A Partial Learning Module for

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS (AS 2)

Prepared by:

ENGR. NEIL SAMUEL G. SAMSON, M.Eng’g.

Instructor 1

November 2020

Student’s Name

Year and Section

1
 This material is intended exclusively for this instructor’s Second Year Bachelor of Science in
Architecture students in Strength of Materials (AS 2) for the first semester of Academic Year 2020-2021.

This material may subject for revision and updates any time the instructor deemed necessary.

This material is for the intended student’s personal use only. This must not be reproduced in any
form for any other intended purposes.

CONTINUOUS BEAMS

Introduction

We consider beams that are continuous over two or more spans, thereby having one or
more redundant supports. A more convenient method is to consider the unknown bending
moments at the supports of the beam as the redundancies. After these bending moments are
found, it is comparatively simple to determine the reactions.

THREE MOMENT EQUATION

Is easily derived by applying area-moment theorems, it is necessary to find a general

relation between the bending moments at any three sections in a beam.

MOMENT DISTRIBUTIONS

This method is completely independent of the three moment equation. Each span of
the continuous beam must be assumed to be perfectly restrained at the supports and the fixed
end moment must be computed.

GENERALIZED FORM OF THE THREE MOMENT EQUATION

A portion of a beam that is loaded and supported in an arbitrary manner is shown in

figure below.

At any three points 1, 2, and 3, pass cutting sections and replace the effects of the loads to the
left of right of these sections by the proper values of vertical shear and bending moment.

* Excerpted from Strength of Materials 4th Edition by Ferdinand L. Singer & Andrew Pytel

2
 Thus the beam segments between points 1 and 2 and between points 2 and 3
(hearafter referred to as spans 1 and 2, respectively) may be isolated by means of the free-
body diagrams in figure below.

The lengths of the spans (or segments) are L1 and L2, and the bending moments at
point 1, 2, and 3 are M1, M2, M3; the vertical shears at these points are V1, V-2 (just to the left of
point 2), V2 (just to the right of point 2), and V-3 just to the left of point 3.

In this manner, the moment diagram of each original beam segment is resolved into the
moment diagram of the loads assumed to be carried on a simply supported span and
trapezoidal moment diagram caused by the bending moments in the original beam at the
selected points 1, 2 and 3. These diagrams are shown in the figure below.

Analysis of the original loading

* Excerpted from Strength of Materials 4th Edition by Ferdinand L. Singer & Andrew Pytel

3
 For clarity, the elastic curve of the beam is drawn in figure below.

Elastic curves of any beams

The deflection of the curve is greatly exagerated in order to shw the geometric relations. Note
that points 1, 2, and 3 lie on it.

A tangent drawn to the elastic curve at point 2 determines the tangential deviation t1/2
at the point 1 and t3/2 at point 3. Another line drwan through point 2 parallel to the initial
position of the unloaded beam (which has been assumed horizontal for convinience)
determnines the hieghts of points 1 and 3 above point 2 to be h1 and h3. There are formed the
shaded similar triangles having the bases L1 and L2 and the altitudes (h1 – t1/2) and (t3/2 – h3).

From the proprtions between similar triangles, it is evident that

Which reduces to

* Excerpted from Strength of Materials 4th Edition by Ferdinand L. Singer & Andrew Pytel

4
 The values of the tangential deviations are found from

and

where is the moment area about point 1 of the moment diagram between
points 1 and 2. As stated previously, this moment diagram has been resolved into the area A1
see figure below

and the two triangular areas into which the trapezoidal diagram for the end moments is
divided.

Likewise, is the moment about point 3 of the area A2 and the trapezoidal
diagram for the end moments that has been subdivided into two triangles.
We can therefore express the tangential deviation t1/2 at 1 from a tangent to the elastic
drawn at 2 as

and the tangential deviation t3/2 at 3 from the same tangent drawn at 2 as

Substituting this values of t1/2 and t3/2 in equation gives

This equation expresses a general relation among moments at any three points in a beam, and
hence is known as the Three-Moment Equation.

* Excerpted from Strength of Materials 4th Edition by Ferdinand L. Singer & Andrew Pytel

5
Rules of Sign
The three-moment equation was derived under the assumption that the bending
moments at the selected points were positive and that points 1 and 3 were above points 2.
Hence, heights h1 and h3 must be considered positive when measured upward from point 2. If
the moment at any point is actually negative, the negative sign must be used when substituting
its value in the three-moment equation. Conversely, if an unknown moment is actually
negative at any point, the three-moment equation will give value for that moment; in other
words, the sign of the moment at that point is automatically opposite to the positive value
assumed in the derivation of the three-moment equation.

FACTORS FOR THE THREE-MOMENT EQUATIONS

The usefulness of the three-moment equation depends on the ease with which the
expressions and in it can be found. The general expressions in the table below were
obtained by the following procedure.
Uniformly varying load
The loading over the span L in a continuous beam varies uniformly over the span. If this
loading is assumed to be supported on a simple span, the moment diagram is drawn by parts
from left to right, as in given figure below.

The moment of area of this moment diagram about the right end is given by

Multiplying this by 6/L, we obtain the following general value for this type of loading:

* Excerpted from Strength of Materials 4th Edition by Ferdinand L. Singer & Andrew Pytel

6
Values for and

* Excerpted from Strength of Materials 4th Edition by Ferdinand L. Singer & Andrew Pytel

7
 Special Loadings
For cases not listed in table above, or if the table is not available, the example below
may be helpful.

Example:
Assume a continuous loaded in given figure below, we wish to evaluate for span 2.
Given:

Solution:
Take the loading on span 2 as if it were simply supported on a 4-m sapn, and draw the moment
diagram by parts from right to left (this is more convenient here)

Load on span 2 simply supported Moment Diagram by parts

Since means multiply 6/L by the moment of area of the moment diagram, moments being taken
about the right end, we have

* Excerpted from Strength of Materials 4th Edition by Ferdinand L. Singer & Andrew Pytel
8
Example:
Determine the moments over the supports in the continuous beam shown in given figure.
Given:

Solution:
Writing the three-moment equation between spans 1 and 2, and between spans 2 and 3, we
have

From the definition of bending moment, both M1 and M4 are zero. Hence Eqs. (a) and (b) are
pair of simultaneous equations in M2 and M3, which can be solved when the values of and
for the given loadings are known.

The values just computed are substituted in Eqs. (a) and (b):
or

Solving eqs. (c) and (d) simultaneously for the two unknowns M2 and M3 gives

* Excerpted from Strength of Materials 4th Edition by Ferdinand L. Singer & Andrew Pytel

9
REACTIONS OF CONTINUOUS BEAMS; SHEAR DIAGRAMS
Two methods of computing reactions are available:
1. Reactions are computed by using the definition of bending moment.
2. The reaction is divided into parts from which the shear diagram can be drawn easily
In both methods the moments over the supports must be determined first.

For the first method,

Example:
Consider the given beam whose moment over the supports were already solved in the given
example and solutions above.
Given:

Solution:
Applying the definition of bending moment, we express M2 in terms of the moments about R2
of all loads to the left of R2 and obtain

To determine R2, we apply the definition of M3 to moments about R3 of all loads to the left of
R3, as follows:

Substituting in this relation the now known value of R1 = 639 N, we find that

* Excerpted from Strength of Materials 4th Edition by Ferdinand L. Singer & Andrew Pytel

10
 The value of R4 is also obtained from the value of M3 by expressing M3 in terms of the moments
about R3 of all loads to the right of R3:

which gives

The value of R3 can now be found by taking a vertical summation of all forces acting on the
entire beam. This gives

For the second method,

Example:
Consider the given beam whose moment over the supports were already solved in the given
example and solutions above.
Given:

Solution:
Any span can be isolated as a free body by applying to it the proper values of end moments and
shears. The isolated span can be resolved into a simply supported beam carrying the given loads, plus
another beam loaded only by the end moments and couple reactions.

* Excerpted from Strength of Materials 4th Edition by Ferdinand L. Singer & Andrew Pytel
11
 Taking the span 2 of the given beam, resolved into its component parts;

Free-body diagram of
span 2

Because the end moments M2 and M3 are negative, they act as shown, and their absolute
magnitudes may be used. The term V2 denotes the vertical shear in the beam to the right of R2, and V3
is numerically equivalent to the vertical shear in the beam to the left of R3. The minus sign in the
subscript of V-3 indicates that it acts opposite to the actual vertical shear in order to create equilibrium
in span 2.

Load on span 2 simply

supported

End moments and

couple reactions

Since parts (Load on span 2 simply supported) and (End moments and couple reactions) of
given figure above are superposed to form the simply supported load diagram on span 2, it follows that
the actual end shears V2 and V-3 are the algebraic sum of the equivalent simple beam reactions and the
couple reactions R’.

* Excerpted from Strength of Materials 4th Edition by Ferdinand L. Singer & Andrew Pytel

12
 Observed on end moments and couple reactions diagram, M3 is numerically larger than M2;
hence there is an unbalanced clockwise couple acting on end moments and couple reactions diagram
M3 – M2. It can be balanced only by the counterclockwise moment caused by the couple reactions R’
acting at the supports and having a moment arm equal to the length L2 of the span. Evidently the
numerical value of R’ is given by

Or

The couple reaction R’ acts upward at the larger moment M3 and downward at the smaller
moment M2. In the algebraic summation of reactions referred to previously, we take the upward
direction as positive and the downward direction as negative.

Generalizing this discussion, we may state that the couple reaction R’ on any span is given by

where M1 is the larger absolute value of the end moment on the span, M3 is the smaller absolute value
of the end moment, and L is the length of the span. As a rule, the couple reaction R’ acts upward at the
end of the span having the larger absolute value, and downward at the other end.

If one support moment is actually positive in sign, the negative moment is taken as the larger absolute
value and its numerical value is used as Ml in . The proof of these statement is shown
by the free-body diagram in given figure below.

Negative end moments Negative moment Ml and positive moment Ms

Couple reaction acts upward at the end having the larger negative moment

* Excerpted from Strength of Materials 4th Edition by Ferdinand L. Singer & Andrew Pytel

13
 A convenient way of arranging the values of simple beam and couple reactions is shown in
given figure below.

The couple reactions were computed as follows, the numerical subscripts referring to the span on
which they act. The couple reaction acts upward (or is given a positive sign) at the end having the larger
numerical negative end moment.

* Excerpted from Strength of Materials 4th Edition by Ferdinand L. Singer & Andrew Pytel

14
MOMENT DISTRIBUTION

Modern techniques of designing continuous structures are based on a method of

successive approximations popularized by Hardy Cross.

This method, which is widely known as the moment-distribution method, is applicable to all
types of rigid-frame analysis. Its application to continuous beams will serve to introduce this
powerful tool of the structural engineer.

PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS

First Concept: Carry-over moment

Defined as the moment induced at the fixed end of a beam by the action of a moment
applied at the other end.

Consider the beam in the given figure below which is perfectly fixed at A and hinged at B. A
moment MB applied at B flexes the beam as shown and induces the wall moment MA.

Carry-over moment and beam stiffness

Although MA is actually negative (because of the downward curvature of the elastic

curve at A), it is convenient to consider it positive as shown; consequently, the solution will
determine not only its absolute value but also the correct sign (negative).

* Excerpted from Strength of Materials 4th Edition by Ferdinand L. Singer & Andrew Pytel

15
 The deviation at B from a reference tangent drawn at A is zero because of the perfect
wall constraint at A. Hence

from which

This result means that a moment applied at the hinged end B “carries over” to the fixed end A a
moment that is half the amount and of opposite sign.

Second Concept: Beam Stiffness

The moment required at the simply supported end of a beam to produce unit rotation
of that end, the other end being rigidly fixed.

The slope of B in figure (a) above from the first theorem of the area moment method
and is expressed in terms of the moment diagram in in (b):

Replacing MA by -½MB from gives

* Excerpted from Strength of Materials 4th Edition by Ferdinand L. Singer & Andrew Pytel

16
 As stated previously, the value of MB when θ equals 1 radian is known as the beam
stiffness. It varies with the ratio I/L as well as with E. It is denoted by the symbol K; hence

However, in many structures E remains constant, so only a relative measure of

resistance to rotation is required. This may be called relative beam stiffness and is expressed by

Example:
The continuous beam in given figure below is perfectly restrained at A and C and simply
supported at B.
Given:

Actual loading

Solution:
Assume that at B the beam is temporarily locked or rigidified against the rotation caused by the
loads P and Q. Under these conditions, segments AB and BC will act as fixed ended beams subjected to
the fixed end moments caused by loads P and Q. These fixed end moments (hereafter abbreviated as
FEM) are assumed to have the values as shown in figure below.

Fixed end moments (FEMs) caused by P

and Q assuming support B locked
against rotation.

* Excerpted from Strength of Materials 4th Edition by Ferdinand L. Singer & Andrew Pytel

17
 If the support at B is now released or unlocked, the difference in FEM between sections to the
left and right of B creates an unbalanced moment of 30N.m which causes the beam at B to rotate, as
shown in figure below, until the moments at B are balanced.

Unlocking B distributes difference in

FEM at B according to relative stiffness
of AB and BC and causes carry-over
moments as shown.

Obviously, the moment to the left of B will be increased by some amount, say, 20 N.m; and to
the right of B the moment will be decreased by the remaining 10 N.m of the 30 N.m difference
between the FEM at B. Thus, the unbalanced moment is distributed at the unlocked support. The
rotation of B caused by these distributed moments induces, at A and C, carry-over moments of half the
amount and of opposite sign. These carry-over moments are indicated by the arrows in the figure
above.

The ratio of distribution of the unbalanced moment at B is fixed by the fact that the two beams must
rotate through the same angle at B. This means that the unbalanced moment must be distributed in
the ratio of the stiffness factors of the adjacent beams. The ratio of distribution to any beam is called
distribution factor, DF

Where K is the stiffness factor for that beam and ƩK is the sum of the stiffness factors for the
adjacent beams.

If the beams are of the same material (as is generally the case), only relative K need be used. Futher, if
they are of the same cross section, relative K (i.e., beam stiffness) is inversely proportional to the
length. In distributing the FEMs the object is to secure balance at the unlocked support.

* Excerpted from Strength of Materials 4th Edition by Ferdinand L. Singer & Andrew Pytel

18
 The final moments in figure below are obtained by superposition of the FEMs and of the
distributed moments and carry-over moments.

Final moments are algebraic sum

values of FEM distributed momenst
and carry-over moments

Sign Conventions
This convention requires the carry-over to be of opposite sign and often leads to
confusion regarding the magnitude and sign of the unbalanced moment to be distributed,
especially when more than two members frame into a common joint. Computational accuracy
is increased and confusion eliminated by using an alternate sign convention based on the sense
of rotation of the end moments.
With this convention, counterclockwise moments acting on the beam are considered to
be positive, and clockwise end moments are negative.

Several modifications.
 The carry-over moments are of the same sign.
 In distributing unbalanced moments at each support, the distributed moments
are of the same sign and are so applied as to make the algebraic sum of the
moments at a support or joint equal to zero.
 In a fixed-end beam carrying downward loads , the fixed end moments will be
positive at the left end and negative at the right end.

Signs based on conventional restraining moment Signs based on rotational sense of restraining moments

Difference between sign convention

* Excerpted from Strength of Materials 4th Edition by Ferdinand L. Singer & Andrew Pytel

19
The moment-distribution method may be summarized in the following steps:

1. Assume that all supports are fixed or locked and compute fixed end moments for each span
considered separate from every other span.
2. Unlock each support and distribute the unbalanced moment at each adjacent span by
means of . Then relock each support.
3. After distributing the unbalanced moment to each adjacent span, carry-over one half this
amount, with the same sign, to the other end of each span.

This complete one cycle of distribution. Steps 2 and 3 must be repeated because of the new unbalance
cause by the carry-over moments. Such repetition are made until the carry-over moments become zero
or negligibly small.
As a rule, no more than four cycles are necessary, since the unbalance caused by the carry-over
moments usually decreases rapidly to zero.

Example:
The continuous beam of constant cross section and material shown in given figure below is
perfectly restrained at the ends. Compute the moments over the support.

Given

Solution:
Although I is not specified, it is convenient to take I as a common multiple of the span lengths,
that is, 36 units. Then the values of relative stiffness K=I/L are shown and distribution factor (DF) are
computed and also listed.

* Excerpted from Strength of Materials 4th Edition by Ferdinand L. Singer & Andrew Pyte
20
 Assuming all supports locked, we compute values for the fixed end moments (FEM);

Using the rotation sign convention, these FEMs are inserted in the table below with a + sign at
the left end of each span and a – sign at the right end.

With B unlocked, the unbalanced moment is the numerical difference between the
FEM at B, or 1440 – 1200 = 240 lb.ft.
Using the values of DF, we distribute part of this unbalanced moment to the left of B as
0.4(240) = +96 lb.ft, and the remainder to the right of B as 0.6(240) = +144 lb.ft. The signs of
these distributed moments are such as to cause the sum of the moments at B to become zero.
One half the values of these distributed moments are now carried over with the same
sign. Thus +96 applied to the left of B are carried over as +48 to A, and +144 applied to the right
of B is carried over as +72 to C.
Since A and C are locked or fixed and are specified as remaining so, they absorb these
carry-over moments and the distribution is completed. The final values of the moment at each
support are obtained by algebraic summations of each vertical column, giving the results
shown. If desired, the moments in the final summation are easily converted back to
conventional bending moments by merely changing the sign at the left end of each span.

* Excerpted from Strength of Materials 4th Edition by Ferdinand L. Singer & Andrew Pyte
21
Exercise:
For the continuous beam in given figure below, determine the values of the moment over the
supports. The supports are assumed to be rigid or, what amounts to the same thing, to have equal
deformations. Apply the three-moment equation to points over the supports.
Given:

Solution:

* Excerpted from Strength of Materials 4th Edition by Ferdinand L. Singer & Andrew Pytel
22