
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 2π
here, the quantity ( c t b ) is an angle which is dimensionless
λ

i.e [ ( )]
2π
λ
ct b = M 0 L0 T0

[ ]ct
λ
= M0 L 0 T 0

[c] = L T-1 and

[]
b
λ
= M0 L 0 T 0

[b] = [ λ ] M0 L0 T 0 = L

Example 5: A gas bubble from an explosion under water oscillates with a period T which
depend upon the restoring force per unit area ‘β’, density of water ‘’ and the total
energy of explosion ‘’. Find dimensionally a relation for T.

Solution
T  βx y z
T = kβ x y z ------------ (i)
Taking dimensions on both sides
[ T ] = [ β ]x [ ]y [ ]z
( M 0 L0 T ) =( M L-1 T-2 ) x ( M L-3 )y ( M L2 T -2 ) z
0 0 x+y+z
M L T = M .L-x-3y+2z . T-2x 2z
Equating the dimensions of M, L and T.
x + y + z=0
−x−3 y +2 z=0
−2 x−2 z =1
Solving, we get
5 1 1
x=¿  , y = and z =
6 2 3
From equation (i)
5 1 1
T = kβ 6 2 3

1 1
2 3
 T= k 5
β6

Example 6: Reynold numberN R (a dimensionless quantity) determines the conditions of flow

of a viscous liquid through a pipe. N R is a function of the density of the liquid
‘ρ’, its average speed ‘ v ’ and coefficient of viscosity of liquid ‘’.Given that

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 is N R also is directly proportional to ‘d’ (diameter of the pipe).Determine
dimensionally, an expression forN R

Solution
N R  ρ v ------- (i)
also N R  d -------(ii)
combining equations (i) and (ii) , we get
N R = k ρ x v y z d1 ------ (iii)
Taking dimensions on both sides
( M 0 L0 T0 ) = ( M L-3 )x ( L T-1 )y ( M L-1 T -1 )z L1
0 0 0 x+z -3x+y-z+1
M L T = M .L . T-y-z .
Equating the powers of M, L and T, we have
x + z=0
−3 x+ y−z +1=0
− y−z =0
Solving we get , x=1 , y=1 and z=−1
From equation (iii)
N R = k ρ1 v1 -1 d 1
N R ¿ k ρvd
❑

Example 7. Assuming that the mass M of the largest stone that can be moved by a flowing river
depends upon the velocity v of water, the density ρ of water and the acceleration
due to gravity g.Show that M varies as the sixth power of the velocity v.

Solution
M = k vx f y gz
Taking dimensions on both sides
( M L0 T0 ) = ( L T 1) x ( M L 3 ) y ( L T 2 )z
Equating the powers of M, L and T,
y=1
x 3 y + z = 0
−x 2 z = 0
Solving these, we get x = 6 , y =1 z = 3
M = k v 6 f 1 g−3
M  v6

Example 8. The heat produced in a wire carrying an electric current depends on the current, the
resistance and the time. Assuming that the dependence is of the product of powers

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 type, guess an equation between the quantities using dimensional analysis.

Solution
Let us assume that the required equation is
H = k I a R b tc
Since heat is a form of energy then, the dimensional formula of resistance is
ML2 I 2 T 3
Heat energy M L2 T 2
i.e R = 2 = 2 = M L2 I 2 T 3
I t I T
Applying dimensions of both sides,
b
M L T = I ( M L2 I 2 T 3 ) T
2 2 a c

M L2 T 2 = M b L2b T 3 b+ c I a 2 b
Equating the exponents,
b=1
3b + c = 2
c = 2 + 3b = 2 + 3 = 1
a  2b = 0
a = 2b = 2
Thus the required equation is H = k I 2 Rt

PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE

1. The terminal velocity (vt) of a small sphere falling through a viscous medium depends on
mass of the sphere m, radius of the sphere r, coefficient of viscosity of the medium η and
acceleration due to gravity g. Which of the following relations is dimensionally correct?

kmg η
V t=
(i) r
kηr
V t=
(ii) mg
kmg
V t=
(iii) ηr

2. Test the correctness of the following relations

(i)
t=kl
√ ρ
Y , where t is the period of a tuning fork, l is the length of prongs, ρ is
the density of the material whose young’s modulus of elasticity is Y and k is the
constant of proportionality. [ correct ]

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 (ii)
t=
√
tension.
ρr 3
s , where t =time of oscillations, ρ= density, r = radius and s= surface
[ correct ]
ρ gr
h=
(iii) 2 T cosθ , where r is the radius of the capillary tube, ρ is the density of liquid, T is
the surface tension of the liquid and θ is the angle of contact. Check the correctness
of the above equation [ incorrect ]

3. Wave length  of the matter wave associated with a particle depends upon
its mass m, velocity v and Planck’s constant h . Obtain, dimensionally, an

expression for  [ ¿k
h
mv ]
4. The critical velocity vc of a liquid flowing through a tube depends upon the coefficient of

viscosity, η, density of the liquid ρ and the diameter of the tube D .Using dimensions; derive

an expression for the critical velocity. k

η
ρD [ ]
5. (a) The period of revolution of a satellite T, depends upon the radius of the orbit r, the mass
of the planet m , and the gravitational constant G. Prove that the square of the period
varies as the cube of the radius.

6. The terminal velocity ,V t of a small sphere falling through a viscous medium depends
on the weight (mg) of the sphere, radius of the sphere ,coefficient of viscosity η and
r

[
acceleration due to gravity g. Find dimensionally a relation for V t . V t =k
mg
ηr ]
7. The number of particles (n) crossing a unit area perpendicular to the x-axis per unit time
( n 2−n1 )
n=D
is given by x 2−x 1 , where n1 and n2 are the number of particles per unit volume for

x equal to x 1 and x 2 respectively. Find the dimensions of the diffusion constant D [ L2 T-1 ]

8. The force F is given in terms of time, t and displacement x by the relation

α
F = Asin βx + A cos αt .What is the dimensions of
β
?. [ L T -1 ]
9. The maximum speed, V of the fluid in pipe of length l and radius r depends upon
P
r, the pressure gradient, and the coefficient of viscosity ‘ η ’ of the liquid
l

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 [ ( Pl )
]
2
r
Find dimensionally the relation for V with other quantities.
V =k
η

10. (a)The velocity, v of a particle depends upon time according to the relation
2 β
v = αt +
t γ
Find the dimensions of  ,β and γ [ L T -3 ,L and T ]

(b) Obtain the dimensional formulae of a and b from the equation

( P+ Va ) ( V b) = RT, where pressure, V= volume.

2 [ a=M L5 L−2 ,b=L3 ]

11. The period T of vibrating of a turning fork may be expected to depend on density ρ ,
young’s modulus E of material of which it is made and length L of the prongs .Which in
the following equation could represent the relationship between T and other quantities
where  is a dimensionless constant.

(i) T =  L √ Eρ (ii) T = L
√ E
ρ √
(iii) T = L
ρ
E

1.2 ERROR IN MEASUREMENT

Measurement is the basis of scientific study. All measurements are, however, approximate
values (not true values) within the limitation of measuring device, measuring environment,
process of measurement and human error.

In order that theories may be developed and then tested, it is necessary to make measurements
that are both precise and accurate. When a measurement is repeated many times with a precise
instrument, the readings are all close together. If you measure the same object two different
times, the two measurements may not be exactly the same. The difference between two
measurements ia called a variation / uncertainty in the measurements or simply an error.

This error is not the same as a “mistake”. It does not mean that you got the wrong answer. The
error in measurement is a mathematical way to show the uncertainty in the measurement.  It is
the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value of what you were
measuring. 

Further, there is important aspect of reporting measurement. It should be consistent, systematic

and revealing in the context of accuracy and precision. We must understand that an error in basic

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quantities propagate through mathematical formula leading to compounding of errors and
misrepresentation of quantities.

Errors are broadly classified in two categories:

 Systematic error
 Random error

Systematic Errors
Systematic errors in experimental observations usually come from the measuring instruments.
They may occur because:

 there is something wrong with the instrument or its data handling system, or
 because the instrument is wrongly used by the experimenter.

Two types of systematic error can occur with instruments having a linear response:

1. Offset or zero setting error in which the instrument does not read zero when the
quantity to be measured is zero.
2. Multiplier or scale factor error in which the instrument consistently reads changes in
the quantity to be measured greater or less than the actual changes.

These errors are shown in Fig.1.2.1 Systematic errors also occur with non-linear instruments
when the calibration of the instrument is not known correctly.

In Fig.1.2.1: Systematic errors in a linear instrument (full line). Broken line shows response of
an ideal instrument without error.

Examples of systematic errors caused by the wrong use of instruments are:

 errors in measurements of temperature due to poor thermal contact between the

thermometer and the substance whose temperature is to be found,
 errors in measurements of solar radiation because trees or buildings shade the radiometer.

The accuracy of a measurement is how close the measurement is to the true value of the quantity
being measured. A “true” value of a quantity is a measurement, when errors on all accounts are

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minimized. We should distinguish “accuracy” of measurement with “precision” of
measurement, which is related to the ability of an instrument to measure values with greater
details (divisions).

Precision of a measuring instrument is determined by the smallest unit to which it can

measure.  The precision is said to be the same as the smallest fractional or decimal division on
the scale of the measuring instrument. Precision of measurement is related to the ability of an
instrument to measure values in greater details. It is associated with random error

Clearly, this type of error can not be minimized or reduced by repeated measurements. A faulty
machine, for example, will not improve accuracy of measurement by repeating measurements.
We can minimize this error by replacing the instrument or by making a change in the design of
the instrument.

Procedural error

A faulty measuring process may include inappropriate physical environment, procedural

mistakes and lack of understanding of the process of measurement. For example, if we are
studying magnetic effect of current, then it would be erroneous to conduct the experiment in a
place where strong currents are flowing nearby. Similarly, while taking temperature of human
body, it is important to know which of the human parts is more representative of body
temperature. This error type can be minimized by periodic assessment of measurement process
and improvising the system in consultation with subject expert or simply conducting an audit of
the measuring process in the light of new facts and advancements.

Person bias

A personal bias is introduced by human habits, which are not conducive for accurate
measurement. Consider for example, the reading habit of a person. He or she may have the habit
of reading scales from an inappropriate distance and from an oblique direction. The
measurement, therefore, includes error on account of parallax.

Random Errors
Random errors are statistical fluctuations (in either direction) in the measured data due to the
precision limitations of the measurement device. Random errors in experimental measurements
are caused by unknown and unpredictable changes in the experiment. These changes may occur
in the measuring instruments or in the environmental conditions.

Random errors unlike systematic errors are not unidirectional. Some of the measured values are
greater than true value; some are less than true value. The errors introduced are sometimes
positive and sometimes negative with respect to true value. No human being can repeat an action

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in exactly the same manner. Hence, it is likely that same person reports different values with the
same instrument, which measures the quantity correctly.
It is possible to minimize these type of errors by repeating measurements and applying
statistical technique to get closer value to the true value

Examples of causes of random errors are:

 electronic noise in the circuit of an electrical instrument,

 irregular changes in the heat loss rate from a solar collector due to changes in the wind.

The precision of a measurement is how close a number of measurements of the same quantity
agree with each other. The precision is limited by the random errors. It may usually be
determined by repeating the measurements.

Mean value of Measurements

It has been pointed out that random error, including that of least count error, can be minimized
by repeating measurements. It is so because errors are not unidirectional. Here, we are implicitly
assuming that measurement is free of “systematic errors”.

The averaging of the repeated measurements, therefore, gives the best estimate of “true” value.

Least Count Error

Least count error results due to the inadequacy of resolution of the instrument. We can
understand this in the context of least count of a measuring device. The least count of a device is
equal to the smallest division on the scale. Consider the meter scale that we use. What is its least
count? Its smallest division is in millimeter (mm). Hence, its least count is 1 mm i.e. 0.001 m.
Clearly, this meter scale can be used to measure length from 0.001m to 1 m. It is worth to know
that least count of a vernier scale is 0.0001m and that of screw gauge 0.00001 m.

Tolerance intervals

Error in measurement may be represented by a tolerance interval (margin of error). Machines used in
manufacturing often set tolerance intervals, or ranges which product measurements will be tolerated or
accepted before they are considered flawed. Tolerance is the greatest range of variation that can be allowed.

To determine the tolerance interval in a measurement, add and subtract one-half of the precision of the
measuring instrument to the measurement. For example, if a measurement made with a metric ruler is 5.6
cm and the ruler has a precision of  0.1 cm, then the tolerance interval in this measurement is 5.6±0.05 cm, 
or from 5.55 cm to 5.65 cm.  Any measurements within this range are "tolerated" or perceived as correct.
When giving the results of measurement it is a good practice to state the estimated Uncertainty/ error. For
example if the measured length of the string obtained is 64.2 cm and the uncertainty is about 0.1 cm, then
the length will be recorded as 64.2 ± 0.1 cm.

Mwalonde B, 0714-053910/ 0767-053910 Page 15

Ways to Improve Accuracy in Measurement

1. Make the measurement with an instrument that has the highest level of precision. The smaller the unit, or
fraction of a unit, on the measuring device, the more precisely the device can measure.  The precision of a
measuring instrument is determined by the smallest unit to which it can measure

2. Know your tools!  Apply correct techniques when using the measuring instrument and reading the value
measured.  Avoid the error called "parallax", always take readings by looking straight down (or ahead) at
the measuring device.  Looking at the measuring device from a left or right angle will give an incorrect
value

3. Repeat the same measure several times to get a good average value

4. Measure under controlled conditions.  If the object you are measuring could change size depending upon
climatic conditions (swell or shrink), be sure to measure it under the same conditions each time.  This may
apply to your measuring instruments as well. 

Absolute Error and Relative Error

Error in measurement may be represented by the actual amount of error, or by a ratio comparing the error
to the size of the measurement. The absolute error of the measurement shows how large the error actually is,
while the relative error of the measurement shows how large the error is in relation to the correct value.

Absolute Error: The absolute error is the difference between the measured value and the actual value. 

i.e absolute error = |x measured - x accepted| .

For example, if you know a length is 3.535 m + 0.004 m, then 0.004 m is an absolute error. Absolute error

is positive

Relative Error: Relative error is the ratio of the absolute error of the measurement to the accepted
measurement.  The relative error expresses the "relative size of the error" of the measurement in relation to
the measurement itself

Greatest possible error |Measured value Actual value|

i.e Relative error = =
Measured value Actual value

Percent of Error:
Error in measurement may also be expressed as a percent of error.   The percent of error is found by
multiplying the relative error by 100%.

Mwalonde B, 0714-053910/ 0767-053910 Page 16

 |Measured value Actual value|
i.e Percent of Error = ×100%           
Actual value

Combination of Errors
1. Addition and subtraction
(i) z=x + y
if ∆ x∧∆ y are the errors in measuring the quantities x and y respectively, then
z ± ∆ z = ( x ± ∆ x ) +( y ± ∆ y )
z ± ∆ z = ( x + y ) ± ( ∆ x+ ∆ y )
∆ z = ± ( ∆ x+ ∆ y )
(ii) Let z=¿ x  y

Similarly
z± ∆z = (x±∆ x)  ( y ±∆ y)
z ± ∆ z = ( x− y ) ± ( ∆ x+ ∆ y )
∆ z = ± ( ∆ x+ ∆ y )
It is clear that errors are always maximized.

Example
Temperature of two bodies are measured as (60± 0.5 )℃ and (32± 0.1 )℃ .
What is the difference of temperatures between them?

Solution
Let T be the combined temperature
i.e T±∆T = ( T1 T2 ) ± ( ∆ T1 +∆ T2 )
T±∆T = ( 6032 )± ( 0.5+0.1 )
T±∆T = ( 28 ± 0.6 ) ℃
 difference in temperature = ( 28 ± 0.6 ) ℃

2. Product and division

(i) Let z ¿ xy
Introduce natural logarithm on both sides
ln z = ln ( xy )
ln z = ln x +¿ ¿ ln y
Differentiating on both sides,
∆z ∆x ∆y
± =± ±
z x y
for maximum error

Mwalonde B, 0714-053910/ 0767-053910 Page 17

 ∆z +∆ x +∆ y
=
z x y
∆ x +∆ y
∆ z = ± ¿( ) z)
x y
∆ x +∆ y
∆ z = ± ¿( ) xy)
x y
x
(ii) Let z =
y
applying natural logarithm on both sides

ln z = ln() x
y
ln z = ln x−¿ ln y
differentiating
∆z ∆x ∆y
±
z
= ±
x
±
y

for maximum error

∆z +∆ x +∆ y
=
z x y
∆ x +∆ y
∆ z = ± ¿( )z)
x y
(iii) Let z = ( x 2− y 2 )
Applying natural logarithm on both sides
ln z=¿ ¿ ln ( x 2− y 2 )
ln z=¿ ¿ In ( ( x− y ) ( x+ y ) )
ln z=¿ ¿ In( x− y ) +In( x + y )
differentiating
∆z ( ∆ x+∆ y) ( ∆ x+∆ y)
± =± ±
z x− y x+ y
For maximum error
∆z ( ∆ x+ ∆ y ) ( ∆ x+ ∆ y )
z
= +
x− y x+ y

∆z = ( x− y x+ y )
( ∆ x +∆ y ) ( ∆ x + ∆ y )
+ z

TYPICAL SOLVED EXAMPLES

Mwalonde B, 0714-053910/ 0767-053910 Page 18

 4 We 2
d=
Example 1: The deflection of a beam under a certain conditions is given by, 3 π Ea 4 .
Calculate the fractional error in the value of Young’s modulus E, if the error
in d=±0.1 % , the error in e = ± 0.05% and the error in a = ± 0.1% .

Solution
2
4 We
d=
Given, 3 π Ea 4 .
2
4 we
E= 4
3 πd a
Applying natural logarithm on both sides

In E = In ( 4 w e2
3 πd a
4 )
In E = In ( 4 w e 2 )In( 3 πd a 4 )
ln E = ln 4+ ln w +ln e 2ln 3 π ln d ln a 4
ln E = In 4 +In w +2ln e−ln 3 π ln d −4 ln a
Differentiating
∆E ∆w 2∆e ∆d 4∆ a
± = ± ± ± ± but ∆ w = 0
E w e d a

(
∆E
E
100 ¿ % = 2
∆e
e (
× 100 %+ ) (∆d
d )
× 100 % +4 (
∆a
a
×100 ¿ %

∆E
( 100 ¿ % = ± 2× 0.05 % ± 0.1% ± 4 × 0.1%
E
∆E
( 100 ¿ % = ± ( 0.6 ) %
E
∆E
= 0.006
E
∆E
 Fractional error, = 0.006
E

Example 2: In an experiment wishing to determine the value of Young’s modulus, E of

steel wire of length ( 339 ± 0.1 ) cm is loaded by a mass of 2.0 kg and it is found
that it stretches by (0.224 ± 0.01) cm. The diameter of the wire as measured by a
screw gauge is (0.044 ± 0.001) cm. Calculate the numerical value of, E .

Solution
m gl
stress F/A Fl
Young’s modulus, E = = = = d2
strain e /l eA π e
4
Mwalonde B, 0714-053910/ 0767-053910 Page 19
 4mg l
E= 2
πd e
Applying natural logarithm on both sides

ln E = ln
πd e(
4mg l
2 )
ln E = ln ( 4mg l ) ln ( π d 2 e )
ln E = ln 4+ln m + ln g +Inl ln π−2 ln d +ln e
differentiating on both sides
∆E ∆m ∆l 2∆d ∆e
± =± ± ± ± but ∆ m = 0
E m l d e
for maximum error
∆E ∆l +2∆d +∆e
=
E l d e
∆E 0.1 2× 0.001 0.01
= + + = 0.09039 but
E 339 0.044 0.224

4mg l 4 ×2 × 9.8× 3.39

E = 2 = -2
11
-2 = 1.95×10 N/m
2
πd e 3.14 × 0.044 × 0.224
∆E = 0.09039×1.95 ×10 11 = 1.76×10 10 N/m2
 The numerical value of E = ( 1.95 ± 0.176 ) ×1011 N/m2.

Example 3: An experiment was done to find the acceleration due to gravity g using the formula

T =2 π
√ l
g , where T =2.19 seconds, and l =120 cm. Given that error due to the
meter rule is 0.5 mm and the error due to stop watch is 0.1seconds. If the clock
loses 6 seconds in each 10 minutes, calculate the numerical value of g.

Solution

T = 2π
g
l
√
Error due to clock
2.19× 6
∆ T1 = = 0.02 seconds
10× 60
Error due to stop watch, ∆ T2 = 0.1 seconds
 Total error in time measurement
∆T = 0.1+0.02 = 0.12 seconds

Mwalonde B, 0714-053910/ 0767-053910 Page 20

 2
4π l
g= 2
T
applying natural logarithm on both sides

ln g = ln ( )
4 π2l
T2
ln g = ln 4 π 2 + ln l  ln T2
differentiating
∆g ∆ l 2∆T
± =± ±
g l T
For maximum error
∆g ∆ l 2∆T
= +
g l T
∆g 0.05 2× 0.12
= +
g 120 2.19
∆g
= 0.11
g
4 π2 l 4 × 3.142 ×1.2
but g = 2 = 2 = 9.87 m/s2
T 2.19
∆ g = 0.11× 9.87 = ± 1.086 m/s2
 The numerical value of g = (9.87 ± 1.086) m/s2

Example 4: In the determination of the image distance V using the lens formula:
1 1 1
V
=  where f =20 ± 0.01 cm and u=30 ± 0.05 cm . Determine the
f u
possible percentage errors in f and u , and the actual possible error in the
calculated value of V.

Solution

1 u−f uf
V
= uf
, V=
u−f
Introducing natural logarithm on both sides

ln V = ln ( )
uf
u−f
ln V = ln u+ ln f ln ( u−f )
differentiating
∆V ∆ u ∆ f ( ∆u +∆ f )
± =± ± ±
V u f u−f
For maximum error

Mwalonde B, 0714-053910/ 0767-053910 Page 21

 ∆V ∆ u + ∆ f + ( ∆ u+ ∆ f )
V
= u f
----------------- (i)
u−f
∆V ∆u +∆ f ∆u ∆f
= + +
V u f u−f u−f
Percentage error in f is therefore

(∆ f ∆f
+
f u−f ) ×100

( 20 + 30−20 ) ×100
0.01 0.01
= 0.15 %

and the percentage error in u is given by

(
∆u ∆u
+
u u−f )
×100

( 0.05
30 30−20 )
+
0.05
×100 = 0.67%

From equation (i) above

∆V ∆ u + ∆ f + ( ∆ u+ ∆ f )
i.e
V
= u f
u−f
∆V 0.05 + 0.01 + ( 0.05+0.01 )
V
= 30 20 = 0.00817
30−20
uf 30× 20
but V = = = 60 cm
u−f 30−20
∆V = 0.00817×60 = ± 0.49
 The actual possible error in calculated value of V = ± 0.49

Example 5: The coefficient of viscosity of a liquid found by using stoke’s law is given by
2
2 gr
( ρs −ρ L )
= 9v , where
density of steel ball ,
ρs = ( 7800 ± 1.00 ) kgm-3 ,

density of liquid, ρ L = ( 1260 ± 1.00 ) kgm-3

the velocity of steel ball, v = ( 1 ± 0.01 ) ms-1 ,
radius of steel ball, r= ( 6.35 ± 0.005 ) mm and
acceleration due to gravity g = 9.8 ms-2
Calculate the numerical value of ‘

Solution

Mwalonde B, 0714-053910/ 0767-053910 Page 22

 2
2 gr
( ρs −ρ L )
= 9v

Applying natural logarithm on both sides

= + +2 + + +
ln ln 2 ln g ln r ln ( ρ s−ρl ) ln 9 ln v

differentiating
∆ = ± 2∆r ± ( ∆ ρs + ∆ ρl ) ± ∆ v
± r ρ s− ρ l v
For maximum error
2∆r + ( ∆ ρ s+ ∆ ρl ) + ∆ v
∆ =
r ρs −ρl v
2 ×0.005 + ( 1+1 ) + 0.01
∆ = = 0.01188
6.35 7800−1260 1
∆ = 0.01188×0.5743 = 0.00682
 The numerical value of = (0.5743± 0.00682) Ns m-2

Example 6: In an experiment to determine the volume of glass in a length of glass tubing the
following readings were recorded.
Length, l = ( 36 ± 0.1 ) mm
External radius, R = ( 4.0 ± 0.02 ) mm
Internal radius, r = ( 3.0 ± 0.02 ) mm
If the volume of glass is calculated using the relation V = πl ( R2 −r 2 )
(i) Find an expression for the fractional error in V
(ii) Calculate the percentage error in V using the above experimental results
(iii) Write the experimental value of V (including the order of accuracy).

Solution
(i) V = πl ( R2 −r 2 )
Applying natural logarithm on both sides
ln V = ln ( πl ( R2−r 2) )
ln V = ln π +ln l +ln ( R2 −r 2 )
ln V = ln π +ln l +ln ( ( R−r ) ( R+ r ) )
ln V = ln π +ln l +ln ( R−r ) +ln ( R+r )
differentiating
∆V ∆l ( ∆ R+ ∆ r ) ( ∆ R+ ∆ r )
±
V
= ±
l
± ±
R−r R+ r
For maximum error

Mwalonde B, 0714-053910/ 0767-053910 Page 23

 ∆V ∆l ( ∆ R+ ∆ r ) ( ∆ R+ ∆ r )
= + +
V l R−r R+ r
∆l ( ∆ R+ ∆ r ) ( ∆ R+ ∆ r )
The fractional error in V = + +
l R−r R+ r
∆V ∆l ( ∆ R+ ∆ r ) ( ∆ R+ ∆ r )
(ii) From = + +
V l R−r R+ r
∆V 0.1 ( 0.02+0.02 ) ( 0.02+0.02 )
= + + = 0.04849
V 36 4−3 4 +3

The fractional error in V = (∆V

V )
× 100 %

(0.04849×100 ¿ % = 4.85%
 The fractional error in V = 4.85%
(iii) Volume, V = πl ( R2 −r 2 ) = 3.14 × 0.036 × ( 0.004 2 - 0.0032 )
V = 7.9128×10−7 m3, hence
∆V = 7.9128×10−7 × 0.04849 = 3.8369×10−8 m3
 The experimental value of V = ( 7.9128 ± 0.3837 ) × 10−7 m3 .

Example 7: The length of a simple pendulum, which is about 50 cm, can be measured to
within 1 mm. What accuracy is required in the measurement of the time of
100 oscillations if the errors in length, l and period, T are to produce equal
percentage errors in the calculated value of g?.

Solution
For a simple pendulum,
T = 2π
2
4π l
√
l
g
or

g= 2
T
Applying natural logarithm on both sides

ln g = ln ( )
4 π2l
T2
ln g = ln 4 π 2 + ln l 2 ln T
Differentiating,
∆g ∆ l 2 ∆T
± =± ±
g l T
For maximum error
∆g ∆ l 2 ∆T
= +
g l T
Hence, for equal percentage errors,

Mwalonde B, 0714-053910/ 0767-053910 Page 24

 2∆T
T ( ×100 % = ) ∆l
l(× 100 % )
2∆T ∆l 1
= =
T l 50 0
1
∆T = T ------------------ (i)
100 0
The time T for one complete oscillation is given by,

T = 2π
l
g√
From eq (i)
= 2π
√
0.5
9.8
= 1.42

1
∆T = × 1.42 = 0.0014s
100 0
Hence for 100 oscillations, error should be about 0.00014× 100 = 0.14s,
 time must be measured to 0.1 s accuracy.

8. To determine the relative density of iron using a sonometer, a convenient load of iron weights
is placed on the sonometer. The distance between the bridges is adjusted until the wire is in
unison with a fork of frequency 250 Hz. The weight is then immersed totally in a bucket of
water. The distance is varied till it is in unison with the same fork again. The following
reading are obtained.
Length of wire when weight in air = 50.1 ± 0.3 cm
Length of wire when weight in water = 46.5 ± 0.5 cm
If the relative density R, of iron is given by the relation,
m
R= '
m−m
where m = mass of iron in air , m' = mass of iron when immersed in water,
(a) estimate the numerical value of relative density R of iron (including the order of
accuracy) using the relation given above.
(b) compute the percentage error in the calculated value of relative density of iron.

Solution
Applying

√
1 T = 1 mg
f =
2l ❑
2 2
2l √
4f l
m =
g
Similarly,
' 4 f 2 l' 2
m = , thus
g

Mwalonde B, 0714-053910/ 0767-053910 Page 25

 2 2
4f l
g l2
R = =
4 f 2 l 2 4 f 2 l '2 l 2−l '2
g g
where l = length of wire when weight in air and l ' = length of wire when weight in
water.
l2
R = 2 '2
l −l
applying natural logarithm on both sides

ln R = In ( )
l2
l 2−l ' 2
= ln l 2  ln ( ( l−l ' )( l +l ' ) )

Differentiating
∆R 2∆l ( ∆ l+ ∆ l ' ) ( ∆ l+∆ l' )
= + +
R l l−l ' l+l '
∆R 2 ×0.3 0.3 + 0.5 0.3 + 0.5
= + + = 0.2425
R 50.1 50.1 46.5 50.1+ 46.5
2
50.1
But R = 2 2 = 7.218
50.1 46.5
∆ R = 0.2425× 7.218 = 1.75
 The relative density of iron = 7.22 ±1.75
∆R
R
× 100 =
50.1 (
2 × 0.3
+
0.3 + 0.5
50.1 46.5
+
0.3 + 0.5
50.1+ 46.5
×100 = 24% )
9. It is given that v 2 = u2 + 2a s. If u = ( 16 ± 0.1 ) m/s, a = ( 4 ± 0.2 ) m/s2 , s = ( 30 ± 0.3 ) m;
calculate the value of v .

Solution
Given; v 2 = u2 + 2a s --------------------- (i)
Let x = u2
applying natural logarithm on both sides,
In x = ln u2
∆x 2∆u
Differentiating , =
x u
2∆u 2∆u
∆x = .x = . u2 = 2u ∆ u
u u
Let y = 2a s
applying natural logarithm
In y = ln ( 2 as )

Mwalonde B, 0714-053910/ 0767-053910 Page 26

 ∆y ∆a ∆s
Differentiating, = +
y a s

∆y = ( ∆a ∆ s
a
+
s ) .y = (∆a ∆ s
a
+
s ) 2a s = 2s∆ a + 2a ∆ s

Thus, v 2 = x + y
applying natural logarithm and then differentiating gives,
2∆v ∆ x+ ∆ y 2u ∆u+ 2 s ∆ a+2 a ∆ s 2 ×16 × 0.1 + 2× 30 × 0.2 + 2× 4 × 0.3
= = = 2 =
v x+ y 2
u +2 a s 16 + 2× 4 ×× 30
0.03548
∆v
= 0.01774
v
but v = √ u2 +2 a s = √ 162 + 2 × 4 × 30 = 22.271 m/s
∆ v = 0.01774× 22.271 = 0.395
 The value of v = ( 22.271 ± 0.395 ) m/s
PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE

1. In measuring the surface tension, T of the liquid by using a U – tube, the following results
were obtained;
The measured height of the tube = ( 10 ± 0.05 ) mm.
The measured radius of the first limb of the tube, r 1 = ( 0.5 ± 0.01 ) mm
The measured radius of the second limb of the tube, r 2 = ( 0.75 ± 0.01) mm
Compute the numerical value of T for the relation

(1 1
2T −
r1 r2 ) = ρgh ,( where ρ = 103 kgm-3 and g = 9.8 ms-2 ). [ ( 7.35 ± 0.86975 ) ×10 -2 N/m ]

2. (b) The velocity v of waves of wavelength  on the surface of a pool of liquid,

whose surface tension and density are  and ρ respectively, is given by
2 g 2π
v = + , where g it acceleration due to gravity.
2π ρ
(i) Show that the equation is dimensionally correct.

(ii) A vibrator of frequency (480 ± 1) Hz produces, on the surface of

water, waves whose wavelength is (0.125 ± 0.001) cm. Assuming
that for this wavelength the first term on the right – hand side of the
equation in (b) (i) above is negligible, calculate the value which these
results give for the surface tension of water
( Density of water = 1000 kgm 3 ). [ ( 7.2 ± 0.2 ) × 10-2 N/m ]
3. (a) You are given two resistances,R 1 = ( 4.0 ± 0.1 )  and. R 2 = ( 9.2 ± 0.1 )  . Calculate
their

Mwalonde B, 0714-053910/ 0767-053910 Page 27

 effective resistance when they are connected in parallel. [ ( 2.29 ± 0.142 ) ]
π
(b) A certain physical quantity is calculated from the formula; V=
3
( a 2−b2 ) h
where a, b and h are all lengths. Derive an expression for the maximum percentage error

in the measurement of V. (( ∆ a+ ∆ b ∆ a+∆ b ∆ h

a−b
+
a+b
+
h ) )
×100 %

4. In an experiment to determine the acceleration due to gravity g, a small ball bearing is

timed while falling freely from rest through a measured vertical height. The following
data was obtained; vertical height h= ( 40 ± 0.1 ) cm, time taken t = ( 286 ± 1.0 ) ×10-3 s.
Calculate the numerical value of g from the experimental data. Clearly specify the errors
[ ( 9.78 ± 0.0928 ) m s
-2
]

5. An experimenter wishing to determine the mass per unit area of an annular ring obtains
the following readings;
Mass, m = 0.20 ± 0.01 kg
External diameter, R2 = 10.0 ± 0.1 mm
Internal diameter, R1= 9.4.0 ± 0.1 mm
The mass per unit area ‘’ of the annular ring is calculated using the formula;
4m
ρ=
π ( R 2 −R 2 )
2 1

Estimate the numerical value of ρ from these readings.[ ( 2.189 ± 0.862 ) ×10 4 kg m -2 ]

a b −c
6. (a) A physical quantity X has the dimensional formula; M L T . If the percentage errors in
the measurement of mass, length and time are α %, β % and γ % respectively, find the

maximum percentage error in the measurement of X [ ( aα + b +c ) % ]

(b) In an experiment to determine the value of Young’s modulus of elasticity of brass, a
wire of brass of length 101 cm (measured by a metre scale with least count 0.01cm)
is loaded by 1.0 kg and it is found that it stretches by 0.12 cm (measured by a
metre scale with least count 0.01 cm).The diameter of the wire (as measured by a
screw gauge of least count 0.001cm) is found to be 0.34mm. Calculate
(i) the maximum possible error and [ ± 0.811×1010 N m-2 ]
(ii) percentage error if the actual value of Y for brass is 9×1010Nm-2 [ 0.89 % ]

Mwalonde B, 0714-053910/ 0767-053910 Page 28

 mg l
7. The Young’s modulus Y of a material is given by the relation Y = 2
πr e
If the percentage errors in w (= mg), l , r and e are 0.6 %. 1 %, 2 % and 5 %
respectively
(i) What is the percentage error in Y?. [ 10.6% ]
(ii) If the calculated value of Y is 18.94 ×10 Nm , how will you quote the results?.
10 -2

[ ( 18.9 ± 1.99 ) × 1010 N m-2 ]

8. (a) The following observations were taken for finding the surface tension, T of water by
capillary rise method,
Diameter of the capillary, D = 10 ± 0.01 cm
Rise of water in the capillary, h = 29.8 ± 0.01 cm
Dρgh −3
Taking g =9.8ms-2 and using the relation, T = ×10 Nm-1
4
Calculate the permissible error in surface tension T.
[ -3
± 0.0975× 10 N m
-1
]

(b) In an experiment with simple pendulum, a time measured was 66 s for 30 vibrations,
when the length of the pendulum was taken as 124 cm. If the least count of the stop
watch is 0.1s and that of metre scale is 0.01cm
(i)Calculate the maximum permissible error in measurement of the
value of g. [ ± 0.9189 m s-2 ]
(ii) If the actual value of g at the place of experiment is 9.7915ms-2
Calculate the percentage error in this experiment. [ 3.19 % ]

9. In an experiment of determining the frequency of a.c with a sonometer using the relation
n=
√
1 mg
2l μ
, where all the symbols have their usual meanings and mass per unit length of

the wire has been written as ‘’, the following set of readings were taken by a student;
l = 60 ± 0.1 cm
m = 412 ± 0.1 g
 = ( 1.087 ± 0.01287 ) ×10 3 kgm−1
Calculate the numerical value of n. [ ( 50 ± 0.385 ) s -1 ]

10. The viscosity η of a liquid, flowing through a capillary tube of length L and
4
V π ( P2−P 1) r
radius r is given by equation, = where P1 and P2 are pressures
t 8 ηl
existing at the end of the tube, t is time taken by the liquid of volume V to pass

Mwalonde B, 0714-053910/ 0767-053910 Page 29

 through the tube.

(i) Calculate the percentage error in η using the following experimental results.
Length,l=64 ±0.01 cm, radius, r = 0.5 ± 0.001 mm
Pressure, P1 = (3.9± 0.05) ×10 3 Nm-2
Pressure, P2 = (5.6± 0.05) ×10 3 Nm-2
Time = 60.0± 0.1 s and volume V = 4.0 ± 0.01 cm3. [ 7.1% ]
(ii) Quote the value of η (including the order of accuracy).
[ ( 0.977 ± 0.0695 ) ×10 -3 Ns m-2 ]
11. Compute the numerical value of J and its Uncertainty in it for the relation

J= (
I2 R t
)
W +m θ , given that
I = 2.5 ± 0.05 R =11.36 ± 0.01
W= 21 ±1, m = 155 ± 1
θ= 28 ± 0.5 t = 298 ± 0.5 [ 4.293 ± 0.308 ]

12. The density of a uniform cylinder is determined by measuring its mass, m length l and
diameter d . Calculate the density (in kgm 3 ) and its error from the following values:
m = 47.36 ± 0.01 g;
l = 15.28 ± 0.05 mm;
d = 21.37 ± 0.04 mm [ ( 8.64 ± 0.062 ) × 103 kg m-3 ]

13. When a torsion wire of radius r and length l is fixed at one end and subjected to a
couple of moment C at the other. The angular displacement  is given by:
2lC
 =
π r4
where  is the rigidity modulus of the material of the wire. The following values are
obtained:
❑ 1 1
±
C = 4.00 0.12 radN m
r = 1.0 ± 0.02 mm
l = 500 ± 0.02 mm
Calculate the value of  and its standard error. [ ( 7.958 ± 0.876 ) × 1010 N rad 1 m 2 ]

14. The theoretical formula of period T is given by

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 √
2 2
T = 2π b + 3 a , where g is the acceleration due to gravity.
2ag
Calculate the value of g obtained from the following values;
a = ( 10.270 ± 0.005 ) cm
b = ( 12.540 ± 0.005 ) cm
T = ( 0.964 ± 0.002 ) sec [ ( 9.797 ± 0.063 ) m s 2 ]

CHAPTER 2

MOTION OF PROJECTILE

Introduction
If a body is thrown with an initial velocity in the vertical plane and then it moves in two
dimensions under the action of gravity alone without being propelled by any engine of fuel, such
a body is called Projectile. Its motion is called projectile motion. The path that a thrown or
launched projectile will take under the action of gravity alone is called trajectory of projectile..
Examples of projectile motion includes;

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 (i) A packet released from an airplane in flight
(ii) A golf ball in flight
(iii) A bullet fired from a rifle
(iv) A jet of water from a hole near the bottom of a water tank
(v) An athlete doing the high jump
Projectile motion is a case of two dimensional motions. Any case of two dimensional can be
resolved into two cases of one dimensional motion- one along the x  axis and the other along
y  axis. What is important to remember is that the motion of the horizontal direction does not
affect the motion along the vertical direction and vice versa. Horizontal motion and vertical
motion are totally independent of each other. We will study the two cases separately.

In actual practice, the motion of projectile is affected by air resistance. The effect of air
resistance on the behavior of projectile is quite complex, so when dealing with projectile
motion , all effects of air resistance will be ignored, so that our results apply only to motion in a
vacuum on a flat, non rotating earth.
The gravitational force on a projectile is directed toward the centre of the earth. Here we shall
consider only trajectories which are sufficiently short range so that the gravitational force can be
considered constant in magnitude and direction.

The x−¿ component of the force on the projectile is then zero and the y-component is the weight
of the projectile, −mg.Then Newton’s second law gives,
F F −mg
a x=¿¿ x = 0, a y ¿ y = = g ,
m m m
that is, the horizontal component of acceleration is zero and the vertical component is downward
and equal to that of a freely falling body. Zero acceleration means that, the x−¿ velocity remains
constant. Thus, the projectile motion can be described as a combination of horizontal with
constant velocity and vertical motion with constant acceleration.
Suppose a body is projected with an initial velocity V0 at an angle  with the horizontal as
clearly shown in Fig 2.1

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 Motion along the horizontal
The horizontal components, Vx ( Vx0 = V0 cos❑ ) of the velocity is constant because there is no
horizontal acceleration. At any instant of time t, the position of projectile along x  direction is
1
x=V x 0t + a x t 2
2
x=V x t=V x 0t = ( V 0 cos ❑) t ----------- (i)

Motion along the vertical

The initial vertical component of velocity is V0 sin❑ and it changes at constant rate with time
due to downward force of gravity. This component first decreases, becomes zero at the highest
point and then increases again when the body starts moving downwards. At any time t, the
projectile is at point P( x . y ¿ and its position along y-direction is given by
1
y=V y 0 t + a y t 2 but a y =−¿g and Vy0 = V 0 sin❑ . It follows that
2
1
y=¿( V 0 sin❑ )t− gt2 ---------- (ii)
2

Velocity of projectile at any time t

If Vx and Vy are the horizontal and the vertical components of velocity after time t, then
V x =V 0 cos❑ and
Vy = V y0 + a y t but a y =  g and V y0 = V0 sin❑ , thus
Vy = V 0 sin❑  gt
Therefore, the magnitude of the resultant velocity after time t, is given by
|V| = √ V 2x +V 2y
|V| = √ ( V 0 cos❑ )2 + ( V 0 sin❑−¿ )2
The angle  which the resultant velocity makes with the horizontal direction at time t is

given by, tan = ( )

Vy
Vx
=
V 0 sin ❑−¿
V 0 cos❑
,  = tan (
−1 V 0 sin ❑−¿
V 0 cos❑ )
Position of projectile after any time t
The horizontal and vertical displacements after time t are:
1
x=¿ ( V 0 cos ❑) t; y=¿( V0 sin )t− gt2
2
Trajectory equation: eliminating t from the above two equations, we get the equation of
the trajectory of the projectile as

( )
2
x x
y=¿( V 0 sin❑ ) ( ¿ −1 g
V 0 cos❑ 2 V 0 cos❑

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 2
g
y = x tan −¿ ¿ 2 2
x
2V 0 cos
y = ax +b x 2 -------------------------------------------- (iii)
g
where a=tan❑ and b ¿− 2 ,are constants.
2 V 0 cos 2
Equation (iii) represents a parabola. Thus, the path of a projectile is a parabola.

Maximum height attained by a particle in projectile motion

Suppose a body is projected with initial velocity V0 at an angle  with the horizontal as clearly
shown in figure 2.2

The vertical distance travelled by the body in time t is give by

1
y=¿( V 0 sin❑ )t− gt2 ----------- (i)
2
and the vertical components of velocity after time t is , V y = V 0 sin❑ - gt , but at
maximum
height Vy = 0 ,
i.e V 0 sin❑  gt = 0
V sin
t= 0
g

Substituting the value of t into eq (i) and putting y = Hmax gives

Hmax ¿( V 0 sin❑ )(
g
)− g
2 g(
V 0 sin 1 V0 sin 2
)

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 2 2 2 2 2 2
V 0 sin V 0 sin V 0 sin
Hmax = =
2g 2g 2g
2 2
V sin
Maximum height, Hmax = 0 --------------------------------------------------- ( i )
2g

Alternatively
Applying third equation of uniform motion, we have
Vy = V y0 + 2 a y y , but y = Hmax , a y = g , Vy0 = V 0 sin❑
2 2

and V y = 0 at maximum height.

2
0 = ( V 0 sin❑ )  2gHmax
2 2
V 0 sin
 Hmax =
2g

Time of flight, T

The time of flight (T) is the time it takes for the projectile to finish its trajectory.
The position y of the projectile along y-axis at any time t is given by
1
y=¿( V 0 sin❑ )t− gt2
2
When projectile return to ground, its vertical displacement is zero (i.e y = 0 ).
1
Therefore, 0 =( V 0 sin )T − gT2
2
1 2
gT = ( V0 sin❑ ) T
2
2 V 0 sin❑
Time of flight, T =
g

Horizontal Range (R)

The horizontal distance between the point of projection and the point where the trajectory meets
the horizontal plane passing through the point of projection is called the horizontal range.
The position of the projectile along x-axis at any time t is given by
x=¿ ( V 0 cos ❑) t but at maximum horizontal displacement (i.e Range ),
2 V 0 sin❑
t = time of flight, T = and x=¿ R
g

R = ( V 0 cos ) (2V 0 sin ❑

g
= 0 )
V 2 ( 2 sin cos ❑)
g
but 2 sin cos = sin 2
2
V sin 2
 Range, R = 0
g

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 Maximum horizontal range (Rmax)
Maximum range occurs when sin 2 = 1
i.e 2 = sin −1 ( 1 ) = 900
 = 450
V 20
Rmax =
g
The horizontal range is maximum for the projectile which is launched at a projection angle
of 450.
Note that, for a given velocity, these are two angles of projection for which the range is
π
the same. If one of these angles is, the other is  .
2

Particle projected at an angle with the vertical

Suppose a particle is projected at an angle  with the vertical. Let the initial velocity of the
particle be V 0.

In this case, projection angle = 90   .

The horizontal and vertical displacements after time t are:

x = ( V 0 cos ¿ ¿t = ( V 0 sin ) t ;
−1 2 −1 2
y = ( V0 sin ( 90- ) ) t gt = ( V0 cos ) t gt
2 2
and the maximum height and Range of the particle become:
2 2 2 2
V sin ( 90- ) V cos
Hmax = 0 = 0 and
2g 2g
2 V 20 sin 2
R = V0 sin2 ¿ ¿ ¿ =
g

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 Projection of the particle from the top of the hill
Suppose a body is projected with initial velocity V0 at an angle of elevation  with the
horizontal from the top of the hill of height h as shown in figure 2.4

In this case the value of y is negative since it is below the point of projection.
−1 2
i.e −¿ y = ( V0 sin ) t gt
2

3. Horizontal projection
Suppose a body is projected horizontally from at a height h with a speed V 0 .

The horizontal distance travelled by the body in

time t is

x = ( V x0 cos 0 ) t = Vx0t = V x t --------------- (i)

For vertical motion
−1 2
 y = ( Vy0 sin 0 ) t gt but y = h
2
−1 2
h= gt
2

t=
√ 2h
g

Trajectory of projectile
1 x
y = gt2 but t = from eq (i)
2 V 0

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 ( ) 1 g 2
2
1 x
y= g = 2 2x
2 V 0 V0
1 g
y = k x 2 where k = 2 2 =constant
V0
This is the equation of parabola. Therefore, the path of the projectile is parabolic.

A body projected downward at an angle of  with the horizontal

Suppose a projectile is fired with initial velocity V 0 at an angle  with the horizontal.
The horizontal distance covered by projectile is given by
x = ( V0 cos ( - ) ) t = ( V 0 cos ) t -------(i)
and for vertical motion
1
y = ( V0 sin ( - )) t  g t 2 but y = h
2
1
 h = ( V0 sin ) t + g t 2 ---------(ii)
2

Application of projectile motion in real life / every day life.

1. In military activities: Any soldier who has to bomb a particular place using an airplane or a
tank must calculate the velocity and angle of throw for the bomb to hit the target.
2. It is widely used by people who extinguish fire. People who has to extinguish fire in a little
longer distance from their stay show the tubes in an angle so that the water hits the fire, thus
extinguishing it.
3.It is used when, sometimes, food packets are thrown from helicopters in times of intense
famine the distance from which the packets are thrown is important. If it is not calculated
correctly, the food packets may fall in some other place.
4. It is most used by sportsmen especially the javelin, shot put, hammer throw etc. It is also
used by men of archery and shooting.

TYPICAL SOLVED EXAMPLES

Example 1. A ball is projected with a speed of 20 m/s at an angle of 300 with the horizontal
plane. Calculate
(i) time of flight of the ball
(ii) the maximum height attained
(iii) the horizontal range of projectile
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 (iv) the magnitude and direction of its velocity after 2 seconds.

Solution

(i) Time of flight, T is given by

2V0 sin
T= = 2x20
9.8
sin30 0
= 2.0 s
g
(ii) using the equation V2y = V2y0 – 2gy ,but y = Hmax
and V y = 0 at maximum height.
2
0 = ( V 0 sin❑ )  2gHmax ,
2 2
V 0 sin 202 ( sin30 0 )2
Hmax = = = 5.0m
2g 2 x 9.8
(iii) the range is given by
V 20 sin 2 202 sin 2 ( 300 )
R= =¿ = 35.3m
g 9.8

(iv) the horizontal component of velocity after any time t is given by

Vx = V0 cos = 20× cos 300 = 17.32 m/s
and the vertical component of velocity is
V y = V 0 sin❑ - gt = 20× sin30 0  9.8×2 = 9.6 m
the magnitude of the resultant velocity after time t, is given by
V = √ V 2x +V 2y = √ 17.322+ (−9,6 )2 = 19.8m/s
and its direction to the horizontal is

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 tan =
( )
Vy
Vx
,  = tan
-1
( 17.32
9.6
) = 290 below horizontal.

Example.2 A man throws a shot at an angle of 600 with the horizontal plane from a height of
2.0 m. If the shot strikes the ground at a horizontal distance of 40 m, find the
velocity of the throw.

Solution

Let V 0 be the velocity of the throw.

For vertical motion

1
 y = ( V0 sin ) t  g t 2
2
1 2
 2 = ( V 0 sin 600) t  ×9.8 t -------(i)
2
For horizontal motion
x = ( V0 cos ) t
40 = ( V0 cos 60 0 ) t
40
t= 0 ------ (ii)
V 0 cos 60
1. substituting the value of t into eq (i)

( ) ( )
2
40 1 40
2 = ( V 0 sin 600) 0 
×9.8
V 0 cos 60 2 V0 cos 600
31,360
2 = 40 tan60 0 
V20
V0 = ¿ ¿ = 21 m/s
 Velocity of the throw , V 0 = 21 m/s

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Example 3. Three seconds after projection, a projectile is moving at 300 above the horizontal,
after two more seconds it is moving horizontally. Find the magnitude and direction
of its initial velocity.

Solution
V
Let 0 be the initial speed and  be the angle of projection.

Since after 5 seconds the projectile is moving horizontally, it must be at

V 0 sinβ
the highest point with time, t = 5 =
g
V0 sin = 5× 9.8 = 49 --------------(i)
Let V be the speed after 3 seconds. Then
V x = V 0 cos = V cos 300 -----------(ii)
and Vy = V 0 sin  gt = V sin30 0
49 9.8×3 =19.6 = V sin30 0 ------(iii)
19.6
V= 0 = 39.2 m/s
sin 30
Eq.(ii) gives, Vx = V 0 cos = 39. 2× cos 300 = 33.95 -------(iv)
Dividing eq (i) by eq (iv) gives
49
tan =
33.95

 = tan
−1
( 49
33.95 )= 550
49
and V 0 = = 59.8 m/s
sin 550

Example 4. A particle is aimed at a mark which is in the same horizontal plane as the point of
projection. It falls 10 m short of the target when it is projected with an elevation of
750 and falls 10 m ahead of the target when it is projected with an elevation of
450. Find the correct elevation of projection so that it exactly hits the target. It is
given that the initial velocity of projection is the same in each case.
Mwalonde B, 0714-053910/ 0767-053910 Page 41
 Solution

Let the distance of the target be R.Then

V20 sin 1500
R10 = -----(i)
g
2 0
V sin 90
R + 10 = 0 ------ (ii)
g
adding eqs (i) and (ii) ,we get
2
V0
2R = ( sin 1500 + sin 900 )
g
3 V 20
R= ------- (iii)
4 g
If  is the correct elevation, then
2
V sin 2
R= 0 -------(iv)
g
Eqs (iii) and (iv) gives
3 V 20 V 2 sin 2
= 0
4 g g

sin 2 =
3
4
,  = sin
2 ()
1 −1 3
4
= 24.30

Example 5. A ball is thrown at a point 200 m from the foot edge of a vertical cliff 80 m high
with velocity of V 0 at an angle 30o above the horizontal. If the ball makes a
perfectly elastic collision with the edge of the cliff.
(i) Find the value of Vo
(ii) How far behind the thrower does the ball strike the ground?

Solution

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 Applying the trajectory equation
g 2
y = x tan❑  2
x
2V
g 2
x =¿ x tan  y
2V 2
2
g
2
9.8
2
V0 = x = 0 2
× 200
2 ( x tan− y ) 2 ( cos 30 ) ( 200 tan 30 80 )
0

( )
1/2
9.8 × 2002
V0 = = 85.84 m/s
1.5 ( 35.47 )
but x = ( V 0 cos ) t
The horizontal and vertical components of velocity at any time t are given
by Vx = V 0 cos = 85.84 cos 300 = 74.34 m/s and
Vy = V 0 sin  gt = 85.84 sin 300  9.8× 2.69 = 16.56 m/s
Applying, V= √ V x + V y = √ ( 74.34 )2 + (16.56 )2 = 76.16 m/s
2 2

and  = tan
-1
( )
Vy
Vx
= tan
-1
(16.56
74.34 )
= 12.6 0

trajectory equation gives

g 2
 y = x tan❑  x
2V 2
9.8
80 = x tan 12.60  2 2 x
2
2 ( 76.16 ) cos 12.6
9.8
 80 = 0.2235 x  x
2
11,048.655
2
9.8 x  2469.37 x 883892.4 = 0
Solving for x ,we get
x=¿ 451.67 m or 199.69 m.
Since x can’t be negative, therefore the
value of x = 451.67 m.
But x ' +200=¿ 451.67
'
x =¿ 251.67 m
 The ball will strike the ground 251.67 m behind the thrower.

Example 6. Two guns situated on the top of a hill of height 10 m, fire one shot each at the same
√
speed of 5 3 m/s at some interval of time. One gun fires horizontally and other
fires upwards at an angle of 60 o with the horizontal. The shots collide in air at a

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 point P. Find;

(i) The time interval between the firings

(ii) The coordinates of the point P. Take the origin of the coordinate system at the
foot of the hill right below the muzzle and the trajectory x-y plane

Solution.

Let the time taken by the shot which is projected at 600 and by that which is
projected horizontally to reach the point P be t 1 and t 2 , respectively. We have
1 2
 ( 10  y) = ( V0 sin 60 ) t 1  g t 1
0
2
1 2
y = 10 +5 √ 3 sin 600 × t 1  ( 9.8 ) t 1 ---------------------------- (i)
2
x=¿ ( 5 √ 3 cos 60 0 ) t 1 --------------------------------------------- (ii)
1 2
 ( 10  y) = ( V 0 sin 0 ) t 2  g t 2
2
1 2
y = 10  ( 9.8 ) t 2 ------------------------------------------------(iii)
2
x=¿ ( 5 √ 3 cos 0 0 ) t 2 ----------------------------------------------(iv )
Equating equations (i) and (iii), we have
1 2 1 2
10 +5 √ 3 sin 600 × t 1 ( 9.8 ) t 1 =¿ 10  ( 9.8 ) t 2
2 2
2 2
7.5 t 1 4.9t 1 =  4.9 t 2 ---------------------------------------------(v)

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 And, ( 5 √ 3 cos 60 0 ) t 1 = ( 5 √ 3 cos 0 ) t 2
0.5 t 1 = t 2
t 1 = 2 t 2 -------------------------------------------------------------(vi)
Substituting the value of t 1 into equation (v), we get
2
7.5(2 t 2) 4.9( 2 t 2 ) =  4.9 t 2
2

15 t 2 19.6 t 2 +4.9 t 2 = 0
2 2

15 = 14.7 t 2 , t 2 = 1s and t 1 = 2 s
Time interval between the firings = t 1 t 2 = 1s
Coordinates of P are:
x=¿ ( 5 √ 3 cos 60 0 ) ×2 = 5 √ 3 m, and
1 2
y = 10 +5 √ 3 sin 600 × 2  ( 9.8 ) 2 = 5 m
2

Example 7.An anti tank gun is located on the edge of a plateau that is 60 m above the
surrounding plain. The gun crew sights an enemy tank standing stationary on the
plain on a horizontal distance of 2.2 km from the gun. At the same moment, the tank
crew sees the gun, he starts to move directly away from it with an acceleration of
0.9 m/s2. If the antitank fires a shell with the muzzle velocity of 240m/s at an
elevation of 10 o above the horizontal, how long should the gun crew wait if the
shell has to hit the tank?

Solution

Motion of projectile,
1
 y = ( V0 sin )t  gt2
2
1 2
60 = ( 240 sin 100 ) t  ( 9.8 ) t
2
 60 = 41.68 t 4.9 t 2

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 4.9 t 2 41.68 t  60 =
41.68 √ ( 41.68 ) 4 (4.9)( 60)
2
t =
2 × 4.9
41.68 ± 53.97
t= = 9.76 s .
9.8
The position of the projectile along x-direction is given by
x=¿ ( V 0 cos )t = 240cos 10 0 × 9.76 = 2,306.81 m but
'
x = x−¿ 2200 = 2,306.81 2200 = 106.81 m
For the tank crew
1 2
√ √
'
2 x = 2 ×106.81 = 15.41s
x =¿ 2 a t , t =
'

a 0.9
The gun crew should wait 15.41  9.76 = 5.65 s if the shell has to hit the
tank.

Example 8. A missile P is projected from a point A with velocity 21 m/s at an angle α to the
horizontal. One second later, a missile Q is projected from a point 0.3 m below A
with initial velocity 31.5 m/s at an angle β to the horizontal. Given that
4 4 3 3
tan α = 3 3 and tan β = 4 4
(i) Prove that the particles collide
(ii) Find the time of the collision
(iii) Find the direction in which each missile is moving just before collision.

Solution

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 Let the time taken by the missile P until it collides with the missile Q be t,
then the time taken by the missile Q will be ( t 1) .
Motion of missile P.
1
y1 =( V0 sin α ) t  g t 2
2
y1 = ( 21 sin 53.1 )t  4.9 t 2
0

y1 = 16.79 t 4.9 t 2 -------- (i)

x 1 = ( V 0 cos α ) t = ( 21 cos 53.10 ) t
x 1=¿ 12.6 t ------- (ii)
Motion of missile Q
1
y2 =( V 0 sin ) ¿ t 1)  g( t 1 )2
2
y2 = ( 31.5 sin 36.9 ) ( t 1 )  4.9( t 1 )2
0

y2 = 18.91¿ t 1) 4.9( t 1 )2 --------- (iii)

x 2 = ( V0 cos ) ¿ t 1) = ( 31.5 cos 36.90 ) ¿ t 1)
x 2=¿ 25.19¿ t 1) ------- (iv)
From the figure above
y2  y1 = 0.3
18.91¿ t 1) 4.9( t 1 )2  16.79 t + 4.9 t 2 = 0.3
18.91 t 18.914.9 t 2 +9.8 t 4.9 16.79 t + 4.9 t 2 = 0.3
11.92 t = 24.11,
t = 2.0 s and t1 = 1.0 s .Thus
x 1=¿ 12.6 t = 12.6×2 = 25.2 m nd
x 2=¿ 25.19¿ t 1) = 25.19¿ 2 1) = 25.2 m
Since x 1=x 2 , it is clear that the two missiles collide.
(ii) The missile P and Q will collide 1.0 s after Q is projected
(iii) The direction of missile p is given by

 = tan
-1 V y
Vx ( ) = tan (
-1 V 0 sin -gt
V0 cos )
 = tan
-1
(
21 sin 53.10 9.8×2
21 cos 53.10 ) =  12.60

 Direction, = 12.60 below the horizontal.

Similary, for the missile Q,

 = tan
-1 V y
Vx ( )
= tan (
-1 V 0 sin -gt
V0 cos )
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 ( )
0
-1 31.5 sin 36.9 9.8×1
 = tan 0 = 19.9
31.5 cos 36.9
 Direction of the missile Q = 19.90 above the horizontal.

√
Example 9: A particle is projected with a velocity 2 gh so that it just clears two walls of
equal heights ‘h’ in time t 1 and t 2 respectively. The two walls are at a
distance of ‘2 h’ from each other. If the time of passing between the two walls

is
2
√ h
g,
( i ) find the angle of projection

( ii ) show that
t1 +t 2 =2
√ 3h
g

Solution
Suppose a particle is projected with initial velocity V 0 at an angle of
elevation β with the horizontal.

Let  = angle of projection, t 1 and t 2=¿ times of the particle on

passing points R and P respectively
Motion of the particle along x-direction,
x 1 = ( V 0 cos ) t 1 = ( 2 √ gh cos ) t 1 --------(i)
x 2 = ( V0 cos ) t 2 = ( 2 √ gh cos ) t 2 -------(ii)
Motion of the particle along y- direction
y =h
1 1
( V0 sin ) t1−¿ 2 g t 21 = ( V 0 sin ) t 2−¿ 2 g t 22
1 1
( 2 √ gh sin ) t1−¿ g t 21 = ( 2 √ gh sin ) t2−¿ g t 22 ---------(iii)
2 2

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 but x 2  x 1 = 2h = ( 2 √ gh cos ) t 2 ( 2 √ gh cos ) t 1
2 √ gh cos ( t 2−t 1 ) = 2h
2h
cos = = 2h
2 √ gh × ( t 2−t 1 )
2h
cos =
2 √ gh × 2
h =
g √
1
2
, t 2−t 1=¿ 2 h
g √
 = cos
−1 1
2 () = 600

From equation (iii)

1 1
( 2 √ gh sin ) t1−¿ g t 21 = ( 2 √ gh sin ) t2−¿ g t 22
2 2
1
2 √ gh sin ( t 2−t 1 ) = g¿  t 21 ¿
2
1
2 √ gh sin ( t 2−t 1 ) = g ( t 2−t 1 ) ( t 2 +t 1)
2
t 2+ t 1 = 4 √ gh sin = 4 √ gh × sin 600
g g
t 2+ t 1 = 4 √ gh × √ 3 = 2 3 h
g 2 √ g

Example 10. A heavy particle is projected from a point O at an angle of elevation β and
describes a parabola under gravity. If the distance between the two points on the
parabola which are at height h above the horizontal is 2b, show that
4b2 = R ( R 4 hcot β ).

Solution

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 Let t 1 and t 2=¿ times of the particle on passing points R and P respectively
Horizontal positions of the particle are given by
x 1 = ( V0 cos ) t 1 --------- (i)
x 2 = ( V 0 cos ) t 2 ------ (ii)
and its vertical position is given by
1 1
y = h = ( V0 sin ) t 1−¿ g t 21 = ( V 0 sin ) t 2−¿ g t 22
2 2
g t  2 V 0 sin β×t + 2h = 0
2

t= √ 2
2V 0 sin β ± ( 2 V 0 sin β ) −4 g ( 2 h )
2g
2V 0 sin β ± √ 4 V 0 sin β−8 gh
2 2
t=
2g
V 0 sin β ± √ V 20 sin2 β−2 gh
t=
g

V 0 sin β− √ V 0 sin β−2 gh

2 2
t1 = , and
g

t 2 = V 0 sin β + √ V 0 sin β −2 gh
2 2

g
Subtracting eq (i) from eq (ii), we get
x 2  x 1 = 2b = V 0 cos ( t 2 t 1 )

2b = V 0 cos
( V 0 sin β+ √V 20 sin 2 β−2 gh V 0 sin β− √ V 20 sin2 β−2 gh
g
(
g )
)

2b = V 0 cos (√ 2 V 20 sin 2 β−2 gh

g ) , squaring on both sides

4 b2 = 4 V 20 cos2 β
(V 20 sin2 β−2 gh )
2
g

( ) ( )
2 2 2 2
2 V 0 sin β cos β 2h V 0 cos β
b = −
g g
2 2
V sin 2 β 2V 0 sin β cos β
but R = 0 =
g g
2
V 0 sin β cos β h 2 gR
=
2
, and V 0 =
2sin β cos β
, thus
g

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 () ( ( ))
2 2
h 2 h cos β gR
b2 = −
2 g 2 sin β cos β
2 h2 hRcosβ
b = 
4 sin β
2
h
b2 =  hR cot β
4

4 b2 = h2 4hR cot β
4 b2 = h ( h 4R cot β ) , hence shown

11. A body falling freely from a given height 20 m above the horizontal hits an inclined plane in
its path at a height h .As a results of this impact the direction of the velocity of the body
becomes horizontal. For what value of h will the body take maximum time to reach the
ground ?

Solution

Let the initial height of the body be H.

If t 1 is the time taken by body to fall through a height

of ( H−h ) , then

1 2
( H−h ) = gt
2 1

t1 =
√ 2 (H h )
g
------------- (i)

After striking the inclined plane the vertical

component of velocity becomes zero.
Therefore, the time t 2 taken to reach the ground
from height h becomes
t2 = 2h
g √
Total time t taken to reach the ground is
----------- (ii)

t = t1 + t2 =
2 (H h )
g √ √
+ 2h
g

t =
√ 2
g
( √( H h ) + √ h )
dt
For t to be maximum =0
dh

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 i.e 
1
2 ( 1
( H−h ) )
1/ 2 +
1 1
2 h1/ 2
=0
1
1 /2
( H−h ) = h 2

Hh = h
2h = H = 20 m
h = 10 m
 The value of h at which the body takes maximum time to reach the ground is 10 m.

12. A hunter aims his gun and fires a bullet directly at a monkey in a tree. At the
instant the bullet leaves the barrel of the gun, the monkey drops. Will the bullet
hit the monkey? Substantiate your answer with proper reasoning

Solution

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 The horizontal distance travelled by the bullet OQ = x = ( v 0 cos ❑ ) t
x
t= --------------------------------------- (i)
v 0 cos❑
Fot the vertical motion of the bullet.
1
PQ = y = ( V0 sin ) t  g t 2 ------------------- (ii)
2
Substituting the value of t in eq (ii) leads to
g 2
y = x tan❑  2
x
2V
From the ∆ OMQ
MQ
tan ❑ = i.e MQ = OQ tan❑ = x tan❑
OQ
MP = MQ  PQ

(
MP = x tan❑  x tan ❑
g 2
2V
2
x
)
( )
2
g 2 1 x 1
MP = x = g = g t2
2V 2
v
2 0 cos ❑ 2
1
Thus in a time interval t the bullet falls through a vertical distance g 2 below M.
2 t
The vertical distance fallen by the monkey is
1 1 1
S = ut + g t 2 = 0 + g t 2 = g t 2
2 2 2
Thus the bullet and the monkey will always reach the point P at the same time.
Hence the bullet will always hit the monkey.

PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE

1. (a) A body is projected downward at an angle of 300 with the horizontal from the top of a
building 170 m high. Its initial speed is 40 m/s. How long will it take before striking the
ground? [ 4.19 s ]
(b) A stone is thrown downwards from a point A into a quarry that is 25 m deep. Find the
initial speed and direction of projection if, after 2 seconds, the stone lands at the bottom
of the quarry at a horizontal distance from A of 20 m. [ 10 m s-1 , 14 0 below ]

Mwalonde B, 0714-053910/ 0767-053910 Page 53

2. (a) A body falling freely from a given height H hits an inclination plane in its path at a height
h. As a result of this impact, the direction of velocity of the body becomes horizontal. For

what value oh (
h
H
)
will the body take maximum time to reach the ground?. []
1
2

(b) A missile is fired at 80 m/s at an angle  to the horizontal. The missile must pass over an
obstruction that is 20 m high and 120 m away in the line of flight. Find the smallest
permissible value of  [ 14 0 ]
3. (a) From the top of a tower of height 40 m, a ball is projected with a speed of 20 m/s at an
angle of elevation of 30 o. Find the ratio of the time taken by the ball to come back to the

same height and that taken to hit the ground. (g = 10 m/s2). [ ]

1
2
(b) A golf ball is projected with speed 49 m/s at an elevation β from a point A on the first
4
3 m
floor of 15 m above the horizontal ground. The golf ball hits the ground at a point Q
which is at a horizontal distance 98 m from point A.
(i) show that 6 tan 2β  30 tan β + 5 = 0
(ii) hence find, to the nearest degree, the two possible angles of elevation [ 780 , 100 ]
(iii) find, to the nearest second, the smallest possible time of direct flight [ 2s ]
4 (a) A missile fired from point O with velocity 40 m/s at an angle α to the horizontal passes
through a point at a distance of 32 m on the horizontal and 45 m vertically from O.
Show that there are two possible angles of projection and give their values
(take g= 10 m/s2 ) and give your answer to the nearest degree. Illustrate your
answers on a diagram) [ 620 , 830 ]

(b) A particle is projected from appoint A at ground level at an angle of elevation of 55o, it
just clears the top of each two walls that are 2 m high. If the first of the walls is at a
distance of 2 m from A, find
(i) the speed of projection [ 8.4 m s-1 ] (ii) the
distance of the second wall from A [ 4.7 m ]

5. (a) A player kicked a ball with velocity 15 m/s at 600 with horizontal ground. At an instant,
the second player is 80 m from him. At what speed must a second player run so as to
kick the ball before it hits the ground? [ 22.69 m s-1 ]

(b) A projectile fired with speed v at an angle θ from point A on the ground, reaches the
ground at a horizontal distance d metres from A.

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 (i) Prove that V= √ gdcos ec2θ and that the greatest height attained by the projectile is
1 1
d tan θ 4 d tan θ
4
(ii) If the projectile just clears an obstacle of height h metres at a horizontal distance a
h d tan θ= hd
tanθ= a ( d−a )
metres from A, show that a ( d−a )

u
6 (a) An aeroplane flies at a height h at a constant speed 0 in a straight horizontal line so as to
pass vertically over a certain gun. At the instant when the aeroplane is directly over it,
the gun fires a shell which hits the plane. Find the minimum muzzle velocity V0 of the
shell and the correct angle of elevation α of the gun at this velocity in terms of
u0 ,g and h

(neglect air resistance)

[ V 0 = √ u 0 +2gh ,
2
= tan
-1
( √ )]
2gh
u20

(b) A stone projected with a velocity V 0 at an angle β with the horizontal reaches
maximum height H1. When it is projected with the same speed, V0 at an angle β with the
vertical, it reaches a maximum height H2. Find the relation between the horizontal range R
of projectile with H1 and H2. [ R=4 √ H 1 H 2 ]
7. (a) A bomber is flying level at a speed at 72 m/s at an elevation of 103 m when directly over
the origin. A bomb B is released by the bomber and strikes a truck, which is moving along
a level road with constant speed. At the instant the bomb is released the truck is at a
distance 125 m from the origin. Find the value of the velocity of the truck and the time of
flight of B. Assume that the truck is 3 m high. [ 44.3 m s -1 , 4.5 s ]

(b) A and B are two points on the ground 100 m apart. A toy scud missile is fired from A
towards B with a speed of 20 m/s at an elevation of 45o to the horizontal, while
simultaneously, a toy patriot missile is fired from B towards A with a speed of 30 m/s
at an elevation  to the horizontal. How far from A is the point of collision and after
what time will this happen?. [ 34.8 m, 2.46 s ]

9. (a) A body is projected with speed V 1 at an angle of 45o to the horizontal from a point P. At
the same instant, another body is projected vertically upwards from a point O with speed
V2 . The point O is vertically below the highest point of the path of the first body. If the
V1
bodies collide at the highest point, find the value of . [ √ 2]
V2

Mwalonde B, 0714-053910/ 0767-053910 Page 55

 u
(b) An aeroplane flies with a uniform speed 0 in the horizontal course at an altitude
2.25 km. The pilot drops a parcel as the plane passes directly above the gun on the
ground and at the same instant, a bullet is fired from the gun with velocity of V0 at an
angle 300 to the horizontal. Find;
(i)The nozzle velocity Vo of the bullet if it s to be hit by the parcel at the
highest possible altitude [ 297 m s-1 ]
(ii)Time of flight of the parcel from the instant it is released to the time
it hit the bullet [ 15 s ]

(iii)The value of uo [ 257 m s-1 ]

(iv)The positions of the aircraft and the altitude of the parcel when the
bullet hit the parcel [ 3855 m, 1125 m ]

√
10 (a) A and B are two points 60 3 m apart on level ground. A particle P is projected from A
toward B with speed 45 m/s at 300 to the horizontal. At the same instant, a particle Q is
√
projected from B towards A with speed 15 3 m/s at 60o to the horizontal.
(i) Prove that P and Q are always at the same height
(ii) Find the time and height at which collision occur. [ 2.0 s , 25.4 m ]

(b) Two α particles enter through a slit on a horizontal plane at angles θ1 and θ2 to the
horizontal respectively. The initial velocity Vo and the acceleration a are the same for both
particles. Given that Vo = 6.0 × 106 m/s, a = 4 × 1013 m/s2 θ1= 46o θ2=44o,
(i)Show that all the particles are focused at the same point [ 0.89 m ]
(ii)Find the difference in the maximum height reached by the particle[ 15.7 mm ]

11 (a) A ball is thrown towards a vertical wall from a point 4 m above the ground and 6 m from
the wall .The initial velocity of the ball is 10 ms-1 at an angle of 300 above the horizontal.
If the collision of the ball with the wall is perfectly elastic, how far behind the thrower
does the ball hit the ground? [ 6.3 m ]

(b) A shell is shot with an initial velocity of 20 ms-1 at 600 to the horizontal. At the top of
the trajectory, the shell explodes into two fragments of equal mass. One fragment falls
down vertically. How far from the gun does the other fragment land assuming that the

Mwalonde B, 0714-053910/ 0767-053910 Page 56

 terrain is level and that air drag is negligible. [ 30 √ 3 m ]

12. (a) Find the velocity and direction of the projection of a particle which passes in
a horizontal direction just over the top of a wall which is 36 m distant and 20 m high.
[ 26.6 m s-1 , 480 ]
(b) Two particles P and Q are projected at the same time in the same vertical plane. P is
projected at height 3 m above the ground making an angle of 370 with the horizontal. Q
is projected with the velocity 28 ms-1 at the ground vertically below P, making an angle
of 600 with the horizontal. Determine
(i) Initial velocity of P [ 17.5 m s-1 ]

(ii) the horizontal distance moved on the point of collision. [ 3.0 m ]

(iii) time taken until they collide [ 0.22 s ]
13. (a) A gun kept on a straight horizontal road is used to hit a car, travelling along the same road
away from the gun with a uniform speed of 108 km/h. The car is at a distance of 100 m
from the gun when the gun is fired at an angle 30 o with the horizontal. Find;
(i) the distance of the car from the gun when the shell hits it [ 269 m ]
(ii) the speed of projection of the shell from the gun [ 55.2 m s-1 ]

(b) A projectile is fired upwards with a velocity V0 at an angle θ. It strikes a roof inclined at
an angle  to the negative direction of x -axis. With what velocity does the projectile
strike the roof. Express your answer in terms of V 0 , g, x , θ and h where h is the height
of the roof. [ V =√ V −2 g ( h−x tan ❑) ]
2
0

14. (a) (a) A body A is projected at point Q with some velocity Vo at same angle β with the
horizontal. At the same instant, another body B is dropped from the height H, at a
H
h=
horizontal distance R from Q. The body A collides with the B at an altitude 2 .

Find the value of Vo in terms of g, H and R.

[ √ ( )]
V 0 = gH 1+
R2
H
2

(b) The range of a rifle bullet is 1000 m when θ is the angle of projection. If the bullet is fired
with the same angle from a car travelling at 36 km/hr towards the target, show that the
1000
√ tan θ
range will be increased by 7 m.

15. (a) A man is riding on a flat car at a constant speed of 108 km/h.He wishes to throw a ball
through a stationary hoop 5.0 m above the height of his hands and 19.6 m above the

Mwalonde B, 0714-053910/ 0767-053910 Page 57

 ground in such a manner that the ball will move horizontally as it passes through the hoop.
He throws the ball with a speed of 20 ms-1 with respect to himself.
(i) What must be the vertical components of the initial velocity of the ball be? [ 9.9 m s-1 ]
(ii) How many seconds after he releases the ball will it pass through the hoop? [ 1.0 s ]
(iii) At what horizontal distance must he release the ball? [ 142 m ]
(b) From the top of a tower 10 m high, a stone A is thrown with a velocity of 40 ms-1
in an upward direction making an angle of 300 with the horizontal. Another stone
B is projected from the same point with the same velocity but in the downward
direction exactly opposite to A. Find the distance between the stones when they
strike the ground. [ 172.5 m ]

16. (a) A player kicks a ball at an angle of 370 to the horizontal with an initial speed
of 20 m/s. A second player 64 m away in the direction of the kick starts immediately to
catch the ball. Calculate the speed with which the second player should run so as to
catch the ball just before it touches the ground. [ 10 m s-1 ]
(b) A projectile is thrown at an angle β and ( 90 β ) from the same point both with initial
velocity 100 m/s. Find the heights attained in each case if the difference in heights reached
is 60 m. [ 225 m ,285 m ]

17. (a) If R is the horizontal range of a projectile and Hmax is the greatest height attained,
Show that its initial speed of projection is given by the relation

( ( ))
1/2
R2
v 0 = 2 g H max +
16 H max

(b) A particle is projected inside a tunnel which is 4.0 m high. If its initial speed is V 0 . Show

(√ )
2
V0
that maximum range inside the tunnel is given by R = 4√ 2 8
g

18. A stone P is projected from the top of the tower which is 54 m high at a horizontal velocity
of 15 m/s; at the same instant stone Q is projected at the bottom of the tower with
velocity of 30 m/s at an angle of 600 to the horizontal.
(i) at what height above the ground will the stone collide ?. [ 32.8 m ]
(ii) at what horizontal distance from the tower will the stones collide ?. [ 31.m ]

19. From the top of a tower 10 m high, a stone A is thrown with a velocity of 40 ms-1
in an upward direction making an angle of 300 with the horizontal. Another stone

Mwalonde B, 0714-053910/ 0767-053910 Page 58

 B is projected from the same point with the same velocity but in the downward
direction exactly opposite to A. Find the distance between the stones when they
strike the ground.

Mwalonde B, 0714-053910/ 0767-053910 Page 59