FACILITIES INSTRUCTIONS, STANDARDS,

AND TECHNIQUES

Volume 1-5

PERMISSIBLE LOADING OF

OIL-IMMERSED TRANSFORMERS

AND REGULATORS

FACILITIES ENGINEERING BRANCH

DENVER OFFICE
DENVER, COLORADO

Internet Version of This Manual Created

September 2000

The appearance of the Internet Version of This Manual

May Differ From the Original, but the Contents Do Not

UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

BUREAU OF RECLAMATION
APRIL 1991
 CONTENTS

Paragraph Page
1 Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Operation With Overloads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

3 Overload Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

4 Transformer Life Expectancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

5 Aging of Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

6 Hottest-Spot Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

7 Temperature Devices and Thermal Relays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

8 Basic Loading for Usual Temperature and Altitude Service Conditions . . . . . 2

9 Effect of Ambient Temperature and Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

10 Transformer Loading for Normal Life Expectancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

11 Top-Oil Temperature as a Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

A. Short-Time and Emergency Overloads

12 Recurrent Short-Time Overloads With Normal Life Expectancy . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

13 Short-Time Overloads With Moderate Sacrifice of Life Expectancy . . . . . . . . . 3

14 Overloads During System Emergencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

B. Supplemental Cooling
15 Supplemental Cooling for Existing Transformers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

16 Forced-Air and Forced-Oil Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

17 Water Cooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

C. Step-Voltage and Induction-Voltage Regulators

18 Overload Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

19 Transformer Operation With Part or All of the Cooling Out of Service ..... 4

Bibliographic References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

i (FIST 1-5 4/91)

 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1 Permissible kVA loading for varying ambient temperature for

self-cooled transformers for normal life expectancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

2 Permissible kVA loading for varying ambient temperature for

forced-oil- air-cooled transformers for normal life expectancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

3 Permissible kVA loading for varying ambient temperature for

water-cooled transformers for normal life expectancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

4 Permissible kVA loading for varying ambient temperature for

forced-oil- water-cooled transformers for normal life expectancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

5 Permissible kVA loading and ambient temperature for altitudes

above 3300 feet for normal life expectancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

6 Maximum permissible top-oil temperature for overload conditions

when top- oil temperature is used as the guide (55 °C rise) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

7 Maximum permissible top-oil temperature for overload conditions

when top- oil temperature is used as the guide (65 °C rise) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

8 Permissible overload for varying periods of time-Self-cooled and

water-cooled transformers (55 °C rise) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

9 Permissible overload for varying periods of time-Self-cooled and

water- cooled transformers (65 °C rise) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

10 Permissible overload for varying periods of time-Forced-air-cooled

transformers rated 133% or less of self-cooled rating (55 °C rise) . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

11 Permissible overload for varying periods of time-Forced-air-cooled

transformers rated 133% or less self-cooled rating (65 °C rise) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

12 Permissible overload for varying periods of time-Forced-air-cooled

transformers rated more than 133% of self-cooled rating, and all

forced-oil- cooled (55 °C rise) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

13 Permissible overload for varying periods of time-Forced-air-cooled

transformers rated more than 133% of self-cooled rating, and all

forced-oil- cooled (65 °C rise) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

14 Loss of life versus temperature for different time periods (55 OC rise) . . . . . . . . . . 20

15 Loss of life versus temperature for different time periods (65 OC rise) . . . . . . . . 21

16 Hottest-spot copper rise over top-oil temperature (55 °C rise) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

17 Hottest-spot copper rise over top-oil temperature-OA, OW, and

OA/FA ratings (65 °C rise) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

18 Hottest-spot copper rise over top-oil temperature-Forced-oil

ratings (65 °C rise) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

19 Estimate of overload permissible on transformers having actual full-

load temperature rise by test below rated rise of 55 °C or 65 °C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

(FIST 1-5 4/91) ii

1. PURPOSE.-This volume is intended for investigation of the various limitations
use as a guide in determining the amount of involved. Among those limitations which
overload that oil-immersed transformers and should be checked in the field are oil
regulators can carry under various operating expansion; pressure in sealed- type units;
conditions and with varying degrees of heating of bushings, leads, soldered
insulation deterioration. connections, and tap changers; and heating of
associated equipment, such as cables,
2. OPERATION WITH OVERLOADS.- reactors, circuit breakers, disconnecting
Loads in excess of normal rating may be switches, and current transformers. Any one of
carried under certain conditions when which may constitute the practical limit in load
necessary. Doubtful cases should be reported carrying ability.
to the Denver Office, for checking. For
operations at loads above normal rating, on a 4. TRANSFORMER LIFE EXPECTANCY.-
repetitive basis, the cooling system should be The life expectancy of transformers, regulators,
maintained at maximum operating efficiency; reactors at various operating temperatures is
the windings and oil should be checked to not accurately known, but the Information in
determine that they are reasonably clean and this volume regarding loss of life of is
free from excessive amounts of moisture and considered to be conservative. "Conservative"
sludge and that internal obstructions to oil is used in the sense that the expected of
circulation, such as reduced oil duct insulation life for a single recommended load
clearances, of any nature, are not present. will not be greater than the amount Indicated by
Transformer capacity, including over-load data presented herein.
capability, may at times be increased by
augmenting the cooling air supply with 5. AGING OF INSULATION.-Aging or
blowers or making other cooling system deterioration of insulation is a function of time
changes (pars. 15 through 17). The and temperature. Since in most apparatus the
transformer manufacturer should be consulted temperature distribution is not uniform, that part
for recommendations and expected hotspot which is operating at the highest temperature
temperatures when cooling system will ordinarily undergo the greatest
modifications are planned to increase deterioration. Therefore, it is usual to consider
transformer capacity. the effects produced by the highest
temperature "hottest spot."
3. OVERLOAD LIMITATIONS.-The data in
this volume cover all types of oil-immersed 6. HOTTEST-SPOT TEMPERATURE.-
transformers, except water-cooled The hottest-spot winding temperature is the
transformers built before 1929. The data principal factor in determining life due to
cover transformers with either of the two loading. The temperature cannot be measured
commercially available insulation systems: (1) directly because of the hazards in placing a
those designed to operate continuously up to temperature detector at the proper location
55 °C rise above ambient temperature, and because of voltage. Standard allowances have,
(2) those designed to operate continuously up therefore, been obtained from tests made in the
to 65 °C rise above ambient temperature. laboratory. The hottest-spot copper temperature
is the sum of the temperature of the cooling
NOTE: For a given kVA rating, a transformer medium, the average temperature rise of the
designed to operate with a 65 °C rise will copper, and the hottest-spot allowance. The
usually have higher losses than a similar hottest-spot allowance at rated load is 10 °C for
transformer designed to operate with a 55 °C transformers with 55 °C average winding
rise. However, the insulation in the 65 °C rise temperature rise by resistance and 15 0C for
transformer is designed to withstand the transformers with 65 0C average winding
higher operating temperature with a normal temperature rise by resistance.
life expectancy. It is important that overloads
not be carried on transformers without the

1 (FIST 1-15 4/91)

7. TEMPERATURE DEVICES AND is recommended that the

THERMAL RELAYS.-Older power average temperature of the cooling air be
transformers are equipped with top-oil calculated by averaging 24 consecutive
temperature gages which do not indicate hourly readings. When the outdoor air is the
hotspot temperatures. Modern transformers cooling medium, the average of the
have built-in hottest-spot temperature devices maximum and minimum daily temperatures
which Indicate or record the hot test-spot may be used.)
temperatures. The device utilizes a heater,
supplied from a current transformer in one b. If water-cooled, the temperature of the
winding of the transformer, and a copper coolingwater (ambient temperature) does
resistance temperature detector. The device is not exceed 30 °C and the average
calibrated to simulate the maximum hotspot temperature of the cooling water for any 24­
temperature that can occur in the winding in hour period does not exceed 25 °C. (The 5
any tap position. In addition, large modern °C lower average temperature for cooling
power transformers are furnished with a water is to allow for possible reduction in of
winding temperature relay with a heater cooling due to deposits on cooling coil
connected to the secondary of a current surfaces.)
transformer. This relay is usually equipped with
three electrically separate adjustable sequence c. The altitude does not exceed 1,000
contacts set to represent hotspot winding meters (3,300 feet).
temperatures. In practice, the contacts are
adjusted to operate at 70°, 95°, and 105 °C for 9. EFFECT OF AMBIENT TEMPERATURE
a 55 °C rated transformer, and at 85°, 100°, AND ALTITUDE.-The effect of high or low
and 115 °C for a 65 °C rated transformer. The ambient temperature on the permissible loading
relay is normally wired to start fans and/or oil transformers of either the 55° or 65 °C rise
pumps at the low temperature, alarm at the design is illustrated in figures 1, 2, 3, and 4
middle temperature, and trip breakers to transformers with various types of cooling; the
remove the transformer from service at the effect of altitude is illustrated in figure 5. The
high temperature setting, Transformers which lower average ambient temperatures prevalent
exceed the alarm temperatures should be at the higher altitudes tend to compensate for the
inspected to determine the cause of the high required altitude correction. If the average
temperature. If the cause cannot be ambient temperature shown on graph B (fig. 5) is
determined and/or corrected, the problem not exceeded for a given altitude, the
should be referred to the Facilities Engineering permissible load need not be decreased as
Branch, Code D-5210, Denver Office, for shown in graph A. These data are based on
review and recommendations. transformers having rated temperature rises
under the loading conditions given paragraph 10.
8. BASIC LOADING FOR USUAL The overload capacity will be greater if the actual
TEMPERATURE AND ALTITUDE SERVICE temperature rise at full load is less than the
CONDITIONS.-The usual basic loading standard rated value shown in figures 16, 17, 18,
condition, used for design purposes, for an oil- and 19.
immersed transformer, is for continuous
loading at rated kVA and rated delivered 10. TRANSFORMER LOADING FOR NORMAL
voltage (100 percent load factor provided that: LIFE EXPECTANCY.-The Permissible loading of
transformers for normal life expectancy depends
a. If air-cooled, the temperature of the on the design of the particular transformer, its
cooling air (ambient temperature) does not temperature rise at rated load, temperature of
exceed 40 °C and the average the cooling medium, duration of the overloads,
temperature of the cooling air for any 24­
hour period does not exceed 30 °C. (It

2 (FIST 1-5 4/91)

the load factor, and the altitude above sea level temperatures below 95° and 110 °C respectively.
if air is used as the cooling medium. This is due to the fact that aging is a cumulative
Transformers are designed on the basis of 55° or process. The limitations are given in figures 8
65°C rise above the ambient temperature as through 13.
determined by average winding resistance and
are so rated on the nameplate, However, In The maximum temperatures permissible for
actual operation, the hottest-spot temperature transformer operation under the above
should be used as the limitation rather than the conditions are the following ANSI (American
average winding temperature rise. Transformers Standards Institute) values:
may be operated continuously at hottest-spot
temperatures up to 95°C for 55°C rated
transformers; 110°C for 65°C rated transformers. Maximum temperature,°C
Where no hottest-spot temperature indicator is
available, or when it is desired to determine in Type of Insulation temperature
advance approximately what the load limit will be temperature rise design, °C
under special conditions, the data in figures 1
though 13 can be used. Indicator 55 65

11. TOP-OIL TEMPERATURE AS A GUIDE.- Hottest spot 105 120

Top-oil temperature alone should not be used as Winding resistance 95 105
a guide in loading transformers, because the Top oil 95 105
difference between top- oil and hottest-spot
copper temperatures varies with different de­ In no case should the load exceed 200 percent
signs and with load, and the time lag between of rated kVA.
the top-oil temperature and the winding
temperature also varies. When this temperature
difference for a transformer is not known and the
transformer is not provided with a hottest-spot 13. SHORT-TIME OVERLOADS WITH MOD­
temperature device, the approximate data given ERATE SACRIFICE OF LIFE EXPECTANCY.-
in figures 6 and 7 can be used. Loading from Overloads exceeding those covered by
these curves is based on a difference between paragraph 12 may be carried in emergencies;
the hottest-spot temperature and the oil however, some loss of insulation life beyond
temperature of 20 °C for water-cooled, self- normal will occur. The rate of deterioration is a
cooled, and forced-air-cooled transformers rated function of time and temperature and is
133 percent or less of the self- cooled rating; 5 commonly expressed as a percentage loss of life
°C for forced-oil-cooled or forced-air-cooled (figs.14 and 15). Flgure14 shows that the loss of
transformers rated over 133 percent of the self- life for 55 °C transformer insulation may be
cooled rating. about 1 percent for one 24-hour emergency
operation at 115 °C, one 8-hour operation at 126
A. SHORT-TIME AND EMERGENCY °C, or ten 1 -hour operations at 124 °C, etc.,
OVERLOADS when the emergency operation is preceded by
operation at an average continuous hottest-spot
12. RECURRENT SHORT-TIME OVER­ temperature not exceeding 95 °C. ANSI
LOADS WITH NORMAL LIFE EXPECTANCY.- Appendix: C57.92, "Guide for Loading Oil-
Transformers may be operated above average immersed Distribution and Power Transformers,"
continuous hottest-spot temperatures (95 °C for has additional data and convenient graphs for
55 °C rated transformers and 110 °C for 65 °C determination of overload limitations, loss of life,
rated transformers) for short times provided they etc., for other loading and temperature situations.
are operated or much longer periods at

3 (FIST 1-5 4/91)

14. OVERLOADS DURING SYSTEM may have the output increased in many cases
EMERGENCIES.- Certain transformers critical to 25 to 33 percent by the addition of forced-air
system operation may, at some time, have to be cooling by means of fans. Similarly, the
overloading during power system emergencies, in addition of external forced-oil cooling to oil-
order to preserve system stability. As a guide, an insulated self-cooled or water-cooled
overload resulting in a loss of insulation life of 5 transformers may increase the output in many
percent in any one emergency is considered cases 25 to 50 percent.
reasonable. Such critical transformers should be
so designated on switching diagrams and the 17. WATER COOLING.- Do not spray water
thermal relay wired through the high temperature on transformers or radiators except in dire
contact to provide a second alarm, rather than emergency. As water evaporates, minerals
trip. The magnitude and duration of the overload from the water will adhere to cooling surfaces,
should be carefully estimated (using maximum the minerals are almost impossible to remove.
reading on the transformer thermometer and This will further reduce cooling and transformer
system load charts) and records maintained to life.
ensure that transformer life is not being sacrificed
needlessly. However, when system conditions C. STEP-VOLTAGE AND INDUCTION-
require that transformers be routinely overloaded VOLTAGE REGULATORS

to the point of reducing life expectancy below

normal, the operating conditions should be 18. OVERLOAD LIMITATIONS.-Oil ­
referred to the Facilities Engineering Branch, immersed step-voltage or induction-voltage
Denver Office, for review. regulators have short-time overload capacity
above rated load as do power transformers. So
B. SUPPLEMENTAL COOLING far as the windings are concerned, the
overload limitations are the same as for
15. SUPPLEMENTAL COOLING FOR transformers. However, overloads may require
EXISTlNG TRANSFORMERS.-The load that can excessive maintenance of contacts on step-
be carried on existing self-cooled transformers voltage regulators or cause excessive vibration
can be increased by adding auxiliary cooling or countertorque on induction-voltage
equipment. The amount of additional loading that regulators. Therefore, the number of
such devices permit varies widely and depends operations during an overload periods is
on the design characteristics of the transformer, important. Inspection of contacts and testing of
capacity of cooling equipment, permissible limits oil in the contact compartment should be made
of voltage regulation, and heating limitations of more often on overloaded step-voltage
associated equipment. regulators than on normally loaded ones. See
ANSI Appendix: C57.95-1955, for further
When applying supplemental cooling to existing details on overload limitations.
transformers, the manufacturer's
recommendations and new hotspot allowances 19. TRANSFORMER OPERATION WITH
should be obtained and the permissible overloads PART OR ALL OF THE COOLING OUT OF
should be limited by the hottest-spot allowances. SERVICE.-Transformers purchased since
1962 that meet ANSI standards may be
16. FORCED-AIR AND FORCED-OIL operated with all or part of the cooling out of
COOLING- -If it is found that the bushings, as outlined in the following paragraphs which
leads, or insulated, self- cooled transformers

4 (FIST 1-5 4/91)

have been extracted from ANSI Appendix: inoperative, the following operating conditions
C57.92- 1962, and NEMA Publication No. TR are as to occur infrequently and without undue
98 - 1964. Older transformers purchased injury to the transformer:*
under earlier standards may require more
conservative operating practices with all or a. Rated load may be maintained for
part of the cooling out of service. If any doubt approximately 1 hour following normal
exists about permissible loading under these operation at nameplate rating at 30 °C
conditions, the problem should be referred to ambient.
the Facilities Engineering Branch, Code D­
5210, Denver Office, for recommendations b. Rated load may be carried for
and instructions. approximately 2 hours if started with the
windings and oil at 30 °C ambient.
Where auxiliary equipment, such as pumps or
fans or both, is used to increase the coding c. Rated voltage may be maintained for
efficiency, the transformer may be required to 6 hours at no load, following continuous
operate for some time without this equipment operation at nameplate rating at 30 °C
functioning. The permissible loading under the ambient with cooling equipment in
conditions as specified is given in the following operation.
paragraphs.
For forced-oil-cooled transformer (FOA or
For forced-air-cooled (OA/FA or OA/FA/FA) FOW) ratings with part of the coolers in
transformers with fans inoperative, use the operation, use the following:
self-cooled rating and apply loads on the same
basis as if the transformer were self-cooled. Percent of total Permissible load in
For forced-air, forced-oil-cooled transformers coolers in operation percent of
triple rated (OA/FA/FOA or OA/FOA/FOA) with nameplate rating
all or part of the forced cooling inoperative,
use the nameplate rating based on the cooling 100 100
in operation and load on this basis. 80 90
60 78
For forced-oil-coded (FOA or FOW) 50 70
transformers with all pumps or fans or both 40 60
33 50

• The oil temperature for large units may exceed 100 °C for 55 °C rise transformers; 110 °C for 65 °C
rise transformers. Check with the manufacturer for limitations.

5 (FIST 1-5 4/91)

 BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES

Calculating Transformer Rise for Various Guide for Loading Oil-Immersed Step-Voltage
Loads, Allis-Chalmers Electrical Review, First and Induction-Voltage Regulators, American
Quarter 1948 National Standard Appendix: C57.95-1955

General Requirements for Distribution. Power, It's Simple to Overload Transformers Safely-If
and Regulating Transformers, American Na- You Know How, AIIis-Chalmers Electrical Re­
Standard C57.12.00-1973 view, March 1944

Guide for Loading Oil-Immersed Distribution Quick Determination of Safe Transformer Over­
and Power Transformers, American National loads, Westinghouse Engineer, February 1943
Standard Appendix: C57.92-1962
Transformer Ratings Based on Life Expec­
Guide for Loading Oil-Immersed Power Trans­ tancy, Electric Light and Power, October 1945
formers with 65 °C Average Winding Rise,
NEMA Publication No. TR 98-1964

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