LABORATORY INSTRUCTION MANUAL

CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB

EE 693

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

JIS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(AN AUTONOMOUS INSTITUTE)
KALYANI, NADIA
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

EXPERIMENT NO : CS – II/1
TITLE : FAMILIARIZATION WITH DIGITAL CONTROL SYSTEM TOOLBOX
OBJECTIVE : To study
I. Conversion of a transfer function from continuous domain to discrete
domain.
II. Conversion of a transfer function from continuous domain to digital
domain.
III. Pole Zero Map of a discrete transfer function.

Software Used: MATLAB/ SIMULINK

THEORY :
Sampling is a process by which a continuous time system can be converted to discrete domain. Discrete
time signal x[n] often arises from periodic sampling of continuous time signal xc(t) :
x[n] = xc (nT) -∞<n<∞
This system is called continuous to discrete time converter or sampler
T is the sampling period in second, fs = 1/T is the sampling frequency in Hz, Sampling frequency in
radian-per-second Ωs=2πfs rad/sec.

After sampling a continuous signal an impulse train will be obtained. That impulses are difficult to generate and
transmit. So it is more convenient to generate sample signal in form of Zero order hold. Such system samples a
signal x(t) at a given instant and holds that value till the next instant at which sample is taken. The transfer
function of ZOH is
1−𝑒𝑒 −𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
G(s)zoh =
𝑠𝑠

Page | 2
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

MATLAB Commands used:

sysd = c2d (sys,Ts) is used to convert a transfer function (sys) from continuous to discrete domain at a sampling
time of Ts.
sysd = c2d (sys,Ts, ‘method’) is used to convert a transfer function (sys) from continuous to discrete domain at a
sampling time of Ts using a specific method such as ZOH or foh or tustin method.
pzmap(sysd) is used to obtain pole zero map of the discrete transfer function (sysd).

Example 1: To convert a transfer function (sys) from continuous to discrete domain at a sampling time of Ts.
num = [1]
den= [1 1 0]
Ts=0.1
sys = tf (num,den)
sysd = c2d(sys,Ts)

Output :

sys:
1
-------
s^2 + s

sysd :

0.004837 z + 0.004679
----------------------
z^2 - 1.905 z + 0.9048

Sampling time: 0.1

Example 2: To convert a transfer function (sys) from continuous to discrete domain at a sampling time of
Ts using ZOH method.

num = [1]
den= [1 1 0]
Ts=0.1
sys = tf (num,den)
sysd = c2d(sys,Ts, ‘zoh’)

Output :
sys:
1
-------
s^2 + s

sysd:
0.004837 z + 0.004679
----------------------
z^2 - 1.905 z + 0.9048

Sampling time: 0.1

Page | 3
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

Example 3: To convert a transfer function (sys) from continuous to discrete domain at a sampling time
of Ts using FOH method.
num = [1]
den= [1 1 0]
Ts=0.1
sys = tf (num,den)
sysd = c2d(sys,Ts, ‘foh’)

Outputs:
sys:
1
-------
s^2 + s

sysd:
0.001626 z^2 + 0.006344 z + 0.001547
------------------------------------
z^2 - 1.905 z + 0.9048

Sampling time: 0.1

Example 4: To convert a transfer function (sys) from continuous to discrete domain at a sampling time
of Ts using FOH method.
num = [1]
den= [1 1 0]
Ts=0.1
sys = tf (num,den)
sysd = c2d(sys,Ts, ‘tustin’)

Outputs:

sys:
1
-------
s^2 + s

sysd:
0.002381 z^2 + 0.004762 z + 0.002381
------------------------------------
z^2 - 1.905 z + 0.9048

Sampling time: 0.1

Page | 4
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

Example 5: Obtaining pole zero map of a discrete transfer function

num = [1]
den= [1 1 0]
Ts=0.1
sys = tf (num,den)
sysd = c2d(sys,Ts, 'zoh')
pzmap(sysd)

Assignments:
Obtain discrete domain transfer functions and pole zero maps of the following s – domain functions using
(a) ZOH method (b) FOH method (c) Tustin method
1 5 1
1. G(s) = 2. G(s) = 3. G(s) =
𝑠𝑠 2 +𝑠𝑠+4 𝑠𝑠 2 +9 (𝑠𝑠 2 +3𝑠𝑠+5)(𝑠𝑠+3)(𝑠𝑠+5)

DISCUSSION :
1. Why continuous signal is to be converted in discrete domain?
2. What is the function of ZOH device?
3. What is sampling?

Page | 5
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

EXPERIMENT NO : CS– II/2

TILLE : DETERMINATION OF Z – TRANSFORM, INVERSE Z- TRANSFORM & POLE
ZERO MAP OF DISCRETE SYSTEMS
OBJECTIVE : To determine
I. Z transform of a discrete time signal
II. Inverse Z transform of a discrete time signal
III. Factored form and partial fraction form of a rational z function
IV. Pole zero map of a digital system

Software Used: MATLAB

THEORY :
In mathematics and signal processing, the Z-transform converts a discrete time-domain
signal, which is a sequence of real or complex numbers, into a complex frequency-
domain representation.

The Z-transform, like many other integral transforms, can be defined as either a one-
sided or two-sided transform.

Bilateral Z-transform

The bilateral or two-sided Z-transform of a discrete-time signal x[n] is the function X(z)
defined as

Unilateral Z-transform

Alternatively, in cases where x[n] is defined only for n ≥ 0, the single-sided or unilateral
Z-transform is defined as

In signal processing, this definition is used when the signal is causal.

Inverse Z – Transform :
The inverse Z transform is defined as x[n] = Z -1 [x(z)]

Page | 6
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

Region of Convergence:
The set of values of z for which the z-transform G(z) converges is called its region of convergence
(ROC)
Useful Commands:
ztrans is used to obtain z transform of a discrete time signal
iztrans is used to obtain inverse z transform of a z function
zp2sos is used to convert a transfer function from rational form to factored form.
resideuz is used to convert a transfer function from rational form to partial fraction form.
zplane (num,den) is used to obtain pole zero map of a Z function.

Example:
1. Write a matlab code to obtain Z transform of the following discrete function
𝟏𝟏
X[n] = u[n]
𝟒𝟒𝒏𝒏
Matlab Code:

syms z n
ztrans(1/4^n)

Output:
z/(z - 1/4)

2. Write a matlab code to obtain Inverse Z transform of the following Z function

2𝑧𝑧
X(z) =
2𝑧𝑧−1

Matlab Code:

syms z n
iztrans(2*z/(2*z-1))
Output:
(1/2)^n

3. Write a matlab code to convert rational form of the following z function in factored
form
2z4+16z3+44z2+56z+32
G(z)= --------------------------------
3z4+3z3-15z2+18z-12

Page | 7
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

Matlab Code:
syms z n
num = [2 16 44 56 32]
den = [3 3 -15 18 -12]
[z,p,k] = tf2zp(num,den)
gzfct = zp2sos(z,p,k)

Output :
num =
2 16 44 56 32
den =
3 3 -15 18 -12
z=
-4.0000
-2.0000
-1.0000 + 1.0000i
-1.0000 - 1.0000i
p=
-3.2361
1.2361
0.5000 + 0.8660i
0.5000 - 0.8660i
k=
0.6667
gzfct =

0.6667 4.0000 5.3333 1.0000 2.0000 -4.0000

1.0000 2.0000 2.0000 1.0000 -1.0000 1.0000

4. Write a matlab code to convert rational form of the following z function in partial fraction
form
18z3
G(z)= ------------------
18z3+3z2-4z-1

Page | 8
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

Matlab Code:
syms z n
num = [18 0 0 0]
den = [18 3 -4 -1]
[r,p,k] = residuez(num,den)

Outputs :
num =
18 0 0 0
den =
18 3 -4 -1
r =
0.3600
0.2400
0.4000
p =
0.5000
-0.3333
-0.3333
k =
0

5. Write a matlab code to obtain pole zero map of the following z function

Matlab Code:

syms z n
num = [0 1 1]
den = [1 -2 3]
zeros = roots(num)
poles = roots(den)
zplane(num,den)
Output:
num =
0 1 1
den =
1 -2 3
zeros =
-1
poles =
1.0000 + 1.4142i
1.0000 - 1.4142i

Page | 9
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

Pole zero map

Assignments:
1. Determine Z transform of the following discrete functions:
(a) X[n] = (1/16n) u(n) (b) x[n] = 0.5n u(n)
2. Determine inverse Z transform of the following discrete functions:
(a) 18𝑧𝑧 3
X[z]= 3*Z/(Z+1) (b) x[z] =
18𝑧𝑧 +3𝑧𝑧 2 −4𝑧𝑧−1
3

3. Obtain factored form and partial fraction form of the following z function, find pole zero values and
also plot pole zero map using MATLAB.

2𝑧𝑧 4 +16𝑧𝑧 3 +44𝑧𝑧 2 +56𝑧𝑧+32

X[z] =
3𝑧𝑧 4 +3𝑧𝑧 3 −15𝑧𝑧 2 +18𝑧𝑧−12

DISCUSSION :
1. What is Z transform?
2. Why Z transformation is needed in discrete systems?

Page | 10
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

EXPERIMENT NO : CS– II/3

TILLE : TO STUDY STEP RESPONSE OF A DISCRETE TIME SYSTEM AND EFFECT OF
SAMPLING TIME ON SYSTEM RESPONSE
OBJECTIVE : To study
I. Closed loop response of a discrete time system
II. Comparison of time responses of continuous time and discrete time
systems
III. Effect of sampling time on system response and system parameters

Software Used: MATLAB

THEORY :
Absolute stability is a basic requirement of all control systems. Apart from that, good relative stability
and steady state accuracy are also required in any control system, whether continuous time or discrete
time. Transient response corresponds to the system closed loop poles and steady state response
corresponds to the excitation poles or poles of the input function.
In many practical control systems, the desired performance characteristics are specified in terms of time
domain quantities. Unit step input is most commonly used in analysis of a system since it is easy to
generate and represent a sufficiently drastic change thus providing useful information on both transient
and steady state responses. The transient response of a system depends on the initial conditions. It is a
common practice to consider the system initially at rest. Consider the digital control system shown in
Figure1

Similar to the continuous time case, transient response of a digital control system can also be
characterized by the following.
1. Rise time (tr): Time required for the unit step response to rise from 0% to 100% of its final value in
case of underdamped system or 10% to 90% of its final value in case of overdamped system.
2. Delay time (td): Time required for the the unit step response to reach 50% of its final value.
3. Peak time (tp): Time at which maximum peak occurs.
4. Peak overshoot (Mp): The difference between the maximum peak and the steady state value of the
unit step response.
5. Settling time (ts): Time required for the unit step response to reach and stay within 2% or 5% of its
steady state value.

Page | 11
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

However since the output response is discrete the calculated performance measures may be slightly
different from the actual values. Figure 2 illustrates this. The output has a maximum value cmax
whereas the maximum value of the discrete output is c ∗ max which is always less than or equal to
cmax. If the sampling period is small enough compared to the oscillations of the response then this
difference will be small otherwise c ∗ max may be completely erroneous.

Example 1: Consider a unity feedback control system having forward path transfer function G(s) =
1
.
𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠+1)

Determine (i) step response in continuous and discrete domain.

(ii) effect of sampling time on system response

Matlab Code:
n=[1]
d=[1 1 0]
sys=tf(n,d)
sysz=c2d(sys,1,'zoh')
sysc=feedback(sys,1)
syscz=feedback(sysz,1)
step(syscz,'b')
hold on
sysz1=c2d(sys,.5,'zoh')
syscz2=feedback(sysz1,1)
step(syscz2,'g')
hold on
sysz2=c2d(sys,.10,'zoh')
syscz3=feedback(sysz2,1)
step(syscz3,'m')
hold on
Matlab Result:

Page | 12
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

Simulink Model:

Simulink Output :

Page | 13
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

Assignments:
1. Build simulink model to obtain step response of a unity feedback system whose closed loop transfer
function is given by:
1
T(s) = 2 . Also show effect of sampling time on time response specification parameters.
𝑠𝑠 +𝑠𝑠+1

2. Write down matlab code to obtain step response of a unity feedback system having forward path
1
transfer function of G(s) = 2 . Also show effect of sampling time on time response specification
𝑠𝑠 +4𝑠𝑠+3
parameters.

Discussion:
1. How sampling time affects rise time, peak time, % overshoot, settling time of a system?
2. How practical sample and hold circuit works?
3. Derive expression for transfer function of a zero order hold.

Page | 14
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

EXPERIMENT NO : CS– II/4

TILLE : DESIGN OF A LEAD COMPENSATOR USING BODE PLOT METHOD
OBJECTIVE : To design a lead compensator to obtain system response with desired accuracy, less
overshoot.
Software Used: MATLAB
THEORY :
A system which has one pole and one dominating zero (the zero which is closer to the
origin than all over zeros is known as dominating zero.) is known as lead network. If we
want to add a dominating zero for compensation in control system then we have to
select lead compensation network. The basic requirement of the phase lead network is
that all poles and zeros of the transfer function of the network must lie on (-)ve real axis
interlacing each other with a zero located at the origin of nearest origin. Given below is
the circuit diagram for the phase lead compensation network.

Phase
Lead Compensation Network From above circuit we get,

Equating above expression of I we get,

Page | 15
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

Now let us determine the transfer function for the given network and the transfer function
can be determined by finding the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage. So
taking Laplace transform of both side of above equations,

On substituting the α = (R1 +R2)/ R2 & T = {(R1R2) /(R1 +R2)} in the above equation.
Where T and α are respectively the time constant and attenuation constant, we have

The above network can be visualized as an amplifier with a gain of 1/α. Let us draw the
pole zero plot for the above transfer function.

Pole Zero Plot of Lead Compensating Network

Clearly we have -1/T (which is a zero of the transfer function) is closer to origin than the
-1/(αT) (which is the pole of the transfer function).Thus we can say in the lead
compensator zero is more dominating than the pole and because of this lead network
introduces positive phase angle to the system when connected in series.

Page | 16
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

Let us substitute s = jω in the above transfer function and also we have α < 1. On finding
the phase angle function for the transfer function we have

Now in order to find put the maximum phase lead occurs at a frequency let us
differentiate this phase function and equate it to zero. On solving the above equation we
get

Where, θm is the maximum phase lead angle. And the corresponding magnitude of the
transfer function at maximum θm is 1/a.

Effect of Phase Lead Compensation

The velocity constant Kv increases.

The slope of the magnitude plot reduces at the gain crossover frequency so that relative
stability improves & error decrease due to error is directly proportional to the slope.
Phase margin increases.
Response become faster.

Advantages of Phase Lead Compensation

Let us discuss some of the advantages of the phase lead compensation-

Due to the presence of phase lead network the speed of the system increases because it
shifts gain crossover frequency to a higher value.
Due to the presence of phase lead compensation maximum overshoot of the system
decreases.
Disadvantages of Phase Lead Compensation
Some of the disadvantages of the phase lead compensation -
Steady state error is not improved.
Example:
1. Write a matlab code to design a phase-lead compensator for the system
G (s ) =
1
, such that the steady-state error is less than 0.1 for a unit ramp
s(s + 1)
input and a % overshoot less than 28%.

Steady-state error specification

K ⋅1
KV = lim sG (s ) = lim s =K
s →0 s → 0 s (s + 1)

1 1
ess = = < 0.1 ⇒ K ≥ 10
KV K

Page | 17
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

% overshoot specification

ζπ
−
% Overshoot = 100e 1−ζ
2

To maintain an overshoot of 28% , ζ = 0.4

Then, the relationship between phase margin (PM) and damping ratio ( ζ ) for the
ω n2
special case of open-loop transfer function G (s ) = which is given by
s(s + 2ζω n )

 
 2ζ 
PM = tan −1  
 2 
1 − 4ζ − 2ζ 
2


Phase-lead design procedure:

i.) Choose the DC gain constant K such that the steady-state error specification is met.
From above, we know K must be greater than or equal to 10, so let K = 10 .
ii.) Obtain the gain margin and phase margin plots of the uncompensated system along
with the DC gain constant K found in (i.) to determine the amount of phase lead θ m
needed to realize the required phase margin so that the percent overshoot
specification is met.

Figure. Bode plot of uncompensated system K ⋅ G (s ) .

From Figure above, the PM of the uncompensated system PM uncomp ≈ 20  . Thus,

choosing the PM of the compensated system as PM comp = 45 , then the additional
amount of phase lead θ m = PM comp − PM uncomp = 25 . Now that θ m has been
determined, the parameter α of the phase-lead compensator can be chosen using
the equation given below:

Page | 18
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

which has been chosen to be α = 0.3 which corresponds to a maximum phase lead
of 33 .
iii.) The maximum phase lead θ m must be added around the new gain-crossover
frequency ω m . The phase-lead compensator contributes a gain around
− 10 log(0.3) = 5.2dB at the new ω m ; therefore, one must determine the frequency
at which the uncompensated system has a magnitude 10 log(0.3) = −5.2dB . Thus,
ω m should equal this frequency so that it becomes the new 0-dB crossover
frequency in the compensated system. From inspection of Figure , the magnitude of
the uncompensated system equals –5.2dB at the frequency ω = 4.5 rad sec . Let
ω m = 4.5 rad sec .

iv.) Calculate the parameters of the phase-lead compensator based on the values
obtained in steps (i.) thru (iii.). The transfer function of a phase-lead compensator
is given as
1 s +1 T j ωT + 1
Gc(s ) = ⋅ or C ( jω ) = with α < 1
α s + 1 αT jωαT + 1
1
where T = . Thus, for α = 0.3 , T = 0.41 sec . This leads to a phase-lead
ωm α
compensator design of the following:

0.41s + 1
Gc(s ) =
0.123s + 1

MATLAB CODE FOR PHASE LEAD COMPENSATION:

wm = 4.5;
alpha = 0.3;
T = 1/(wm*sqrt(alpha));
k= 10;
gnum = [k];
gden = [1 1 0];
uncompensated = tf(gnum,gden)
cnum = [T 1];
cden = [T*alpha 1];
compensator = tf(cnum,cden)
numo = conv(cnum,gnum);
deno = conv(cden,gden);

Page | 19
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

compensated = tf(numo,deno)
bode(uncompensated,'r',compensated ,'g')

uncomtr=feedback(uncompensated,1)
comtr=feedback(compensated,1)
step(uncomtr,'y')
hold on
step(comtr,'b')

Assignments:
𝟒𝟒
1. Consider a unity feedback system with G(s) = .
𝒔𝒔(𝒔𝒔+𝟐𝟐)
Design a lead compensator to achieve following requirements:
i. Static velocity error constant = 20
ii. Phase margin> 50º
DISCUSSION :
1. Draw magnitude & phase plot of a phase lead compensator.

Page | 20
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

EXPERIMENT NO : CS– II/5

TILLE : DESIGN OF A LAG COMPENSATOR USING BODE PLOT METHOD
OBJECTIVE : To design a lag compensator to meet performance specification parameters

Software Used: MATLAB

THEORY :
A system which has one zero and one dominating pole ( the pole which is closer to origin
that all other poles is known as dominating pole) is known as lag network. If we want to
add a dominating pole for compensation in control system then, we have to select a lag
compensation network.
The basic requirement of the phase lag network is that all poles & zeros of the transfer
function of the network must lie in (-)ve real axis interlacing each other with a pole
located or on the nearest to the origin. Given below is the circuit diagram for the phase
lag compensation network.

Phase Lag Compensating Network

We will have the output at the series combination of the resistor R2 and the capacitor C.
From the above circuit diagram, we get

Now let us determine the transfer function for the given network and the transfer function
can be determined by finding the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage.
Taking Laplace transform of above two equation we get,

Page | 21
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

On substituting the T = R2C and β = {(R2 + R1 ) / R1} in the above equation (where T and
β are respectively the time constant and dc gain), we have

The above network provides a high frequency gain of 1 / β. Let us draw the pole zero plot
for the above transfer function.

Pole Zero Plot of Lag Network Clearly we have -1/T (which is a zero of the transfer
function) is far to origin than the -1 / (βT)(which is the pole of the transfer function).
Thus we can say in the lag compensator pole is more dominating than the zero and
because of this lag network introduces negative phase angle to the system when
connected in series.
Let us substitute s = jω in the above transfer function and also we have a < 1. On finding
the phase angle function for the transfer function we have

Now in order to find put the maximum phase lag occurs at a frequency let us differentiate
this phase function and equate it to zero. On solving the above equation we get

Page | 22
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

Where, θm is the maximum phase lead angle. Remember β is generally chosen to be

greater than 10.
Example:

Design a phase-lag compensator for the system G (s ) =

1
, such that the steady-
s(s + 1)
state error is less than 0.1 for a unit ramp input and a percent overshoot less than
25%.

Steady-state error specification

K ≥ 10 .

Percent overshoot specification

PM comp ≥ 45 .

Phase-lag design procedure:

i.) Choose the DC gain constant K such that the steady-state error specification is
met. From above, we know K must be greater than or equal to 10, so let K = 10 .
ii.) Obtain the gain margin and phase margin plots of the uncompensated system along
with the DC gain constant K found in (i.) to estimate the frequency at which the
PM of 50  occurs. Denote this frequency as the new gain-crossover frequency ω m
. From Figure 8., let ω m = 0.84 rad sec .

Bode Diagrams

Gm = Inf, Pm=17.964 deg. (at 3.0842 rad/sec)

60

40
Phase (deg); Magnitude (dB)

20

-20

-100

-120

-140

-160

-180
-1 0
10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

Figure 8. Bode plot of uncompensated system K ⋅ G (s ) .

Page | 23
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

iii.) Determine the magnitude of uncompensated system at ω m = 0.84 rad sec . From
Figure 8., the magnitude of the uncompensated system at ω m = 0.84 rad sec is 20
dB. To bring the magnitude curve down to 0 dB at ω m , the phase-lag compensator
20
must provide 20 log(α ) = 20 dB or α = 10 20 = 10 .
iv.) Calculate the parameters of the phase-lag compensator based on the values obtained
in steps (i.) thru (iii.). The transfer function of a phase-lag compensator is given as
1 s +1 T jω T + 1
C (s ) = ⋅ or C ( jω ) = with α > 1
α s + 1 αT jωαT + 1
10 1
where T = = 11.9 sec . This is to ensure that the frequency at ω = is one
ωm T
decade below the new gain-crossover frequency ω m . This leads to a phase-lag
compensator design of the following:

11.9s + 1
C (s ) = .
119s + 1
MATLAB CODE FOR PHASE LAG COMPENSATION:
wm = 0.84;
beta = 10;
T = 10/(wm);
k= 10;
gnum = [k];
gden = [1 1 0];
uncompensated = tf(gnum,gden)
cnum = [T 1];
cden = [T*beta 1];
compensator = tf(cnum,cden)
numo = conv(cnum,gnum);
deno = conv(cden,gden);
compensated = tf(numo,deno);
bode(uncompensated,'r', compensated,'g')

Page | 24
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

uncomtr=feedback(uncompensated,1)
comtr=feedback(compensated,1)
step(uncomtr,'y')
hold on
step(comtr,'b')

DISCUSSION :
1. How lag compensator works?

Page | 25
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

EXPERIMENT NO : CS– II/6

TILLE : DETERMINATION OF STEP RESPONSE OF A DIGITAL SYSTEM DUE TO VARIATION IN
CONTROLLER PARAMETERS

OBJECTIVE : To study
I. The effect of variation in controller parameter on system response

Software Used: MATLAB

THEORY :
PID controllers use a 3 basic behavior types or modes: P - proportional, I - integrative and D -
derivative. While proportional and integrative modes are also used as single control
modes, a derivative mode is rarely used on it’ s own in control systems. Combinations
such as PI and PD control are very often in practical systems.
P Controller: In general it can be said that P controller cannot stabilize higher order processes. For the
1st order processes, meaning the processes with one energy storage, a large increase in
gain can be tolerated. Proportional controller can stabilize only 1st order unstable
process. Changing controller gain K can change closed loop dynamics. A large controller
gain will result in control system with: a) smaller steady state error, i.e. better reference
following b) faster dynamics, i.e. broader signal frequency band of the closed loop
system and larger sensitivity with respect to measuring noise c) smaller amplitude and
phase margin When P controller is used, large gain is needed to improve steady state
error. Stable systems do not have problems when large gain is used. Such systems are
systems with one energy storage (1st order capacitive systems). If constant steady state
error can be accepted with such processes, than P controller can be used. Small steady
state errors can be accepted if sensor will give measured value with error or if importance
of measured value is not too great anyway.
PD Controller: D mode is used when prediction of the error can improve control or when it necessary to
stabilize the system. From the frequency characteristic of D element it can be seen that it
has phase lead of 90°.
Often derivative is not taken from the error signal but from the system output variable. This is done to
avoid effects of the sudden change of the reference input that will cause sudden change in
the value of error signal. Sudden change in error signal will cause sudden change in
control output. To avoid that it is suitable to design D mode to be proportional to the
change of the output variable. PD controller is often used in control of moving objects
such are flying and underwater vehicles, ships, rockets etc. One of the reason is in
stabilizing effect of PD controller on sudden changes in heading variable y(t). Often a
"rate gyro" for velocity measurement is used as sensor of heading change of moving
object.

PI Controller: PI controller will eliminate forced oscillations and steady state error resulting in
operation of on-off controller and P controller respectively. However, introducing
integral mode has a negative effect on speed of the response and overall stability of the
system. Thus, PI controller will not increase the speed of response. It can be expected
since PI controller does not have means to predict what will happen with the error in near

Page | 26
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

future. This problem can be solved by introducing derivative mode which has ability to
predict what will happen with the error in near future and thus to decrease a reaction time
of the controller. PI controllers are very often used in industry, especially when speed of
the response is not an issue. A control without D mode is used when: a) fast response of
the system is not required b) large disturbances and noise are present during operation of
the process c) there is only one energy storage in process (capacitive or inductive) d)
there are large transport delays in the system.

PID Controller: PID controller has all the necessary dynamics: fast reaction on change of the
controller input (D mode), increase in control signal to lead error towards zero (I mode)
and suitable action inside control error area to eliminate oscillations (P mode). Derivative
mode improves stability of the system and enables increase in gain K and decrease in
integral time constant Ti, which increases speed of the controller response. PID controller
is used when dealing with higher order capacitive processes (processes with more than
one energy storage) when their dynamic is not similar to the dynamics of an integrator
(like in many thermal processes). PID controller is often used in industry, but also in the
control of mobile objects (course and trajectory following included) when stability and
precise reference following are required. Conventional autopilot is for the most part PID
type controllers.
Effects of Coefficients:

A discrete implementation of proportional control is identical to continuous. The

continuous is
u(t) = kp e(t) ; D(s) = kp
u(k) = kp e(k) ; D(z) = kp
The discrete is
where e(t) or e(k) is the error signal and kp is proportional gain.
The continuous time derivative control can be expressed as
u(t) = kd 𝑒𝑒̇ (t) ; D(s) = kds
The discrete derivative control equation can be written as
𝑒𝑒(𝑘𝑘)− 𝑒𝑒(𝑘𝑘−1) 1−𝑧𝑧 −1 𝑧𝑧−1
u(k) = kd ; D(z) = kd = kd
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
The continuous time integral control can be expressed as
u(t) = ki ∫ 𝑒𝑒(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ; D(s) = ki /s
𝑇𝑇 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
u(k) = u(k-1)+kiTe(k) ; D(z) = ki −1 = ki
1−𝑧𝑧 𝑧𝑧−1

The discrete PID controller can be represented as

𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 𝑧𝑧−1
Gpid(z) = kp+ ki + kd
𝑧𝑧−1 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇

Page | 27
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

Example:
1
1. Consider a unity feedback system with forward path transfer function G(s) = 2 . Convert this
𝑠𝑠 +10𝑠𝑠+20
system in z-domain with T = 0.1 sec. Show the effect of addition of a PD controller on the system
performance.

num=1;
den=[1 10 20];
g1=tf (num,den)
t1=feedback(g1,1)
d1=c2d(t1,.1,'zoh')
step(d1,'g')
hold on

num1=10;
den1=[1 10 20];
g2=tf (num1,den1)
t2=feedback(g2,1)
d2=c2d(t2,.1, 'zoh')
step(d2,'m')
hold on
Kp=500;
Kd=10;
numc=[Kd Kp];
numo=conv(numc,num)
deno=den
g3=tf(numo,deno)
t3=feedback(g3,1)
d3= c2d(t3,.1,'zoh')
step(d3,'b')
hold on
Kp=500;
Kd=5;
numc=[Kd Kp];
numo=conv(numc,num)
deno=den
g3=tf(numo,deno)
t3=feedback(g3,1)
d3= c2d(t3,.1,'zoh')
step(d3,'y')
hold on
Kp=500;
Kd=.01;
numc=[Kd Kp];
numo=conv(numc,num)
deno=den
g3=tf(numo,deno)
t3=feedback(g3,1)
d3= c2d(t3,.1,'zoh')
step(d3,'r')
hold on

Page | 28
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

1
2. Consider a unity feedback system with forward path transfer function G(s) = 2 . Convert this
𝑠𝑠 +10𝑠𝑠+20
system in z-domain with T = 0.1 sec. Show the effect of addition of a PI controller on the system
performance.

num=1;
den=[1 10 20];
g1=tf (num,den)
t1=feedback(g1,1)
d1=c2d(t1,.1,'zoh')
step(d1,'g')
hold on

num1=10;
den1=[1 10 20];
g2=tf (num1,den1)
t2=feedback(g2,1)
d2=c2d(t2,.1, 'zoh')
step(d2,'m')
hold on
Kp=500;
Ki = 1
numc=[Kp Ki];
denc= [1 0]
numo=conv(numc,num)
deno=conv(den,denc)
g3=tf(numo,deno)
t3=feedback(g3,1)
d3= c2d(t3,.1,'zoh')
step(d3,'b')
hold on
Kp=500;
Ki = 100
numc=[Kp Ki];
denc= [1 0]
numo=conv(numc,num)

Page | 29
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

deno=conv(den,denc)
g3=tf(numo,deno)
t3=feedback(g3,1)
d3= c2d(t3,.1,'zoh')
step(d3,'r')
hold on
Kp=500;
Ki = 500
numc=[Kp Ki];
denc= [1 0]
numo=conv(numc,num)
deno=conv(den,denc)
g3=tf(numo,deno)
t3=feedback(g3,1)
d3= c2d(t3,.1,'zoh')
step(d3,'g')
hold on

Assignments:
1
1. Consider a unity feedback system with forward path transfer function G(s) = . Convert
𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠+1.6)
this system in z-domain with T = 0.1 sec. Show the effect of addition of a PD controller on the
system performance.
1
2. Consider a unity feedback system with forward path transfer function G(s) = . Convert
𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠+1.6)
this system in z-domain with T = 0.1 sec. Show the effect of addition of a PI controller on the
system performance.
1
3. Consider a unity feedback system with forward path transfer function G(s) = . Convert
𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠+1.6)
this system in z-domain with T = 0.1 sec. Show the effect of addition of a PID controller on the
system performance.

Discussion:

1. What is the effect of derivative gain in system performance?

2. What is the effect of integral gain in system performance?

Page | 30
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

EXPERIMENT NO : CS /7
TITLE : DETERMINATION OF STATE SPACE MODEL FROM TRANSFER FUNCTION MODEL
& VICE VERSA.
OBJECTIVE : To obtain

I. Transfer function model from a state model

II. State model from transfer function model
III. Step response of a system represented by its state model
Software Used: MATLAB/ SIMULINK
Example 1: Obtain transfer function and its step response of a state model given by:
𝑥𝑥1̇ 0 1 𝑥𝑥 1
=� �� � + [ 0 ] u
𝑥𝑥̇ 2 −1 −1 𝑥𝑥 2 1
𝑥𝑥 1
Y = [1 0] �𝑥𝑥 �
2
Matlab Code:

a = [0 1; -1 -1]
b = [0;1]
c = [1 0]
d=0
[num,den] = ss2tf(a,b,c,d)
g = tf(num,den)
step(g)

Output :

Transfer function:
1
-----------
s^2 + s + 1

Page | 31
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

Example 2: Obtain state model and its step response of a transfer function given by:

1
G(s) =
𝑠𝑠 2 +10𝑠𝑠+20
Matlab Code:

num = [1]
den = [1 10 20]
[A,B,C,D]= tf2ss(num,den)
step(A,B,C,D)

Output:

A =

-10 -20
1 0

B =

1
0

C =

0 1

D =

Page | 32
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

EXPERIMENT NO : CS /8
TITLE : DETERMINATION OF EIGEN VALUES FROM STATE MODEL & STABILITY
ANALYSIS

OBJECTIVE : To determine

I. Eigen values from state model

II. Eigen values from transfer function model
III. Stability of a system
Software Used: MATLAB/ SIMULINK
Example 1: Obtain transfer function and its step response of a state model given by:
𝑥𝑥1̇ 0 1 𝑥𝑥 1
=� �� � + [ 0 ] u
𝑥𝑥̇ 2 −1 −1 𝑥𝑥 2 1
𝑥𝑥 1
Y = [1 0] �𝑥𝑥 �
2
Matlab Code:

a = [0 1; -1 -1]
b = [0;1]
c = [1 0]
d=0
[num,den] = ss2tf(a,b,c,d)
g = tf(num,den)
eig(a)
if (eig(a)< 0)
system = 1
else
system = 0
end

*[Note: system = 1 represents stable system ; system = 0

represents unstable system]

Output:

Transfer function:
1
-----------
s^2 + s + 1

ans =

-0.5000 + 0.8660i
-0.5000 - 0.8660i

system =

Page | 33
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

Example 2: Obtain eigen values of a transfer function given by:

1
G(s) =
𝑠𝑠 2 +10𝑠𝑠+20
Matlab Code:

num = [1]
den = [1 10 20]
[A,B,C,D]= tf2ss(num,den)
eig (A)
if (eig(a) < 0)
system = 1
else
system = 0
end

*[Note: system = 1 represents stable system ; system = 0

represents unstable system]

Output:

A =

-10 -20
1 0

B =

1
0

C =

0 1

D =

0
ans =

-7.2361
-2.7639

system =

Page | 34
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

EXPERIMENT NO : CS /9
TITLE : STUDY THE EFFECT OF COMMON NON – LINEARITIES INTRODUCED TO THE
FORWARD PATH TRANSFER FUNCTION OF A 2ND ORDER UNITY FEEDBACK
CONTROL SYSTEM

OBJECTIVE : To study

I. the effect of common non linearities such as relay, dead zone, saturation on
response of a 2nd order control system.

THEORY:

Consider the typical block shown in Figure 1. It is composed of four parts: a plant to be
controlled, sensors for measurement, actuators for control action, and a control low, usually
implemented on a computer. Nonlinearities may occur in any part of the system, thus make it a
nonlinear control system.

Nonlinearities can be classified as continuous and discontinuous. Because discontinuous

nonlinearities cannot be locally approximated by linear functions, they are also called “hard”
nonlinearities. Hard nonlinearities are commonly found in control systems, both in small range
operation and large range operation. Whether a system in small range operation should be
regarded as nonlinear or linear depends on the magnitude of the hard nonlinearities and on the
extent of their effects on the system performance.

Saturation: When one increases the input to a physical device, the following phenomenon is often
observed: when the input is small, its increase leads to a corresponding (often proportional)
increase of output: but when the input reaches a certain level, its further increase does
produce little or no increase of the output. The output simply stays around its maximum
value. The device is said to be saturation when this happen. A typical saturation nonlinearity
is represented in Figure 2, where the thick line is the real nonlinearity and the thin line is an
idealized saturation nonlinearity.

Dead-Zone: Consider the dead-zone characteristics shown in Figure 6, with the dead-zone with being
2δ and its slope k

Page | 35
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

Dead-zones can have a number of possible effects on control systems. Their most common effect is to
decrease static output accuracy. They may also lead to limit cycles or system instability because of the
lack of response in the dead-zone. The response corresponding to a sinusoidal input x(t)=Asin(ωt) into a
dead-zone of width 2δ and slope k, with A≥δ, is plotted in Figure 7. Since the characteristics is an odd
function, a1=0. The response is also seen to be symmetric over the four quarters of a period. In one
quarter of a period, i.e., when 0≤ωt≤p/2, one has

Software Used: MATLAB/ SIMULINK

Example 1: Show the effect of saturation with limit 0.5 introduced in the forward path of a open
𝟏𝟏
loop system having G(s) = 𝟐𝟐 .
𝒔𝒔 +𝒔𝒔+𝟏𝟏

SIMULINK MODEL

Page | 36
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

MATLAB RESULT

Example 2: Show the effect of dead zone with limit 0.5 introduced in the forward path of a open
𝟏𝟏
loop system having G(s) = 𝟐𝟐 .
𝒔𝒔 +𝒔𝒔+𝟏𝟏

SIMULINK MODEL

Page | 37
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

MATLAB RESULT

Example 3: Show the effect of relay with on & off point of 0.3 & 0.2 respectively introduced in
𝟏𝟏
the forward path of a open loop system having G(s) = 𝟐𝟐 .
𝒔𝒔 +𝒔𝒔+𝟏𝟏

SIMULINK MODEL

Page | 38
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

MATLAB RESULT

Example 4: Show the effect of dead zone with limit 0.5 introduced in the forward path of a unity
𝟏𝟏
feedback closed loop system having G(s) = 𝟐𝟐 .
𝒔𝒔 +𝒔𝒔+𝟏𝟏

SIMULINK MODEL

Page | 39
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

MATLAB RESULT

Example 5: Show the effect of saturation with limit 0.5 introduced in the forward path of a unity
𝟏𝟏
feedback closed loop system having G(s) = 𝟐𝟐 .
𝒔𝒔 +𝒔𝒔+𝟏𝟏

SIMULINK MODEL

Page | 40
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

MATLAB RESULT

Example 6: Show the effect of relay with on & off point of 0.3 & 0.2 respectively introduced in the
𝟏𝟏
forward path of a unity feedback closed loop system having G(s) = 𝟐𝟐 .
𝒔𝒔 +𝒔𝒔+𝟏𝟏

SIMULINK MODEL

Page | 41
CONTROL SYSTEM II LAB. MANUAL EE 693

MATLAB RESULT

Page | 42