1

Filtration
 The separation of solids from a suspension in a liquid by means of a
porous medium or screen which retains the solids and allows the
liquid to pass.
 Separation of solids from liquid i.e. when the amount of solid is
relatively small as compared to the liquid
 Most common application of the flow of fluids through packed bed.
 Removal of solid particles from a fluid by passing the fluid through a
filtering medium or septum on which the solids are deposited.
 Operation wherein heterogeneous mixture of a fluid and particles of
solids are separated by a filter medium by permitting the flow of fluid
and retaining the particles of solids.
 Essentially a mechanical operation and is less demanding in energy
than evaporation or drying where the high latent heat of liquid, which
usually water, has to be provided.
 In chemical laboratory, filtration is carried out using ‘Buchner
funnel’, and the liquid is sucked through the thin layer of particles
using a source of vacuum.

Three (3) major groups of filters:

 Cake Filters -separate relatively large amounts of solids as a cake of crystals

or sludge and often provide provisions for washing the cake and removing some
of the solids before discharge.

Example: Filter press, belt filter, discontinuous vacuum filters or nutsche,

continuous vacuum or rotary-drum filter, centrifugal filters (batch or continuous
centrifuges).

 Clarifying Filters -remove small amounts of solids to produce a clean gas

or sparkling clear liquid such as beverages, pharmaceutical products, fuel oil
and electroplating solution. The solid particles are trapped inside the filter
medium or on its external surface. The particle are caught by surface forces and
immobilized on the surface or within the flow channels where they reduce the
effective diameter of the channels but usually do not block them completely.
In cleaning gases, the separation is by impingement of the particles against a
solid surface place in the flowing stream. The particles, because of their inertia,
are expected to cross the streamline of the fluid and strike and adhere to the
solid, from which they can subsequently be removed.
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Example: Clarifying disk filter, gas or dust filter

 Crossflow Filters (Membrane filters) – the feed suspension flows under
pressure at a fairly high velocity across the filter medium. A thin layer of solids
may form on the surface of the medium, but the high liquid velocity keeps the
layer from building up. This can be applied to concentrate suspensions of fine
particles or colloidal material or to fractionate solutions of macromolecules.

Example: Microfiltration (0.5 to 5 μm) and Ultrafiltration (0.5μm to 10 – 3 μm)

Cake Filtration Principles

Vocabularies:
 Filter - piece of unit operation equipment by which filtration is performed.
 Filter medium or septum - barrier that lets the liquid pass while retaining most
of the solids. It may be a screen, cloth, paper or bed of solids.
 Filtrate – the liquid that passes through the filter medium
 Slurry – heterogeneous mixture of solids and fluid which will be fed to the
filter.
 Sludge or filter cake – wet accumulated solids that piled up or trapped on the
filter medium.

Four (4) groups of filters depending on service :

1. Strainers - little more than a metal screen set across a flow channel to remove
dirt or rust from a flowing liquid.
2. Clarifiers - for removal of small quantity of solids usually to produce sparkling
clear liquid like in the ink or beverage industries.
3. Cake filters – for separation of large amount of solids from a liquid as a cake of
crystals or sludge.
4. Filter thickeners – gives partial separation of a thin slurry, discharging some
clear liquid and thickened but still flowable suspension of solids.

Classification of filtration:

1. By driving force
The filtrate is induced to flow through the filter medium by hydrostatic head
(gravity), pressure is applied upstream of the filter medium, vacuum or reduced
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pressure applied downstream of the filter medium, or centrifugal force across

the medium.
2. By filtration mechanism
Filtration process can be accomplished by :
Cake filtration – when solids are stopped at the surface of the filter medium and
pile upon one another to form a cake of increasing thickness.
Depth, filter-medium or clarifying filtration – when solids are trapped within
the pores or body of the medium.
3. By Objective
The process goal of filtration may be dry solids (the cake is the product of
value), clarified liquid (the filtrate is the product of value), or both. Good solids
recovery is best obtained by cake filtration, while clarification of the liquid is
accomplish by depth and also cake filtration.
4. By operating cycle
Filtration may be intermittent (batch) or continuous. Batch filters may be
operated with constant-pressure driving force, at constant rate, or in cycles that
are variable with respect to both pressure and rate. Batch cycle can vary greatly,
depending on filter area and solid loading.
5. By nature of the solids.
Cake filtration may involve an accumulation of solids that is compressible or
substantially incompressible.

Cake filtration Equipment:

1. Batch Cake filters

a. Nutsche filters –simplest batch filter. It is a tank with false bottom,
perforated or porous, which may either supports a filter medium or act as
the filter medium. The slurry is fed into the filter vessel, and separation
occurs by gravity flow, gas pressure , vacuum or combination of theses
forces.
b. Rosemund filter –example of commercially available large-scale nutsche
filter. It is totally closed operation which allows the handling of hazardous
solvents.
c. Nutrex – a novel variation of nutsche filters which combines a reactor, a
filter and a dryer.

2. Filter Presses
a. Plate and Frame – an alternate assembly of plates covered on both sides with
filter medium, usually a cloth, and hollow frames that provide space for cake
accumulation during filtration
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b. Recessed-plate – similar to plate and frame press in appearance but consist

only of plates. Both faces of each plate are hollowed to form a chamber for
cake accumulation between adjacent plates.

3. Pressure leaf filters – sometimes called tank filters, they consist of flat filtering
elements (leaves) supported in a pressure shell. The leaves are circular, arc-
sided or rectangular and they have filtering surfaces on both faces and are
operated batch-wise.

4. Rotary drum Filter – is the most widely used in continuous filters. Most are
fed by operating the drum with about 35% of its circumference submerge in a
slurry trough, although submergence can be set as to any desired amount.

5. Industrial tubular filters

6. Disk Filters
7. Horizontal belt filters
8. Filter thickeners
9. Deep bed filters

(Please Refer to any Unit Operation Books and Ch.E HB for illustrative examples
of the Equipment )

Factors to consider for the selection of filters

1. The properties of the fluid, particularly its viscosity, density and corrosive
properties.
2. The nature of the solid such as its particle size and shape, size distribution and
packing characteristics.
3. The concentration of solids suspension.
4. The quantity of material to be handled, and its value
5. Whether the valuable product is the solid, the fluid or both.
6. Whether it is necessary to wash the filtered solids.
7. Whether the feed liquor may be heated.
8. Whether any form of pretreatment would be helpful
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Material Balance on Filtration:

Slurry Filtrate

Wet cake
Filter medium
Solid balance:

Mass of solid in slurry fed = Mass of solid in cake

(Mass of slurry) (Mass fraction of solids in slurry) =

(Mass of wet cake) (Mass fraction of solid in wet cake)

(VF +  L A) L (1 -  ) ( L A) S
(1–X)

where:
X = mass fraction of solid in slurry
 = porosity
= vol. of void space / vol. of wet cake
L = cake thickness
A = surface area of the cake or filter medium
L = density of liquid or filtrate
S = density of the solids in the cake
A = x-sectional area of bed normal to the flow

[ ( )( ) ][ ]

[ ( )( ) ][ ]
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Filtration Equation:

p1 p2

(-p)
Linear velocity of the fluid at any instant (  ) :
( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )
( )

[ ( )( ) ][ ]

( )[ ( )( ) ]
( )

where: K = bed permeability, ft2

( )
 = viscosity of filtrate
SO = , per foot

 During filtration, the only variables subject to the control of the operator
are the pressure drop ( -  p ), filtrate volume (VF), and time (t F ) while
usually constant during filtration are:
 L S X K 
 Combining these terms to a single term,
( )
[ ( )( ) ]

( )
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( )
( )
( )
( )

Rate of Filtration
( ) ( )

If we consider = equivalent volume of filtrate due to the

resistance of filter medium and pipe
connections,
( ) ( )
( ) ( )

in terms of cake thickness:

( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )

Filter Operation and application:

Case 1: Incompressible Cake

 = constant
C v = constant
The flow rate is directly proportional to to the area and
pressure and inversely proportional to viscosity, to the amount of
cake (or filtrate) and to specific cake resistance, 

Constant Pressure Filtration (CPF):

 Apply full pressure at the start and maintain pressure
differential constant throughout the run. The first particle caught
will be compacted into a tight mass. This will fill the pores of
filter medium and will result in a low rate of filtration.
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 If filtration pressure is constant, the rate of flow will

progressively diminish

Analytical equation :
( )
( )
if ( ) is constant ,
( )
∫( ) ∫
( )

( )
( )

( ) ( )

dt
dV

VF
The above graph is applicable to constant pressure differential,
laminar flow and incompressible cake where Ve and CV are constant
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Constant Rate Filtration (CRF):

 Apply initial pressure at low pressure and maintain the flow rate constant
throughout the run. First collected filtrate will not be so clear because the
initial layer of the cake will crowded into the fibers of the filter medium
and will not adhere more firmly to the filter medium. This could be easily
separated. But the filtrate to be collected at a given time would be higher
than the CPF
 If filtration flow rate is to be maintained, the pressure must be gradually
increased.
Analytical equation :
dV A2 ( -  p )
dt 2 CV ( VF + V e )

 If (d V / d t ) is constant , VF / t F = VR / t R

VR A2 ( -  p )
tR 2 CV ( VR + V e )

tR = 2 C V V R ( VR + V e )
A2 ( -  p )

Graphical equation :
(-p ) 2 CV d V (VR ) 2 CV d V ( V e )
A2 dt A2 dt

(-p ) 2 CV V R ( V R ) 2 CV V R ( V e )
A2 tR A2 tR
Y = m x + b

(-p )

b
VR
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Constant Rate followed by Constant Pressure (CRPF):

The use of a centrifugal pumps result in this pattern. The discharge rate decreases with
increasing back pressure
Analytical equation :
dV A2 ( -  p )
dt 2 CV ( VF + V e )
VF tF

 2( VF + V e ) d V = A2 ( -  p)max dt
VR tR
CV
VF tF

( VF + V e ) 2 ] = A2 ( -  p)max ( t ) ]
V tR
R
CV

( V F + V e ) 2 - ( VR + V e ) 2 = A2 ( -  p)max (tF–tR)
CV

( -  p)max CPF

CRF
(-p )

VR VF

V
Cyclic Operation :
Washing of Cake :
1. For through washing (Plate and Frame filter press)
 The wash liquid and the filtrate has similar physical properties
 Washing pressure is the same as the final filtration pressure
 No cake rearrangement
Rate of washing = 25% of filtration rate

[dV / dt ] washing = ¼ [dV / dt ] filtration

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2. For leaf filters :

 The wash liquid and the filtrate has similar physical properties
 Washing pressure is the same as the final filtration pressure
 No cake rearrangement
 Flow pattern and route of wash water is same as for the filtrate

Rate of washing = Rate of filtration rate

[dV / dt ] washing = [dV / dt ] filtration

Total cyclic time: ( t T )

T = tF + tW + t DCR

Filtration Capacity : (Y)

Y = VF / T
= VF / (tF + tW + t DCR )

Continuous Filtration
For continuous rotary filters:
 The feed, filtrate and cake move at steady constant rate but for any particular
element of the filter surface, conditions are not steady but transient.
 Process consists of series of steps such as cake formation, washing, drying, and
discharging which involves progressive and continual change in conditions
 The pressure drop across the filter during the cake formation, is always held
constant. Thus, CPF equation is applied to continuous filters.
( )
( )

( )
( )

( )
where :
 = fraction of drum submerged
tc = cycle time
n = drum speed
Also,
 = AF / A T
where:
AF = submerged area of filter or area of filtration
AT = total area of the drum filter
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Problems:
1. Small leaf filter is run at constant rate. It is found that initial pressure differential
is 35 KPa and the pressure differential after 20 minutes of operation is 345 KPa
during which 0.1 cu. meter of filtrate is collected. If this filter were used with the
same slurry in a constant pressure filtration at 345 KPa, how much filtrate is
collected in 20 minutes?
Given:
CRF
-ΔP1 = 35 kPa
-ΔP2 = 345 kPa
tR = 20 minutes ; VR = 0.1 cu. m.
Required:
VF = ? if CPF with same slurry at –ΔPC = 345 kPa and tF = 20 mins.
Solution:
Assume incompressible cake
At CRF,

345

-ΔP

35

0.1m3
VR
Using CRF eq’n.,
(-p ) 2 CV V R ( V R ) 2 CV V R ( V e )
A2 tR A2 tR
Y = m x + b
Intercept : (2Cv /A2) (dV/dt) (Ve) = 35 KPa
Slope : (2Cv /A2) (dV/dt) = (345 –35) / (0.1 –0) = 3100
therefore, Intercept / slope : Ve = 0.01129 m3
2
Also, Cv /A = 35 / (dV/dt) (Ve) (2) = 35 / (0.1/20)(0.01129)(2)
–5
= 3.10 x 10 Kpa – min / (m3) 2
For CPF,
tF = C V ( VF 2 + 2 V e V F )
A2 ( -  p C )

20 min = (3.10 x 10 –5 Kpa – min / (m3) 2) VF 2 + 2(0.01129m3 (VF)]

345 Kpa
by Quadratic equation, VF = 0.13058 m3
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2. A plate and frame filter press contains 24 frames, each 2.5 cm thick with inside
dimensions 0.6 m x 0.6 m. Filtering time is 2 hours. Wash water volume is 10 % of the
filtrate volume, per cycle. Filtering and washing are done at the same pressure. Final
cake is 0.050 m3 / m3 of filtrate.
a. What is the time of washing
b. What is the daily capacity if dumping, cleaning and assembling is 30 minutes
per cycle
Given:
P&F Filter 24 frames (0.6m x 0.6 m x 2.5 cm thick)
tF = 2 hours VW = 10% VF per cycle
Final cake = 0.05 m / m3 of filtrate
3

Required:
a. t W =? b. Y = ? if t dcr = 30 min per cycle
Solution:
dV A2 ( -  p C )
dt 2 CV ( VF + Ve )

Assume Rm = 0 , Ve =0
For CPF,

tF = C V VF 2
A2 ( -  p C )
2
t F / VF = CV
A ( -  p C)
2

VF =( 0.6m x0.6m x0.025m x24frames) / (0.05 m3 cake / m3 of filtrate)

= 4.32
2 hrs / (4.32 ) 2 = CV
A ( -  p C)
2

CV = 0.10717
A ( -  p C)
2

therefore,
dV/dt = 1 / (2)(0.10717)(4.32) = 1.08 m3 / hour
For P&F, [dV /dt] W = (¼ ) dV /dt] F = (1/4) (1.08)
tW = Vw / [dV /dt] W
= 0.10 (4.32) / (1/4) (1.08)
= 1.6 hours
Y = VF / t T
= [ 4.32 m3 / (2 +1.6+0.5) hrs ] [ 24 hrs / day ]
= 25 .29 m3 per day
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3. A slurry is filtered to produce 56 m3 per day of filtrate. Filtration is conducted at a rate

of 0.24 m3 / m2-hr in a plate and frame press until the pressure is 450 kPa. The filtration
is held constant at constant pressure until the rate drops to 30 %. The constant
pressure starts when 0.73 m3 per m2 of filtrate has been produced. The time for
cleaning, dumping and reassembling the press is 45 min. Calculate the filter area
required, neglecting the resistance offered by the filter cloth.

Given:
Slurry
Y= 56 m3 per day
CRPF:

dV/dt = 0.3 (dV/dt) CRF

450

VR = 0.73 m3 VF
@ tR @ tF

Rm = 0 ; Ve = 0
tdcr = 45 minutes
CRF: dV/dt = 0.24 m3 /h-m2
Required: A =?
Solution:
Basis : 1 m2 filter area
CRPF eq’n.:

VF2 – VR2 = A2 ( -  p ) max [ tF - tR ]

CV

During CRF,
tR = VR / (dV/dt) CRF = 0.73 m3 / 0.24 m3 /hr = 3.0417 hrs.
also,
dV A2 ( -  P ) VR
dt 2 CV ( VR ) tR
A ( -  Pmax ) / CV
2
= (0.24) (0.73) (2)
= 0.3504
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At CPF,
dV A2 ( -  Pmax )
dt 2 CV ( VF )
0.30 (dV/dt)CRF = 0.30 ( 0.24)
therefore,
0.30 (0.24) = 0.3504 / 2 (V F)
VF = 2.43 m3
Substitute values to CRPF eq’n. ,
(2.43) 2 - (0.70) 2 = 0.3504 ( tF – 3.0417 )
tF = 18.373 hrs.
Assume t w= 0 (since no VW is given)
tT = 18.373 hrs. + 0.75 hr. = 19.123 hrs.

Y = [2.43 m 3 / 19.123 hrs-m 2 ] [ 24 hrs/day] = 3.0497 m3 /m2-day

A = [56 m3 / day] / [3.0497 m3 /day-m2 ]
= 18.36 m2

4. A disk-type filter handles petroleum residue settlings. A series of test run at a

constant rate of 0.1 gpm yielded the following data:
Pressure differential (psi) 32 67 162
Filtrate Volume (gal) 1 2 3
a. It is proposed that this filter be operated at a constant pressure differential of 50
psi. If the sludge is homogeneous, calculate the volume of oil filtered in 30
minutes under such conditions if the change in press resistance with rate is
negligible.
b. Calculate the filtering time if the press were operated at constant rate until
pressure differential became 50 psi, and then at constant pressure differential
until 20 gal of oil were forced through the press.

Given:
Disk –type filter
CRF at 0.1 gpm Filtration run data : ( -  p ) vs. ( VR )

Proposal:
CPF at ( -  p C ) = 50 psi tF = 30 mins. and Rm = nil ; Ve = 0
Solution:
at CRF: Ve=0
dV A2 ( -  P ) VR
dt 2 CV ( VR ) tR
CV ( -  P ) / 2 ( VR ) (VR / tR )
2
A
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CV / A2 =
160; 167.5; 269.99
(CV / A2) AVE = 199.17
a. At CPF:
tF = C V VF 2 / A2 ( -  p C )
30 mins. = 199.17 psi-min/ gal2 [ VF 2 / ( 50 psi ) ]
=
VF 2.744 gal
b. At CRPF:

50

VR VF
@ tR @ tF

dV A2 ( -  P ) VR
dt 2 CV ( VR ) tR

VR = 50 psi / 2 (199.17 psi-min/ gal 2 ) ( 0.1 gpm)

VR = 1.255 gal
tR = 12.55 min
Using CRPF equation,
VF2 – VR2 = A2 ( -  p ) max [ tF - tR ]
CV
(20gal) – (1.255 gal) 2=(50 psi / 199.17) [ tF – 12.55 min]
2

tF = 1599.64 mins.