Chapter 2

Thermodynamics of IC engines
The operating cycle of an IC engine can be broken down into a sequence of
separate processes
 Intake,
 Compression,
 Combustion,
 Expansion and
 Exhaust.
 Actual IC Engine does not operate on ideal thermodynamic cycle that are
operated on open cycle.
 The accurate analysis of IC engine processes is very complicated, to
understand it well, it is advantageous to analyze the performance of an
Idealized closed cycle.
 Air Standard Cycle
 To reduce the analysis to a manageable level, we utilize the following
approximations, commonly known as the air-standard assumptions:
1. The working fluid is air, which continuously circulates in a closed loop and
always behaves as an ideal gas.
2. All the processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible.
3. The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process from an
external source.
4. The exhaust process is replaced by a heat-rejection process that restores
the working fluid to its initial state.
 Specific heats independent of temperature
 For Air Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg K Cv = 0.717kJ/kgK , γ = 1.4 M = 29kg/kmol
 Otto cycle
 The Otto cycle is the ideal cycle for spark-ignition reciprocating engines.
 It is named after Nikolaus A. Otto, who built a successful four-stroke engine
in 1876 in Germany using the cycle proposed by Frenchman Beau de
Rochas in 1862.
 In most spark-ignition engines, the piston executes four complete strokes
(two mechanical cycles) within the cylinder, and the crankshaft completes
two revolutions for each thermodynamic cycle.
 These engines are called four-stroke internal combustion engines. A
schematic of each stroke as well as a P-v diagram for an actual four-stroke
spark-ignition engine is given.
 It consists of
 Two Constant Volume Processes

 Two Isentropic Processes

 Otto cycle
Actual and ideal cycles in spark-ignition engines and their P-v diagrams.
• The thermodynamic analysis of the actual four-stroke or two-stroke
cycles described is not a simple task.
• However, the analysis can be simplified significantly if the air-
standard assumptions are utilized. The resulting cycle, which closely
resembles the actual operating conditions, is the ideal Otto cycle. It
consists of four internally reversible processes:
1-2 Isentropic
compression
2-3 Constant volume
heat addition
3-4 Isentropic
expansion
4-1 Constant volume
heat rejection
Factors Affecting Work per Cycle
The net cycle work of an engine can be increased by either:
i) Increasing the r (1’2)
ii) Increase Qin (23”)
Air-Standard Diesel Cycle
• In actual spark-ignition engines, the upper limit of compression ratio
is limited by the self-ignition temperature of the fuel.
• This limitation on the compression ratio can be circumvented if air
and fuel are compressed separately and brought together at the time of
combustion.
• In such an arrangement fuel can be injected into the cylinder which
contains compressed air at a higher temperature than the self-ignition
temperature of the fuel.
• Such engines work on heavy liquid fuels. These engines are called
compression-ignition engines and they work on a ideal cycle known
as Diesel cycle.
The difference between Otto and Diesel
cycles is in the process of heat addition.
• In Otto cycle the heat addition takes
place at constant volume whereas in
the Diesel cycle it is at constant pressure
• Process 1-2 Isentropic Compression
• Process 2-3 Con Pre. Heat Addition
• Process 3-4 Isentropic Expansion
• Process 4-1 Con Vol. Heat Rejection

Noting that the Diesel cycle is executed in

a piston-cylinder device, which forms a
closed system, the amount of heat
transferred to the working fluid at constant
pressure and rejected from it at constant volume can be expressed as:
 Thermodynamic Cycles for CI engines
• In early CI engines the fuel was injected when the piston reached TC
and thus combustion lasted well into the expansion stroke.
• In modern engines the fuel is injected before TC (about 15o)

Fuel injection starts

Fuel injection starts

Early CI engine Modern CI engine

• The combustion process in the early CI engines is best approximated

by a constant pressure heat addition process  Diesel Cycle
• The combustion process in the modern CI engines is best
approximated by a combination of constant volume and constant
pressure  Dual Cycle
Thermal Efficiency
Higher efficiency is obtained by adding less heat per cycle, Qin,
 run engine at higher speed to get the same power.

k  1  Qin  1
rc  1    k 1
k  P1V1  r

Typical CI Engines
15 < r < 20
as Qin 0, rc=v3/v21

The cut-off ratio is not a natural choice for the independent

variable more suitable parameter is the heat input, the two
are related by:
Dual cycle
In the Otto cycle, combustion is assumed at constant volume while in
Diesel cycle combustion is at constant pressure
In practice they are far from real.
Since, some time interval is required for the chemical reactions during
combustion process, the combustion cannot take place at constant
volume.
Similarly, due to rapid uncontrolled combustion in diesel engines,
combustion does not occur at constant pressure.
The Dual cycle, also called a mixed cycle or limited pressure cycle, is a
compromise between Otto and Diesel cycles.
1  2 Isentropic compression
2  3 Constant volume heat addition
3  4 Constant pressure heat addition
4  5 Isentropic expansion
5  1 Constant volume heat rejection

 Wnet   Qin  Qout 

 Dual       
 Qin   Qin 
 mCV (T3  T2 )  mC p (T4  T3 )  mCV (T5  T1 ) 
 
 mC (T  T )  mC (T  T ) 
 V 3 2 p 4 3 

1  rp rc  1 
  1   1  
r  rp  1   rp rc  1
Where rp=p3/p2
Pressure Ratio
Compression Otto, Diesel & Dual Cycles
The important variable factors which are used as the basis for comparison of
the cycles are
 compression ratio,
 peak pressure,
 heat addition,
 heat rejection and
 the net work
A comparison of these three cycles is made for the
 same compression ratio,
 same heat addition,
 constant maximum pressure and temperature,
 same heat rejection and net work output
Same Compression Ratio and Heat Addition

All the cycles start from the same initial

state point 1 and the air is compressed from Otto   Dual   Diesel
state 1 to 2 as the compression ratio is same
Same Compression Ratio and Heat Rejection
heat supplied in the Otto cycle is more than that of the Diesel cycle.
Hence, it is evident that, the efficiency of the Otto cycle is greater
Same Maximum Pressure and Heat Input

The heat rejection for Otto cycle is more than the heat rejected in Diesel cycle, Hence
Diesel cycle is more efficient than Otto cycle
Same Maximum Pressure & work Output
For same work output, the' entropy at 3 should be greater than entropy at 3'.
It is clear that the heat rejection for Otto cycle is more than that of Diesel cycle.
Hence, for these conditions the Diesel cycle is more efficient than Otto cycle.
A gas engine operating on the ideal Otto cycle has a compression ratio of 6:1. The
pressure and temperature at the commencement of compression are 1 bar and 27 oC.
The heat added during the constant volume combustion processes is 1170 kJ/ kg.
Determine the peak pressure and temperature, work out put per kg of air and air
standard efficiency. Assume Cv=0.717 kJ/kg K and γ=1.4 for air
Given Data
Operating Cycle
 Otto Cycle
Compression Ratio
 6:1
At Point ‘1’
 P1=1 bar, T1=27oC
Heat added
 Q2-3=1170 kJ/kg
Required Values
• Peak Pressure (p3)
• Peak Temperature (T3)
• work out put per kg of air
• Efficiency
solution

Consider pro 1-2

P2
P2 r 
 6 1.4
 12.3
P1  r  6  12.3
 1.4

P2P1 12.3  1bar   12.3 bar

TP 2  V
12.3  1bar   12.3 bar
2
  1   r  1  6 0.4  2.05
TT
1 2 V V   1
    r  6  2.05o
2 1 0.4

T2T1 2.05
V2300  615 K  342 C
T2  2.05  300  615 K  342o C
Solution
Consider the Pro 2-3
For Unit mass flow
q s  q 23  C v T3  T2   1170kJ
kg
 q 23   1170 
T3  T2        1631.8
 CV   0.717 
T3  1631.6  615  2246.8 K  1973.8 oC

P3  T3   2246.8 
       3.65
P2  T2   615 
 
P3  3.65  12.3  105  44.8  105 N
m 2  44.8 bar

Work output
= Area of the p-v diagram
=Area under (3-4) – Area under (2-1)
  0.287 
Work output/kg 0.287  2246.8  1097.1  615  300
   0.42246
 .8  1097.1  615  300
 0.4 
 598.9 kJ
 598.9 kJ
Efficiency  1   1 
 Otto  1 1  1   1  10.4   0.5116
 Otto  1   r1   1   60.4   0.5116
 r.16 % 
 51 6 
 51.16 %

Determine the ideal efficiency of the diesel engine having a cylinder with bore 250
mm, stroke 375 mm and a clearance volume of 1500 cc, with fuel cut-off
occurring at 5 % of the stroke. Assume γ=1.4 for air
Given Data
Bore Dia b=250 mm
Stroke length s=375 mm
Clearance Volume Vc=1500 cc
Cut-off (V3-V2)= 0.05 (Vs)
To determine Compression ratio
  2   2
Vs   b S   25  37.5  18407.8 cc  V3 
 
4  
4 Cut  off ratio  r   
 V3 
c
 V2 
  off
 Vs Cut .8 rc   Cut  off Volume  V  V   0.05V 
ratio
18407
r  1    1    13.27V2  3 2 s
 Vc   1500   0.05  12.27V 
Cut  off Volume  V3  V2   0.05Vs  c

To determine Cut-off ratio  0.6135V

 0.05 V12.27 Vc 
c

V  V
 0.6135 
2 c
Cut  off ratio  r    3
Vc V  0.6135(V )  1.6135(V )
 
V
c
2
V 3 c c c

V2 V3VcV2   0.05Vs 

Cut  off Volume  V   1.6135Vc 
rc   3      1.6135
 0.05 
V3  Vc  0.6135
12.27 Vc  (Vc )  1.6135(VVc2 )  Vc 
 0.6135Vc 
 V3   1.6135Vc   Diesel  1    1   r 1   1   1.
V2  Vc
  1.6135  r  1    rc  1
c
   
rc      1
 13.27
0.4
 1.4 
ToV determine
 V  0.6135(V ) efficiency
3 c  1 2 
V.6135 
(V ) Vc
c c 
V   1.6135Vc   0.60502

rc   3      1.6135
 1   rc 1
  60.52  1   1.6135  1 
1.4
   Diesel  1     1 
%
 1   
 V2 V

   1.4  1.6135  1
c

 1  r  1 
  r    
1 c 1.6135
r 1  1.4 
1 13 .27 0.4

 Diesel  1    1   c   1   0.4   

r    r  1
c 0.60502  13 .27  1.4  1.6135  1 
 0.60502
 60.52 %
 60.52 %
Comparison of Air-Standard & Fuel-Air cycles
• By Air standard cycle analysis, it is understood how the
efficiency is improved by increasing the compression ratio.
• Air standard cycle analysis do not consider the effect of Fuel-
Air ratio on the thermal efficiency because the working
medium was assumed to be air.
• In general, fuel-air cycle analysis is used to study.
• The effect of fuel-air ratio on engine thermal efficiency
• How the peak pressure and temperature during the cycle
varying and its influence on many engine operating variables.
• Fuel-Air cycle analysis suggest that the thermal efficiency
will deteriorate as the mixture supplied to the engine is
enriched.
Because of :-
• The losses is increasing due to variable specific heats.
• Enrichment beyond the chemically correct ratio will lead to
incomplete combustion and loss in thermal efficiency.
• Thermal efficiency will increase as the mixture is made
leaner.
• Beyond a certain leaning, the combustion become erratic
with loss of efficiency.
• In general the maximum efficiency is within the lean zone
very near the stoichiometric ratio.
Actual cycle
• Air-Standard Cycle Analysis gives an estimate of engine performance
which is much greater than the actual performance. E.g. for SI
• The actual cycles for IC engines differ from the fuel-air cycles and air-
standard cycles in many respects.
• The actual cycle efficiency is much lower than the air-standard
efficiency due to various losses occurring in the actual engine
operation. The major losses are due to:
• Variation of specific heats with temperature
• Dissociation of the combustion products
• Progressive combustion
• Incomplete combustion of fuel
• Heat transfer into the walls of the combustion chamber
• Blowdown at the end of the exhaust process
• Gas exchange process
Comparison Of Air-standard And Actual Cycles
• The actual cycles for internal combustion engines differ from air-
standard cycles in many respects.
a. The change in the pressure, temperature and actual amount of fresh
charge because of the residual gases.
b. The progressive combustion rather than the instantaneous
combustion.
c. The heat transfer to and from the working medium
d. The substantial exhaust blowdown loss, i.e., loss of work on the
expansion stroke due to early opening of the exhaust valve.
e. Gas leakage, fluid fiction etc., in actual engines.