Shobhit Science

SHOBHIT NIRWAN's
DESIGNED
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
& EQUATIONS
NEW NOTES FOR CLASS 10 2022 EXAMS
Including PYQs in MCQ Format

NCERT Activities
Flowchart
Chemical reaction
A process in which one or more substances react to form new substances(s) with new
chemical identity and property.
Chemical Equation
A chemical equation is the symbolic representation of a chemical reaction. Symbols
and formulae of the reactants and products are used for the same.
In words- Hydrogen + Oxygen ----> Water; called Word Equation.
Balanced Chemical Equation:
A chemical equation in which the number of atoms of each element on reactant side
is equal to that of product side. Balancing of chemical equation is done to follow the
law of conservation of mass('mass can neither be created nor be destroyed during a
chemical reaction').
The method used for balancing chemical equations is called hit and trial method(i.e.
Jugaad) as we make trials to balance the equation by using the smallest whole
number coefficient.
Lallu Problem (L.P.) : Balance: Fe + H2O ⟶ Fe3O4 + H2

Step 1: Check the number of atoms of each element on the reactants and products side
of the equation :
Step 2: First of all, to balance oxygen atoms we multiply H2O molecules by 4.

Fe + 4(H2O) ⟶ Fe3O4 + H2
Step 3: Once again check the number of atoms of each element on both sides.
∵
Step 4: Balancing Hydrogen atom by multiplying H2 with 4 ( 4H2 ⟶8 atoms)
Fe + 4(H2O) ⟶ Fe3O4 + 4(H2)
Now,
Step 5: Balancing Fe by multiplying by 3 on LHS

3(Fe) + 4(H2O) ⟶ Fe3O4 + 4(H2)
We can see,
Hence the equation is balanced!

L.P. : Some equations you should practice balancing: (Most likely equations)
1. ZnCO3 ⟶ ZnO + CO2
2. Pb(NO3)2 + KI ⟶ KNO3 + PbI2
3. CO(g) + O2(g) ⟶ CO2(g)
4. FeSO4(s) ⟶ Fe2O3(s)+SO2(g)+SO3(g)
5. Al + H2SO4⟶ AL2(S04)3 + H2
6. Zn + HNO3 ⟶ Zn(NO3)2 + H2O + N2O
1. Already Balanced (LOL!)
2. Pb(NO3)2 + 2KI ⟶ 2KNO3 PbI2
3. 2CO(g) + O2(g) ⟶ 2CO2(g)
4. 2FeSO4(s) ⟶ Fe2O3(s)+SO2(g)+SO3(g)
5. 2Al + 3H2SO4⟶ AL2(S04)3 + 3H2
6. 4Zn + 10HNO3 ⟶ 4Zn(NO3)2 + 5H2O + N2O
Kuch Kaam Ki Baat (K3B) :

PRECIPITATE:- An insoluble substance is called precipitate(ppt)
NCERT ACTIVITY
(AASAN BHASHA MEI)
Burning of a magnesium ribbon in air and collection of magnesium oxide in a watch-glass
Chalo Ab Ise AASAN BHASHA MEI Samajhte hai :
Take about 2 cm long magnesium ribbon .
Clean it with sand paper.
Hold the magnesium ribbon with a pair of tongs , and start heating its other end.
The Magnesium Ribbon starts burning.
BUT IT'S NOT BURNING ALONE.
It starts burning with a WHITE DAZZLING FLAME .

And now to collect the Magnesium Oxide Powder hold it over a Watch Glass
Q: Why Magnesium ribbon is cleaned before burning in the air ?

Ans: The magnesium ribbon which we use usually has a coating of ‘magnesium oxide’
on its surface which is formed by the slow action of oxygen of air on it. So, before
burning in air, the magnesium ribbon is cleaned by rubbing with a sand paper. This is
done to remove the protective layer of magnesium oxide from the surface of
magnesium ribbon so that it may readily combine with the oxygen of air (on heating).
Q: Why the magnesium ribbon should be burned by keeping it as far as

possible from the eyes?
Ans: The dazzling (very bright) white light given out during the burning of magnesium
ribbon is harmful to the eyes. So, the magnesium ribbon should be burned by keeping
it as far as possible from the eyes.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A CHEMICAL REACTION
Change in (i) Colour eg: Fe + CuSO4 (blue) ⟶ FeSO4 (Blue Green) + Cu
(ii) Temperature eg: CaO + H2O ⟶ Ca(OH)2 + Heat
(iii) State eg: H2(g) + O2(g) ⟶ H2O(l)
Gas ⟶ to⟶ Liquid
Evolution of gas: eg: Zn(s) + H2SO4 (aq) ⟶ ZnSO4(aq)+H2(g)
Formation of precipitate: eg: Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + KI (aq) ⟶ PbI2(s) + KNO3(aq)
(yellow solid ppt)
Endothermic Reactions: Reactions in which energy is absorbed.
⟶ CaO + CO2
ᅀ ᅀ⟶
eg: CaCO3 + Heat
or CaCo3 ⟶ CaO + CO2 ( Heat symbol)
- Photosynthesis is also endothermic reaction.
Exothermic Reactions: Reactions in which heat is released along with the formation
of products eg: CaO + H2O ⟶ Ca(OH)2 + Heat

- Digestion is exothermic reaction, Respiration is exothermic.

- It is not always necessary to mention the physical states and reaction
conditions in a balanced chemical equation. So, we can leave that step until it is
asked in the question.
NCERT ACTIVITY
(AASAN BHASHA MEI)
Formation of Precipitate
(i) Take some lead nitrate solution in a test-tube (or a
beaker).
(ii) Add potassium iodide solution to it.
(iii) A yellow precipitate of lead iodide is formed at once.
(iv) A change in colour (from colourless to yellow) also
takes place in this chemical reaction.
__________________________________________________________
Question from SQP 2021 issued by CBSE:
ans- B
NCERT ACTIVITY
(AASAN BHASHA MEI)
Chemical Reactions that evolve Gases AND RIse In Temperature
(Take some Zinc Granules in a Conical Flask
Now on Adding the Sulphuric Acid you will See a Magic.
As You will see the bubbles of HYDROGEN GAS forming around the zinc metal
We verified that it is Hydrogen gas because its bubbles burnt with pop sound
when passed through soap solution (As shown below diagram)
Also, if we will touch the flask with our hands we will see that it is too HOT.
So we get to know that along with evolution of gas temperature also rises in
the Chemical Reactions.
__________________________________________________________
Question from SQP 2021 issued by CBSE:
ans- B
Types of Chemical reaction
1. COMBINATION REACTION:
In a combination reaction, two or more reactants combine to give a single product.
eg:- 1. Quick Lime reacts with water to form slaked lime.
CaO(s) + H2O(l) ⟶ Ca(OH)2 (aq) + Heat (exothermic)

Calcium Oxide Calcium Hydroxide
(quick lime) (slaked lime)

Solution of calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) is used for whitewashing walls. Calcium hydroxide reacts
slowly with CO2 in the air to form a thin layer of calcium carbonate, on the walls which give a shiny
appearance to the walls. Finally, after 2 to 3 days of whitewashing, calcium carbonate is formed
CaOH(aq) + CO2(g) ⟶ CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)

Calcium Hydroxide Calcium Carbonate
eg:- 2. Formation of water from hydrogen gas & oxygen gas:
2H2(g) + O2(g) ⟶ 2H2O(l)

Hydrogen Oxygen Water
eg:- 3.Burning of coal;
C(s) + O2(g) ⟶ CO2(g)

Carbon Oxygen Carbon Dioxide
2. DECOMPOSITION REACTION:
In a decomposition reaction, a single reactant breaks down into two or more simpler
products ( basically opposite of a combination reaction). Decomposition reactions
are of 3 types:
(i) Thermal Decomposition :

These reactions use energy in the form of heat for the decomposition of the
reactant
Examples :
a. Calcium carbonate on heating decomposes to give calcium oxide in and carbon
ᅀ
dioxide:
CaCO3(s) ⟶ CaO(s) + CO2(g)

Calcium Carbonate Calcium Oxide
(limestone) (quick lime)
NOTE:- CALCIUM OXIDE IS USED FOR MANUFACTURING OF CEMENT
b. Ferrous sulphate the green colour crystals FeSO4 • 7H2O on heating loose water
of crystallization and forms dehydrated FeSO4 which on decomposition gives ferric
oxide, sulphur dioxide SO2 and sulphur trioxide SO3. Ferric oxide is a solid while SO2
and SO3 are gases.
2FeSO4 (s) ⟶ Fe2O3(s) + SO2 (g) + SO3 (g)

Ferrous Sulphate Ferric Sulphur Sulphur
Oxide Dioxide Trioxide
(SEE THE ACTIVITY FOR IT ON NEXT PAGE)
The ferrous sulphate crystals which are available in a science laboratory are
actually ferrous sulphate heptahydrate, FeSO4.7H2O. They contain 7 molecules
of water of crystallisation. These crystals are green in colour. When the green
coloured ferrous sulphate heptahydrate crystals (FeSO4.7H2O) are heated, they
first lose 7 molecules of water of crystallisation to form anhydrous ferrous
sulphate (FeSO4) which is white in colour. And then this anhydrous ferrous
sulphate decomposes to give ferric oxide, sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide. In
the above equation, we have written ferrous sulphate crystals without water of
crystallisation just to keep the equation simple.
NCERT ACTIVITY
(AASAN BHASHA MEI)
Decomposition reaction of ferrous sulphate.
Take about 2 grams of Ferrous Sulphate Crystals in a DRY Boiling Tube.
They are originally Green In Colour
Heat the boiling tube over a burner
Now You will again see the magic.
As the green colour first changes to White And then Finally a Brown Solid is
formed(which is ferric oxide)
So the main observation of this activity is that the smell of burning Sulphur
comes out along with the colour change from Green to White and then Brown.
c. On heating lead nitrate, it decomposes to give yellow lead monoxide,
nitrogen dioxide and oxygen gas.
2Pb(NO3)2(s) ⟶ 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2

Lead Nirate Lead Oxide Nitrogen
(colourless) (Yellow) dioxide
(Brown fumes)
(SEE ACTIVITY FOR THIS ON NEXT PAGE)

NCERT ACTIVITY
(AASAN BHASHA MEI)
. Decomposition reaction of lead nitrate.
Take about 2 grams of lead nitrate powder in a boiling tube. Lead nitrate is a
colourless compound.
Hold the boiling tube in a test-tube holder and heat it over a burner.
Brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide gas are evolved which fill the boiling tube.
If a glowing splinter is held over the mouth of the boiling tube, it catches fire and
starts burning again. This shows that oxygen gas is also evolved during this
reaction.
A yellow solid is left behind in the boiling tube. This is lead monoxide (Please
note that lead monoxide is reddish-brown when hot but yellow when cold).
(ii) Electrolytic Decomposition or Electrolysis:-

These reactions involve the use of electrical energy for the decomposition of the
reactant molecules.
Examples:
a. When an electric current is passed through water, it decomposes to give oxygen
and hydrogen
2H2O(l) ⟶ 2H2(g) + O2(g)

b. When an electric current is passed through molten sodium chloride, it decomposes
to give sodium metal and chlorine gas.
2NaCl(l) ⟶ 2Na(s) + Cl2(g)

(iii)Photo Decomposition or Photosynthesis or Photochemical decomposition:
These reactions involve the use of light energy for the purpose of decompositions.
Examples:
a. When silver chloride is exposed to sunlight, it decomposes to give silver metal and
chloride gas
2AgCl(S) ⟶ 2Ag(S) + Cl2(g)

Silver Chloride Silver Chloride
(white) (Greyish White) (Yellowish green)
b. Similarly, silver bromide gives silver metal and bromine gas in the presence of
sunlight.
⟶ 2Ag(s) + Br2(g)
2AgBr(s)
NOTE:- This reaction of Silver Halides are used in Black and White Photography.
NCERT ACTIVITY
(AASAN BHASHA MEI)
Decomposition of silver chloride is caused by light
Take about 2 grams of silver chloride in a china dish. It is white in colour.
Place this china dish in sunlight for some time .
We will find that white silver chloride turns greyish white (due to the formation of
silver metal).
Silver bromide also behaves in the same way as silver chloride with light energy.
3. DISPLACEMENT REACTION:-
The reaction in which a more reactive element displaces a less reactive element from
its compound, it is called displacement reaction.
This reaction is of two types:-
(i) Single displacement reaction:

It is a type of chemical reaction where an element reacts with a compound and
takes the place of another element in that compound is called single
displacement.
EXAMPLES:
a. Zinc bring more reactive than Cu, displaces Cu from CuSO4 solution and forms
new product, zinc sulphate and Cu metal
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) . ⟶ ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

Copper Sulphate Zinc Sulphate
Solution (blue) solution
(colourless)
b. Similarly, Iron being more reactive than Cu displaces copper from aqueous
solution of copper sulphate.
Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) ⟶ FeSO4(aq) + Cu

Copper Sulphate Ferrous sulphate
(blue) (green)
(ACTIVITY FOR THIS IS BELOW)
NCERT ACTIVITY
(AASAN BHASHA MEI)
Displacement reaction between iron (nail) and copper sulphate solution.
Take about 10 mL of copper Sulphate solution in a test tube.
Its original colour is Deep Blue
Now take a big iron nail and clean it same like u did with Magnesium Ribbon
using the sand paper.
Now put the iron nail in the solution and then see the magic.
After sometime like half an hour we will see that the iron nail would be covered
with red-brown layer.
And this layer would be of our another metal that is Copper.
So Finally we will see that the original Deep blue colour has faded and the
solution turns to light Green Colour.
(ii) Double displacement reaction:
The reaction in which two different irons or groups of atoms in the reactant
molecules are displaced by each other is called a double displacement reaction.
Also, called precipitation reduction as a precipitate is produced in such reactions
Examples -
a. On adding sodium sulphate to barium chloride a curdy white precipitate of
barium sulphate and a solution of sodium chloride is formed:
Na2SO4 (aq) + BaCl2(aq) ⟶ BaSO4 + 2NaCl(aq)

Sodium Barium Barium Sodium
Sulphate Chloride Sulphate Chloride
(white ppt)
(ACTIVITY FOR THIS ON NEXT PAGE)
b. On adding silver nitrate solution to sodium bromide, a yellow precipitate of silver
bromide and solution of sodium nitrate is formed.
AgNO3(aq) + NaBr (aq) ⟶ AgBr + NaNO3(aq)

Silver Sodium Silver Sodium
Nitrate Bromide Bromide Nitrate
NCERT ACTIVITY
(AASAN BHASHA MEI)
Double displacement reaction between barium chloride and sodium sulphate.
Take 3mL of Sodium Sulphate solution in a test tube .
And take 3mL of Barium Chloride but in another test tube .
Add Barium Chloride solution to Sodium Sulphate solution
And the magic we see is now of White colour as a White Precipitate is left over in
the Test Tube.
4. OXIDATION:
A substance (on the reactant side) is said to be oxidised if Oxygen is added
OR
Hydrogen is Removed from it after the reaction and the process is called oxidation
Eg:- 2Cu + O2 ⟶ 2CuO (Here Cu is oxidised due to addition of Oxygen)
NCERT ACTIVITY
(AASAN BHASHA MEI)
Oxidation of copper to copper oxide
Take about 1 gram of copper powder in a china dish. It is redbrown in colour.
Heat the china dish strongly over a burner (see Figure 55).
A black substance is formed. This black substance is copper oxide
5. REDUCTION:
A substance (on the reactant side) is said to be reduced if Oxygen is removed
OR
Hydrogen is added to it after the reaction and the process is called reduction.
Eg:- H2 + F2 ⟶ HF (Here F2 is reduced due to addition of hydrogen)
6. REDOX REACTION:
Reaction in which oxidation and reduction both take place simultaneously.
Also,
In a redox reaction substance getting oxidised is called a Reducing agent.
And, the substance getting reduced is called an Oxidising agent.
Here, MnO2 is reduced to MnCl2 (removal of oxygen)

HCl is oxidised to Cl2 (removal of Hydrogen)
MnO2 is an oxidising agent.
HCl is a reducing agent.
ZnO is reduced to Zn (removal of oxygen)

C is oxidised to CO (addition of oxygen)
ZnO is an oxidising agent
C is a reducing agent.
EFFECTS OF OXIDATION
1. CORROSION : जंग लगा लोहे में.
When a metal is attacked by substances around it such as moisture acid, air, water, etc.
It is said to corrode & this process is called corrosion.
Eg:- Rusting of metal, blackening of silver, green coating on copper. It causes damage to
bridges, iron railing, ships, car bodies and all objects made of metals (specially those
which are made up of iron)
2. RANCIDITY:
Oxidation of fat and oils in the food items result in a change in the taste and smell. We
say those food items are rancid and the process is called rancidity.
METHODS TO PREVENT RANCIDITY:-

Packing of food items like potato wafers etc. in packets containing nitrogen gas
instead of air. (eg - packed chips)
Avoid keeping the cooked food and food materials in direct sunlight.
Keeping food materials in air-tight containers.
Refrigeration of cooked food.
Ans-B
Ans-A
Ans-C
Ans- C
A is False but R is true

PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS
(Converted into MCQ format)
1.What change in the colour of iron nails and copper sulphate

solution you observe after keeping the iron nails dipped in copper
sulphate solution for about 30 minutes? (2010,1M)
A. Pinkish B. Brownish
C. Reddish D. Blackish
2.Why respiration is considered as Exothermic reaction? (2008,2017,1M)

A. Because power is released during respiration
B. Because oxygen is taken in during respiration
C. Because energy is released during respiration.
D. Because energy is consumed during respiration.
3.Name a reducing agent that may be used to obtain manganese

from manganese dioxide. (2009,1M)
A. HCL B. HNO3
C. NaCl D. Fe
4.Balance the following reaction:

Fe(s) + H20(g)-› Fe304(s) + H2(g) (1M, 2008)
A. 2Fe(s) + 4H20(I)-› 3Fe304(s) + 4H2(g)
B. Fe(s) + 4H20(I)-› 4Fe304(s) + 4H2(g)
C. 3Fe(s) + 4H20(I)-› Fe304(s) + 4H2(g)
D. None of the above
5.Balance the following reaction:

Pb(N03)2 (s)--> Pb0(s) + NO2 (g) + 02 (g) (1M, 2009)
A. 2Pb(N03)2 (s) --> 2PbO(s) + 4N02(g) + 02(g)
B. Pb(N03)2 (s) --> 2PbO(s) + 4N02(g) + 02(g)
C. 2Pb(N03)2 (s) --> 2PbO(s) + 3N02(g) + 02(g)
6.What are the products formed on strongly heating ferrous sulphate

crystals. What type of chemical reaction occurs in this change?(2009,1M)
A. Ferric Dioxide, Sulphur Dioxide and Sulphur Trioxide
B. Ferric Oxide, Sulphur Dioxide and Sulphur Trioxide
C. Ferric Oxide, Sulphur Dioxide and Sulphur oxide
D. Ferric Oxide, Sulphur Dioxide and Ferrous sulphate
7.What is the colour of ferrous sulphate crystals? (2009,1M)
A. White B. Red
C. Yellow D. Green
8.Calcium Oxide reacts vigorously with water to produce slaked lime.

Ca0 + H20 --> Ca(OH)2
This reaction can be classified as: (1M, 2010)
(A) Combination Reaction (B) Exothermic Reaction
(C) Endothermic Reaction (D) Oxidation Reaction
Which of the following is the correct option:
(a) (A) and (C) (b) (C) and (D)
(c) (A), (C) and (D) (d) (A) and (B)
9.When hydrogen sulphide gas is passed through a blue solution of

copper sulphate, a black precipitate of copper sulphide is obtained
and the sulphuric acid so formed remains in the solution. The reaction
is an example of : (1M, 2010)
A. Combination Reaction
B. Displacement Reaction
C. Decomposition Reaction
D. Double Displacement Reaction
10.In a double displacement reaction such as the reaction between

sodium sulphate solution and barium chloride solution: (1M,2020)
(A) exchange of atoms takes place (C) exchange of ions takes
place
(B) a precipitate is produced (D) an insoluble salt is
produced
The correct option is:

(a). (B) and (D) (b). (A) and (C)
(c). only (B) (d). (B), (C) and (D)
11.Photosynthesis is ? (20011,1M)
A. Endothermic B.Exothermic
C. Both A and B D.None of the above
12.Copper vessels loose shine when exposed to air due to which
reaction? (1M, 2017)
A. 2Cu + 02- › Cu2O
› CuO
B. Cu + 02-
C. 2Cu + 02-› 2CuO
13.State the type of chemical reaction used for the extraction of

metals from their naturally occurring chlorides or oxides (2011,1M)
A. Endothermic Reaction B.Exothermic Reaction
C. Electrolytic Reduction D.None of the above
14.Silver articles become black after sometime when exposed to air

due to which reaction? (2011,1M)
A. Ag (S) + H2S( g)-› AgS2(s) + H2(g)
B. Ag (S) + H2S( g)-› Ag2S(s) + H2(g)
C. Ag (S) + H2S( g)-› Ag2S(s) + H(g)
15.Mention the Colour of FeSO4.7H2O crystals. (2012)

A. blue-red B.blue-green
C. black-green D.None of the above
16.Balanced chemical equation for the change of colour of
→
FeSO4.7H2O upon heating . (2012)
→
A. 2FeSO4(s) Fe2O3(s)+SO2(g)+SO3(g)
→
B. FeSO4(s) Fe2O3(s)+SO2(g)+H2SO4(g)
C. 2FeSO4(s) Fe2O3(s)+SO2(g)+SO3(g)+H2O(l)
17.What happens when an aqueous solution of sodium sulphate reacts

with an aqueous solution of barium chloride? (2010)
A. Na2SO4(aq) + BaCl(aq)-->BaSO4(s) + 2NaCI(aq)
B. Na2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq)-->BaSO4(s) + 2NaCI(aq)
C. Na2SO4(aq) + Ba2Cl(aq)-->BaSO4(s) + 2NaCI(aq)
18.On heating 2g of lead nitrate powder in a boiling tube, emission of

brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide is observed, this is an example of
which type of reaction? (2008)
A. Electrolysis B.Displacement
C. Decomposition D.None of the above
19.A silver article generally turns black when kept in the open for a few
days.Name the black substance formed and the chemical reaction
involved. (2008)
A. Hydrogen Sulphide, Ag+H2S - › Ag2S+H2S
B. Silver sulphide,Ag+H2S - › Ag2S+H2
C.Hydrogen, Ag+H2S - › Ag2S+H2
D.Silver sulphide, Ag+H2S -› AgS2+H2
20.Zinc reacts with silver nitrate to produce zinc nitrate and silver. Give
the chemical reaction and its type. (2019)
A. Zn(s) + 2AgNO2(s)- › Zn(NO3)2 + 2Ag, Decomposition Reaction
B. Zn(s) + 2AgNO3(s)-› Zn(NO3)2 + 2Ag, Displacement Reaction
C.Zn(s) + AgNO3(s)-› Zn(NO3)2 + Ag, Displacement Reaction
D.Zn(s) + 2AgNO3(s)-› Zn(NO3)2 + 2Ag, Decomposition Reaction
21.Potassium iodide reacts with lead nitrate to produce potassium

nitrate and lead iodide. (2019)
A. Pb(N03)2 + 2KI -> Pbl2 + 2KN03, Decomposition Reaction
B. Pb(N03)2 + 2KI -> Pb2l + 2KN03, Double Displacement Reaction
C.Pb(N03)2 + 2KI -> Pbl2 + 2KN03, Double Displacement Reaction
D.None of the mentioned
22.No chemical reaction takes place when granules of a solid, A,

are mixed with the powder of another solid, B. However, when the
mixture is heated, a reaction takes place between its components.
One of the products, C, is a metal and settles down in the molten state
while the other product, D floats over it. It was observed that the
reaction is highly exothermic. (2010)
(i) Based on the given information make an assumption about A and B

and write a chemical equation for the chemical reaction indicating the
conditions of reaction, physical state of reactants and products and
thermal status of reaction.
A.Fe203(s) + 2AI(s)-+ + 2Fe(l) + Al203(s) + Heat
B.Fe203(s) + 2AI(s)-+ + 2Fe(l) + Al203(s) + Heat
C.Fe203(l) + 2AI(s)-+ + 2Fe(l) + Al203(s) + Heat
D.Fe203(s) + 2AI(s)-+ + 2Fe(s) + Al203(s) + Heat
(ii) Type of reaction under which above chemical reaction can be
classified?
A. Displacement B.Oxidation-Reduction
C. Redox Reaction D.All of the above
23.When copper residue is formed on the dish due to the formation of
copper (I) oxide. This phenomenon is known as (2020)
A. Surface Decomposition B.Surface Reduction
C. Surface Oxidation. D.All of the above
24.Chemical reaction involved in white washing? (2020)

A. Ca0 + H20-› Ca2(OH) , Ca(OH)2 + CO2 -> CaCO3 + H20
B. Ca0 + H20-› Ca(OH)2 , Ca(OH)2 + CO2 -> CaCO3 + H20
C.Ca0 + H20-› Ca(OH)2 , Ca(OH)2 + CO2 -> CaCO3 + H20
25.Chemical reaction involved in Black and white photography ?(2020)

A. 2AgCl (sunlight) --> 2Ag + Cl2
B. 2AgBr (sunlight) --> 2Ag + Br2
C.Both A and B
26.Define a chemical reaction. State four observations which help

us to determine that a chemical reaction has taken place. Write one
example of each observation with a balanced chemical equation.
Answer- The process in which new substances with new properties are
formed by the rearrangement of atoms is known as a chemical
reaction. (2017,5M)
Change in
(i) Colour eg: Fe + CuSO4 (blue) ⟶ FeSO4 (Blue Green) + Cu
(ii) Temperature eg: CaO + H2O ⟶ Ca(OH)2 + Heat
(iii) State eg: H2(g) + O2(g) ⟶ H2O(l)
Evolution of gas: eg: Zn(s) + H2SO4 (aq) ⟶ ZnSO4(aq)+H2(g)
Formation of precipitate:
eg: Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + KI (aq) ⟶ PbI2(s) + KNO3(aq)
(yellow solid ppt)
27.Identify the type of chemical reaction in the following

statements and define each of them: (2016,5M)
(i) Digestion of food in our body
(ii) Rusting of Iron
(iii) Heating of manganese dioxide with aluminium powder
(iv) Blue colour of copper sulphate solution disappears when iron
filings are added to it
(v) Dil. HCl acid is added to sodium hydroxide solution to form sodium
chloride and water.
Answer: The chemical reactions in the statement are :
(i) Decomposition Reaction Carbohydrates are broken down to form
glucose as by-product.
(ii) Oxidation Reaction-When an iron object is left in moist air for a few
days or week, it gets a layer of a red-brown flaky substance called
rust.
(iii) Displacement reaction In this More reactive metal displaces less
reactive metal from its salt solution.
(iv)Displacement reaction In this More reactive metal displaces less
reactive metal from its salt solution.
(v)Double displacement reaction In this reaction, two compounds
react by an exchange of ions to form two new compounds.
28.(A) Balance The Chemical Equation: (2016,5M)

(i) NaOH + H2S04- › Na2So4 + H20
(ii) PbO + C- › Pb + CO2
(iii) Fe203 + AI-› AI203 + Fe + Heat
(B) Write The Balanced Chemical Equation For The Following Reaction:
(I) Barium Chloride + Potassium Sulphate- › Barium Sulphate.
(li) Zinc + Silver Nitrate -> Zinc Nitrate + Silver.
Answer: (A)
(i) 2NaOH + H2S04 - › Na2SO4+ 2H20
(ii) 2PbO + C -> 2Pb + CO2
(iii) Fe203 + 2AI -> Al203 + 2Fe + Heat
(B)
(i) BaCl2 + K2SO -> BaSO4 + 2KCL
(ii) Zn + 2AgNO3 -> Zn(NO3)2 + 2Ag
29. (A)Illustrate An Activity, To Show That A Change In The State Of

Matter And Change In Temperature Take Place During A Chemical
Reaction.
(B) Write Balanced Chemical Equation For The Following Reaction:
(I) Natural Gas Burns And Combines With Oxygen To
Produce Carbon Dioxide And Water.
(li) Ferrous Sulphate Crystals On Heating Break Up Into Ferric Oxide,
Sulphur Dioxide And SulphurTrioxide. (5M, 2015)
Answer -
(A) Take about 5kg of quicklime in a beaker and add to it about
50 ml of water. A brisk reaction takes place and a lot of heat is
evolved.
+ CaO(s) + H20(l)- › Ca(OH)2(aq) + Heat
Quick lime is a white solid but after the reaction, calcium hydroxide is
formed which is soluble in water and a clear solution is obtained.
Thus, there has been a change in state of matter and change in
temperature.
(B)
(i) CH4 + 202- › CO2 + 2H20
(ii) 2FeSo4.7H200 (heat ) Fe203 + SO2 + SO3 + 14H20
PYQ MCQ ANSWERS:

1. B
2. C
3. A
4. C
5. A
6. B
7. A
8. D
9. D
10. D
11. A
12. C
13. C
14. B
15. B
16. A
17. B
18. C
19. B
20. B
21. C
22. i- A ii- D
23. C
24. C
25. C
SHOBHIT NIRWAN's
DESIGNED
ACIDS, BASES AND

SALTS

NCERT Activities
Flowchart
Indicators
Indicators is a 'Dye' that change their colour or odour when added into an acidic or
alkali solution(Alkali- a water soluble Base). Basically tell us whether a substance is
acidic or basic.
There are basically 3 types of Indicators:
Natural Indicators: These indicators are found in nature in the plants

eg:- Litmus Paper, Turmeric
Synthetic Indicators: The indicators which are synthesised in the laboratory or

industry are known as synthetic indicators. eg:- phenolphthalein and methyl
orange
Olfactory Indicators: Substances whose odour (smell) change in acidic or basic

medium eg:- vanilla, onion, clove

q. What is universal indicator ?
Acid base indicator is called universal indicator.
It is a pH indicator made of C solution of several compounds that exhibit
several smooth colour changes over a wide range pH value
It indicate the acidity or alkalinity of solutions.
A. ACIDS
Chemical substances which turns blue litmus to red. And is having sour
taste (Ex- raw mango, raw grapes, lemon, orange, and tamarind (imli),
etc.)
Organic Acids and Mineral Acids

ORGANIC ACIDS(Weak Acids)
The acids present in plant materials and animals are called organic
acids.
Some organic acids Acetic acid, lactic acid, citric acid, Tartaric acid
oxalic Acid and formic acid.

ORGANIC ACID NATURAL ACID
Acetic acid ---> Vinegar (Sirka)
Citric acid ---> Citrus Fruit
lactic acid ---> Sour milk or curd
Tartaric acid ---> Tamarind and grapes
Oxalic acid ---> Tomato
Formic acid(Methanoic acid) ---> Ant sting and Needle leaf sting
MINERAL ACIDS (Strong acids)

The acids prepared from the minerals of the earth. These are man made
acids.
Common acids- Hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, Nitric acids and carbonic
acids. ( weak acid)
Concentrated and Dilute Acids

ORGANIC ACIDS(Weak Acids)
A concentrated acid which contains the minimum possible amount of water
in it. " concentration of acid is decreased by adding more water'
A dilute acid is one which contains much more of water in it.
When concentrated acid is added to water then dilute acid is formed.

While diluting an acid, it is recommended that the acids should be added
to water and not water to the acid.
The process of mixing conc. acid with water is highly exothermic process
(Heat producing).
So when a conc. acid and water are mixed together a large amount of
(Heat) is evolved.
This heat changes some of the water to steam explosively which can splash
the acid on our face or clothes and cause acid burns.
Even glass container may break due to excessive heating

Chemical Properties of Acids
Reaction with Metals
Metal + dilute acid ⟶ Salt + hydrogen gas
Eg:- Zn + H2SO4⟶ ZnSO4 + H2O
Most of the acids react with metal to form salt and evolve H2 gas.
As we see that acids react with the metal to form poisonous salt therefore
we do not keep curd or sour eatables in brass or copper metals
NCERT ACTIVITY
(AASAN BHASHA MEI)
1 Reaction of zinc granules with dilute sulphuric acid and testing hydrogen gas by burning
Take a few pieces of zinc granules in a boiling tube and add about 5 mL of
dilute sulphuric acid to it .
We will observe the formation of gas bubbles on the surface of zinc granules.
Pass the gas being formed through the soap solution taken in a trough (by
means of a glass delivery tube). Gas filled bubbles are formed in the soap
solution which rise into the air.
Bring a burning candle near a gas-filled soap bubble. The gas present in soap
bubble burns with a ‘pop’ sound (making a little explosion).
Only hydrogen gas burns making a ‘pop’ sound. This shows that hydrogen gas
is evolved in the reaction of dilute sulphuric acid with zinc metal (taken in the
form of zinc granules)

Reaction with Metals Carbonate and Metal Hydrogencarbonate
Metal carbonate/ metal hydrogen carbonate + acid⟶ salt + CO2 + H2O
eg: - CaCO3 + 2HCl ⟶ CaCl2 + H2O+ CO2
eg:- Na2CO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) -> 2naCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
The CO2 (Carbon dioxide) gas is formed with Brisk effervescence.
Kuch Kaam Ki Baat (K3B) : TEST for CO2 gas

When CO2 gas is passed through lime water (Ca(OH)2), it turns milky due to the
formation of the white precipitate of CaCO3.
i.e. Ca(OH)2 + CO2 ⟶ CaCO3 + H2O

But if CO2 is passed in excess, milkiness disappeared due to the formation of
Ca(HCO3)2 which is soluble in water
i.e. CaCO3 + H2O ⟶ Ca(HCO3)2
NCERT ACTIVITY
(AASAN BHASHA MEI)
TEST for CO2 gas
Take a boiling tube and put about 0.5 g of sodium carbonate in it.
Add about 2 mL of dilute hydrochloric acid in the boiling tube (through a
thistle funnel)
We will observe that brisk effervescence of a gas is produced.
Pass the gas through lime water. The lime water turns milky (showing that it is
carbon dioxide gas).
Keep on passing carbon dioxide gas through milky lime water for some more
time. The lime water becomes clear again.
This shows that the white precipitate of calcium carbonate dissolves on passing
excess of carbon dioxide gas. We can repeat this experiment by using sodium
hydrogencarbonate in place of sodium carbonate. Again we will get carbon
dioxide gas which will turn lime water milky. On passing excess of carbon dioxide,
the milky lime water will become clear again.

If someone is suffering from the problem of acidity after over eating then it
is recommended to take baking soda as remedy.
The is because baking soda ie sodium hydrogen carbonate which react with
excess hydrochloric acid in the stomach and neutralises it. This give relief to the
person suffering From acidity.
NaHCO3(aq) + HCl(aq) -> NaCl(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Sodium Hydrogen Hydrochloric Sodium chloride
carbonate acid
Carbon dioxide gas is used to extinguish fire.

It is because carbon dioxide does not support combustion, when sprayed on
burning object it stops the supply of oxygen and extinguishable fire.
L.P. A solution reacts with crushed eggs shells to give a gas that turns lime turns milky.
The solution contains?
A. NaCl B. HCl C.KCl D.Lid
Solution :The egg shell are made up of calcium carbonate and gas which turns lime
water milky is carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide gas can be formed by the action of an
acid solution calcium carbonate. So, the solution contain HCl. (Option B)
Reaction with Metals Oxides

metal oxide + acid⟶ salt + water
Eg: CuO + 2HCl ⟶ CuCl2 + H2O
This reaction shows basic nature of metal oxides.
Kuch Kaam Ki Baat (K B) :

Acids are never stored in metal container
Acids have corrosive nature, so they gradually corrode the metal container.
So, Acid should always store in container made up of glass and ceramics
because they are not attacked by acids
What do all Acids have in common?

A common thing in all the acids is that they produce hydrogen ions [H+ ions]
when dissolved in water.
Acidic behaviour of an acid solution is due to presence of hydrogen ions in
it.
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) shows acidic character because it ionises in aq.
solution to produce hydrogen ions.
HCL(aq) -> H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Acetic acid (CH3COOH) shows acidic character because it ionises in aq.
solution to produce hydrogen ions.
CH3COOH(aq) -> Ch3COO-(aq) + H+(aq)

Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) shows acidic character because it ionises in aq
solution to give hydrogen ions.
2-
H2SO4(aq) -> 2H+(aq) + SO4 (aq)

All acids contains hydrogen but all the hydrogen containing compounds
are not acids.
Ex: Aq solution of glucose and alcohol does not show acidic behaviour because
yes it is true they contains hydrogen but their hydrogen does not separate out as
H+ ions on dissolving into water.
Lets do an activity to understand it further:
NCERT ACTIVITY
(AASAN BHASHA MEI)
Activity to investigate whether all compounds containing hydrogen are acidic.
(i) Take solutions of hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, glucose and alcohol. All
these are hydrogen containing compounds.
(ii) Fix two iron nails on a rubber cork and place the cork in a beaker.(Fig (a) on
next page)
(iii) Connect the nails to the two terminals of a 6 volt battery through a switch and
a bulb.
(iv) Pour some dilute hydrochloric acid solution (HCl solution) in the beaker and
switch on the current. The bulb starts glowing.(Fig a)
This shows that hydrochloric acid solution taken in the beaker conducts electricity.
If we repeat this experiment by taking sulphuric acid solution in the beaker, the
bulb glows again. This shows that sulphuric acid solution also conducts electricity.
In fact, all the acid solutions conduct electricity.
(v) Let us now take glucose solution (C6H12O6 solution) in the beaker and switch
on the current. The bulb does not glow in this case (Fig b). This shows that glucose
solution does not conduct electricity.
If we repeat this experiment by taking alcohol solution in the beaker, the bulb does
not glow again. This shows that alcohol solution also does not conduct electricity.
Hence, The aqueous solution of an acid conducts electricity due to the
presence of charged particles called ions in it.
Now you will be understand these points also:

Distilled water does not conduct electricity because it does not contain any
ionic compound (like acids, bases or salts) dissolved in it.
Rain water, while falling to the earth through the atmosphere, dissolves an
acidic gas carbon dioxide from the air and forms carbonic acid (H2CO3).
Carbonic acid provides hydrogen ions, H+(aq), and carbonate ions, 2CO3
(aq), to rain water. So, due to the presence of carbonic acid (which provides
ions to rain water), the rain water conducts electricity.

The acidic behaviour of acids is due to the presence of hydrogen ions, H+(aq)
ions, in them. The acids produce hydrogen ions only in the presence of water.
So, in the absence of water, a substance will not form hydrogen ions and
hence will not show its acidic behaviour.
NCERT ACTIVITY
(AASAN BHASHA MEI)
Experiment to show that acids do not show acidic behaviour without water.
Take about 1 g Solid sodium chloride (NaCl) in clean and dry boiling tube and add
conc. sulphuric acid to it carefully and fit the rubber con over glass tube.
Conc. sulphuric acid reacts with Sodium chloride to form hydrogen chloride gas.
The hydrogen chloride gas starts coming out of the open enclave.
Hold a 'dry' blue litmus paper in HCl gas. So there is no change in the colour of dry
blue litmus paper. This show shows that HCl gas does not behave as an acid to
the absence of water.
We now hold a 'moist' blue litmus paper in HCl gas, Now we will see the 'moist'
blue litmus paper to red. This shows that HCl gas show acidic behaviour in the
presence of water.
Conclusion: HCl gas does not shout acidic behaviour in absence of water but it
shows acidic behaviour in presence of water.
B. BASES
Chemical substances which turns red litmus to blue. And is having bitter
taste and soapy to touch.
Some common water soluble bases:
Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
Potassium Hydroxide (KOH)
Calcium Hydroxide (CaOH2)
Magnesium Hydroxide(MgOH2)
What do all Bases have in common?

A base is the substance which dissolve in water to produce hydroxide ions
(OH- ions) in solution.
EXAMPLES:
Sodium hydroxide(NaOH) is a base because it dissolve in water to produce
OH- ions.
NaOH -> Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Potassium hydroxide is a base which dissolve in water to give OH- ions.
KOH -> K+(aq) + OH-(aq)
This presence of OH- ions indicated that it has basic or alkaline properties.
Strong base and Weak Base
STRONG BASE
A base which completely ionises in water and thus produce a large amount
of (OH- ions) is called Strong base.
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium hydroxide (KOH) are strong base
because they completely ionise on dissolving in water to produce a large
amount of OH- ions.
WEAK BASE
A base which is partially ionised in water and hue produce o small amount
of (OH- ions).
Ammonium hydroxide [ NH4(OH)], calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2, and
Magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH)2] dissolve in water to produce a small
amount Of OH- ions.
Physical Properties of Bases

Bitter in taste
Soapy to touch
Conduct electricity in solution
Turns red litmus to red
Chemical Properties of Bases

Reaction with Metals
metal + base⟶ salt + hydrogen
Eg:- Zn + 2NaOH ⟶ Na2ZnO2 + H2
This is the reason why Bases को भी metal container मैं नहीं रखते
Reaction with Non-Metal Oxide

Base + non-metallic oxide⟶ salt+ water
Eg:- CO2 + Ca(OH)2 ⟶ CaCO3 + H2O
This reaction proves that non metallic oxides are acidic in nature
C. ACID+BASE
Acids react with bases to produce salt and water.
Acid + Base ⟶ Salt + Water
In this reaction, An acid neutralises a base; that is acid nullifies or reduces the
effect of a base or vice versa the reaction is called a neutralisation reaction.
Eg:- HCl + NaOH ⟶ NaCl + H2O

Sodium chloride(Salt)
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) -> Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Sodium Sulphate(Salt)
pH Scale
Scale to measure the strength of acid or base
It has values ranging from 0( very acidic) to 14 (very basic/alkaline).
pH - The number which indicates the acidic or basic nature of the solution.

IMPORTANCE OF pH IN EVERYDAY LIFE
Plants and animals are pH-sensitive:
Living organisms can survive only in a narrow range of pH change, our Body
works normally within a pH range of 7.0 to 7.8
When pH of rainwater goes below 5.6 it is called acidic rain. When acid rain
flows into rivers it lowers the pH of the river water and make the survival of
Aquatic life difficult

pH of the soil:
Every type of client requires a specific pH range for healthy growth. Therefore
the nature of the soil is known first by testing its pH and then a particular crop is
grown in it. It is suitable for selecting the fertiliser for a particular crop by
knowing the pH of the soil.
pH in our digestive system:

HCl is present in our stomach which helps in the digestion of food. As during in
indigestion in the stomach produces too much acid, it causes pain and irritation.
To correct the distributed pH range, milk(a mild base) is used as a medicine, also
called Antacid as it reduces the effect of acid or acidity.
pH change leads to tooth decay:

Tooth enamel is made up of calcium phosphate and is the hardest substance in
the body. If the pH inside the mouth decreases below 5.5 acidic the delay of the
tooth in enamel begins.
Bacteria present in the mouth degrades the sugar and leftover food particles
and produce acids that remain in the mouth after eating. The best way To
prevent this is to clean the mouth after eating food. To cure tooth decay
toothpaste (basic) are used which neutralise the excess acid.
Self-defence Plant and animals through chemical welfare:

When insects like honeybee, ant etc bite, they eject an acid into the skin,
that causes pain and irritation. If a mild base like baking soda is applied the
affected area, it gives relief.
pH in plants:
Stinging hair of nettle leaves injects methanoic acid in the skin which causes
burning pain.
It is cured by rubbing the affected area with the leaves of the dock plant, which
often grows beside the nettle plant.

Dilution: Mixing an acid or base with water results in a decrease in the
concentration of Ions per unit volume solution and acid at the base is said
to be diluted.
Note: The acid must always be added slowly to water with constant
steering because the process is highly exothermic. If water is added to a
concentrated acid, The heat generated may cause the mixture to splash
out and cause burns, the glass may also break due to excessive local
heating.
D. SALTS
Found by neutralisation reaction. [Acid + Base ⟶ Salt + Water]
Salt of strong acid and a weak base is acidic with pH value less than 7 salts so
strong base and weak acid are basic in nature with pH value more than 7.
Physical Properties of Salts

Salts are mostly solids, they have mostly high melting and boiling point
Salts are usually soluble in water and conduct electricity.
Salts conduct electricity due to presence of ions in them.
Salts are ionic compounds, every salts consist positively charge ion (Cation)
and negatively charge ion (Anion).
Family of Salts: The salts having same positive ions are said to belong to a
family of salts. Ex- Sodium Chloride(NaCl) and Sodium Sulphate(Na2SO4)
belong to same family of salts called sodium salts(because they both
contain the same positively charged ions, sodium ions Na+)
Common salt [ Sodium chloride, NaCl]

This is the salt we use in food(Tata namak desh ka namak!). Sea water contains
many salts dissolved in it. Sodium chloride is separated from the salt deposits of
solids. Deposits of solid salt are also found in several parts of the world. These
large crystals are often brown due to impurities this is called rock salt.
The common salt thus obtained is an important raw material for various materials
of daily use such as Sodium Hydroxide, baking soda,washing soda, bleaching
powder and many more.

Chlor-Alkali Process [Preparation of above materials]
When electricity is passed through an aqueous solution of sodium chloride
(called brine).
2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O(l) ⟶ 2NaOH(aq) + Cl2 (g) + H2(g)

Chlorine gas is given off at the Anode and hydrogen gas at the cathode. Sodium
hydroxide solution is formed near the cathode.
Bleaching powder[ calcium oxychloride, CaOCl2]

Preparation: By passing chlorine gas over slaked lime
Ca(OH)2 + Cl2 ⟶ CaOCl2 + H2O
Uses:
For bleaching cotton textile
For Disinfecting drinking water
As an oxidising agent in the chemical industry
Manufacturing chloroform
Baking SOda [Sodium hydrogen carbonate NAHCO3]

Preparation: On reacting cold concentrated calcium chloride (brine) Solution
with Ammonia and carbon dioxide.
Uses:
For making baking powder, which is a mixture of baking soda and a mild
edible acid such as tartaric acid. When baking in the reaction takes place:-
NaHCO3 + H+ ⟶ CO2 + H2O + sodium salt of acid

Ingredient in antacids
Uses in Soda-acid fire extinguisher

Washing Soda [Sodium Carbonate, Na2CO3.10H2O]
Preparation: By Recrystallization of sodium carbonate in water.
Na2CO3 + 10H2O ⟶ Na2CO3.10H2O
Uses:
Softening hard water
washing clothes
in paper, paint and textile industry
manufacturing of sodium compounds like borax

What is “.10H2O” in washing soda?
Actually, the crystals of salt appeared to be dry but actually, they are not. They
contain water of crystallisation i.e. fixed number of water molecules present in
one formula unit of salt
Other examples:- CuSO4.5H2O, CaSO4.2H2O
Plaster of Paris [Calcium sulphate hemihydrate,

CaSO4. 1/2H2O]
Preparation: Heating gypsum at 373 k, gypsum loses water molecules and

becomes Plaster of Paris.
CaSO4 + 2H2O ⟶ CaSO4.½ H2O + 1 ½ H2O

Plaster of Paris is a white powder on mixing with water it changes to gypsum
giving hard solid mass.
CaSO4. ½H2O + 1 ½ H2O ⟶ CaSO4.2H2O

Uses:
The doctor uses as plaster for supporting fractured bones
making toys
material of decoration
Making smooth surfaces

Ans- D
Ans- D
Ans- B
Ans- A
Ans- C
Ans- A
Ans- B
Ans- B
A is true but R is false
Ans- B
Ans- C
Ans- C
Ans- A
Ans- A
Ans- B
Ans- B
Ans- B
PYQ MCQ ANSWERS:
1. b
2. a
3. d
4. d
5. a
6. d
7. a
8. a
9.
10.
11. c
12. c
13. a
14.
15. b
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21. b
22. c
23
24 a
25
26. d
27
28. I- a, II- ,III-a
SHOBHIT NIRWAN's
DESIGNED
METALS AND
NON METALS

NCERT Activities
Flowchart
A. METALS
Those elements which form ions by losing electrons are called metals.
Physical Properties of Metqls

Metals are malleable that is metal beaten into thin sheets
Malleability: The property which allows the metal to be hammered into thin sheets.It is
important characteristic of metal.
Eg: Gold and silver metals are best malleable metals.
Eg: Aluminium and Copper metal are also highly malleable metals.
Aluminium Foils are used for decorating sweets and for packing food items like
biscuit, namkeens etc.
Metals are good conductor of Heat

Metal allows heat to pass through them easily.
Silver metal is the best conductor of heat.It has highest conductivity.
Copper and aluminium metal are also very good conductors of heat.
The cooking utensil and water boilers are usually made of copper or aluminium
because they are good conductors of heat.
Poorest conductor of heat- Lead and Mercury
Metals are good conductor of Electricity

Metal allows electricity to pass through them easily.
Silver metal is the best conductor of electricity.
Metals have high meting and boiling point

Iron metal has high melting point of 1535°C, this means that solid iron melts and
turns into liquid on heating to a high temp.
Copper metal has high melting point of 1083°C.
Exceptions:
Sodium and potassium metal has Low melting point of 98°C and 64°C.
Gallium and cesium metal also has low melting point 30°C and 28°C.
Metals are solid at room temperature

Metals like iron, copper , silver, gold etc are solids at room temperature.
Only one metal, i.e. Mercury is in liquid state at room temperature.

Metals are Sonorous
Sonorous means capable of producing a deep or ringing sound.
Metals make sound when hit an object.
The property of metals of being sonorous is called sonority.
It is due to the property of sonorousness that metals are used for making bells
and strings of musical instrument like sitar and violin.
Metals are Strong

Metal can hold large weight without snapping (without breaking) .
Iron Metal used in construction of bridges buildings and railway line.
Exception- sodium and potassium metal are not strong enough.
Metals are Ductile

Ductility- The property which allows the metal to be drawn into thin wire
Gold is the most ductile metal and silver are among the best ductile metal.
Copper and aluminium metals are very ductile and drawn into thin copper and
Aluminium wires.
Magnesium metals are used in experiment in the laboratory and Tungsten metal
are used for making the Filament of electric bulb.
Chemical Properties of Metqls
Reaction of Metals with Oxygen

→
→
( metal + oxygen metal oxide)
4Na(s) + O2(g) 2Na2O(s)
→
sodium oxygen sodium oxide
4 Al(s) + 3 O2(g) 2Al2O3(s)
→
(Aluminium oxide)
2 Cu (s) + O2 (g) 2 CuO (s)
( copper oxide)
Zn(s) + 2HCl --> ZnO
Zinc Oxide
3Fe(s) + 2O2(g) --> Fe3O4(s)
Iron(II, III) oxide
L.P. : Why Potassium and sodium metal are stored under Kerosene oil?
• The potassium and sodium metal are so reactive that they react vigorously with
Oxygen (of air).
• They catch fire and start burning when kept in air.
So, it is kept in Kerosene to prevent their reaction with the O2 moisture and CO2 of air.
Upar Vali Reactions me hume product Metal Oxides mile, to chalo thoda metal
oxides ke baare me padh lete hai ;)
REACTIONS OF METAL OXIDES
1. Most of the metal oxides are insoluble in water. But some of the metal oxides
dissolve in water to form alkalis.
Sodium oxide 16 a basic oxide which react with water to form an alkali called
sodium hydroxide.
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) --> 2NaOH(aq)
Due to formation of NaOH alkali, a solution of sodium oxide in water turns red
litmus to blue
Potassium oxide is also a basic oxide which reacts with water to form an alkali
called potassium hydroxide.
K2O(s) + H2O(l) --> 2KOH(aq) {Turns red litmus to blue}
2. Those metal oxides which shows basic as well as acidic behaviour are called
Amphoteric oxide. Aluminium metal and Zinc metal form amphoteric oxide, aluminium
oxide and zine oxide are amphoteric in nature.
Aluminium oxide reacts with Hydrochloric acid to form aluminium chloride and
water.
Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq) --> 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
In this reaction aluminium oxide behave as basic oxide
Aluminium oxide reacts with sodium hydrate to form sodium aluminate (salt) and
water.
Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH(aq) --> 2NaAlO2(aq) + H2O(l)
In this reaction aluminium oxide behave as acidic oxide
3. Zinc Oxides Reactions:
Zinc Oxides reacts with hydrochloric acid to form zinc chloride and water.
ZnO(s) + HCl --> ZnCl2 + H2O
In this reaction, zinc oxide behaves as basic oxide.
Zinc Oxides reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium zincate and water.
ZnO(s) + HCl --> ZnCl2 + H2O
In this reaction, zinc oxide behaves as acidic oxide.

Reaction of Metals with Water
( metal + oxygen → metal hydroxide + hydrogen)
Metals react with water and produce a metal oxide and hydrogen gas metal oxides
that are soluble in water dissolve in it to further form metal hydroxide
➢ For Na and K reaction is violent even with cold water and so exothermic that
→
hydrogen immediately fire.
→
2 Na + 2H20 2NaOH + H2 + Heat
2 K + 2 H20 2KOH + H2 + heat
➢ For Ca , reaction is less violent for hydrogen to catch fire

Ca + 2H20 → Ca (OH)2 + H2
➢ Al , Fe don’t form hydroxide as their oxides are not soluble.They do not react with
→
the hot water but with steam.
→
2 Al (s) + 3H20 (g) Al2O3 (s) + 3H2(g)
3 Fe (s) + 4H20 (g) Fe3O4 (s) + 4H2 (g)
NCERT ACTIVITY
(AASAN BHASHA MEI)
Reaction of metals with Steam
A lump of glass wool soaked in water is placed at bottom of tube. The water
in glass wool will form steam on heating .
The Sample of metals placed in the middle of the horizontally kept boiling
tube. The boiling tube containing water, soaked glass wool and metal sample
is arranged in apparatus.
To start the experiment, the metal sample is heated by using a burner when
the metal gets hot, then the glass wool is heated by using other burner.
The water present in glass wool forms steam on heating . This steam then
passes over the hot metal. The metal react with steam to form the metal oxide
and H2 gas.
The H2 gas come out of the boiling tube and it is collected over water when a
lighted match stick is applied to gas collected jar, the gas burns with a "pop"
sound, indicating that it is hydrogen. The metal oxide formed remains behind
in the boiling tube.

This experiment is performed by taking magnesium, aluminium, zinc and iron as
metal sample.
It is found that the reaction of steam with magnesium is most vigorous
followed by reaction with aluminium and zine but reaction with iron is slowest.
Magnesium is very reactive whereas the iron is least reactive.
Decreasing order Mg › Al › Zn > Fe

Metals like lead, silver and gold do not react with water or even steam.
Only those metals displace hydrogen from water which are hydrogen in the
reactivity series.
Reaction of Metals with Acids

➢ All metals (except less reactive like copper , Hg ,Ag , Au, Pt) reacts with dilute HCl
→
and dilute H2SO4 to produce salt and hydrogen gas.
→
Metal + dilute acid salt + Hydrogen
e.g. Zn + 2HCl (aq) ZnCl2 + H2(g)
➢ Two gases not evolved when a metal reacts with nitric acid(HNo3) as it is a strong
oxidising agent .It oxidises H2 produced to H2O and itself gets reduced to any of the
nitrogen oxides.
→
But Mg and Mn reacts with very diluted at HNO3 to evolve to H2 gas.
→
Metal + HNO3 Salt + NO2/ N20 + H20
For Mn and Mg = Mn/Mg + HNO3 ( dil.) Salt + H2

Aqua-Regia: Aqua regia is freshly prepared mixture of 1 part of conc. nitric acid
and 3 part of conc. HCl.
- Ratio- conc. HN03 : conc. HCL- 1:3 ,it is a highly corrosive fuming liquid.
- Aqua-regia can dissolve all metals.
- Aqua-regia can dissolve even gold and platinum metals.
Reaction of Metals with Other Metal Salts
→
Only more reactive metals can displace a less reactive metal from compound.
→
Fe + CuSo4 FeSo4 + Cu
Cu + FeSo4 X

REACTIVITY SERIES OF
METAL: Arrangement
of metal in a vertical
column in order of
decreasing reactivities.
L.P. :
Answers:
1. Sodium is highly reactive element, that reacts with oxygen when comes in contact
with air and burns. Therefore, it is kept immersed in kerosene for prevention.
2. (i) 3Fe(s) + 4H2O(l) -> Fe3O4 + H2
(ii) Calcium with water: Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) -> Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
Potassium with water: 2K(s) + 2H2O(l) -> 2KOH(aq) + H2(g) + Heat
3. (i) B- It gives displacement reaction with iron(II) sulphate.
(ii) Displacement reaction will take place , blue colour of Copper(II) Sulphate
solution will fade and red-brown deposit of copper will form on B.
(iii)B,A,C,D
4. Hydrogen gas is produced. {Fe+H2SO4->FeSO4+H2}
5. When zinc is added in the solution , the colour of iron sulphate solution changes.
As zinc is more reactive than iron, so it displaces iron from its solution and a grey
precipitate of iron and a colourless zinc sulphate is formed.
Zn + FeSO4 -> ZnSO4 + Fe

B. NON-METALS
Those elements which form negative ions by gaining electrons are called
non-metals.
Physical Properties of Non Metqls
Are solids or gases except bromine(liquid)
Except graphite, all are bad conductors of heat and electricity
Are non ductile
Have low melting and boiling points
Are brittle i.e. they breakdown when hammered or streatched.
Chemical Properties of Non Metqls

Non metals are electron acceptor and cannot supply electrons to H+ ions of acids
to reduce them to hydrogen gas. Therefore, non metals do not react with water
→
steam or dilute acid.
With O2 , C + O2 CO2
C. METALS+NON METALS
When metals react with non-metals, they form ionic compounds and when non-
metal react with a non-metal, they form covalent compound.
Ionic Compounds
Formed when a metal and a non-metal react. Metal loses electron(s) which is gained
by non-metal in such a manner that octet of both is completely filled. These are also
called Electrovalent Compounds.
EX: Formation of Na2O:
EX: Formation of NaCl:

Properties of Ionic Compounds
• Solids and crystalline in nature due to strong force of attraction between
positive and negative ion.
• Soluble in water and insoluble in solvents such as kerosene and petrol.
• Good conductors of electricity in aqueous solutions and molten state state but do
not conduct in the solid state.
• Melting and boiling points are high.

Ans- B
Ans- B
Ans- B
Ans- D
Ans- B
PYQ MCQ ANSWERS:
1. a
2. a
3. a
4. c and d
5.
6. b
7. c
8. a
9. d
10. c
11. d
12. b
13. b
14.
15.
16. c
17. a
18. d
19. a
20.
SHOBHIT NIRWAN's
DESIGNED
LIFE PROCESSES

NCERT Activities
Flowchart
Life Processes
For a living being it is necessary to perform basic functions for proper body
functioning, so that it can prevent damage and breakdown of body and it’s functions.
These are basic functions performed by organisms to maintain life are known as life
processes.
(L.P.) : What processes would you consider essential for maintaining life?
Four basic processes that are essential for maintaining life processes are-
1. Nutrition- it is the process of transferring source of energy(food) from outside to the
body of an organism.
2. Respiration- it is the process of acquiring oxygen from outside into the body and using
it for breaking down of glucose to release energy for cellular needs.
3. Transportation- it is process of carrying food and oxygen from one place to
another.
4. Excretion- it is a process of removing by-products from body which are formed
during energy generating reactions.
(L.P.) : Which are outside raw materials used by an organism?

Carbon based molecules i.e food is used by body from outside to meet it’s energy need.
Oxygen is used to oxidise food and release energy. So food and oxygen are the basic
raw materials used by an organism.
(L.P.) : Transportation system transports waste products then what is the need
of excretory system?
Transportation system transports waste products away from cells but to discard it
from the body to outside excretory system is needed.
(L.P.) : Name the process used by single celled organisms for ingestion of food,
gaseous exchange and waste removal? Why is this process insufficient to
meet the oxygen requirements in multicellular organisms?
Diffusion is the process used by single celled organisms to carry out basic life processes
such as gas exchange, etc.
It is insufficient because multicellular organisms like humans have complex body designs
and large body size. Thus they bear specialised cells and tissue for performing various
tasks.
Unlike unicellular,multicellular organisms do not have the cells in direct contact with
environment. Hence, diffusion cannot meet their oxygen requirements.
NUTRITION
It is the process of transferring source of energy(food) from outside to
inside the body of an organism for maintaining living structure.
Modes of Nutrition:
1. AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION
It is mode of nutrition in which organisms, mainly green plants manufacture their food
by itself. This mode of nutrition is performed by organisms called autotrophs.
On the basis of sources of energy:
1. Photosynthesis Autotrophs- organisms which fulfil their carbon and energy

requirements by process of photosynthesis using sunlight as a source of energy.
Eg- Green plants.
2. Chemosynthesis autotrophs- organisms which utilise chemical energy to

synthesize their organic materials(food). For eg- Bacteria

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
It is a complex process by which green parts of the plant synthesize organic food in
the form of glucose form carbon-di-oxide and water in the presence of sunlight and
chlorophyll.
→ ↑
Reaction-
6CO2 + 12H2 O C6 H12 O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
Carbohydrates (glucose) are utilised for providing energy to the plant. Remaining
glucose which is not used are stored in form of starch that serves as reserved energy.
Leaves are the major photosynthesis organs of a plant. Therefore, lets study
about the INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF LEAF:
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF LEAF

Epidermis- outermost layer, parts-
Upper epidermis- it is a single layer of transparent cells with no chloroplasts. It is
covered by a waxy cuticle which protects internal leaf tissues by preventing
excessive loss of water through transpiration.
Lower epidermis- it contains stomata and helps in gaseous exchange and allows
sunlight to pass in leaves.

Stomata- these are tiny pores, mostly found in the lower epidermis of plants,
which allows gases to enter and exit in the leaf more rapidly between plant and
atmosphere.
Guard cells- these are beans shaped cells that frame the stomatal opening.
Hence, they control rate of diffusion of water and gases in and out of leaf.
(L.P.) : How does the turgor pressure of guard cells regulate stomatal pore?
The turgor pressure of guard cells regulates the opening and closing of stomatal pores.
The stomatal pores are open when guard cells are turgid due to absorption of water
and get closed when guard cells are in flaccid condition due to loss of water.
# Chloroplasts : The green coloured plastids contained in leaves are called

chloroplasts. They are the site of photosynthesis as they contain green pigment
called chlorophyll which traps solar energy from sun. They are just below upper
epidermis. It is present as dot-like structure on leaves.
#Events of Photosynthesis :
Absorption of light by chlorophyll.
Conversion of light energy into chemical energy and splitting of water molecules
into hydrogen and oxygen.
Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.
#Conditions Necessary for Photosynthesis:

(i) Sunlight- It affects the rate of photosynthesis by varying its intensity, quality, etc.
Eg-
(a) Rate of photosynthesis is minimum when light is green.
(b) Rate of photosynthesis is maximum when light is red or blue.
(ii) Chlorophyll- Green colour photosynthetic pigment found in chloroplast that is

responsible for trapping the solar energy from sun.
Lets do some activities for conditions necessary for photosynthesis.

NCERT ACTIVITY
(AASAN BHASHA MEI)
Activity to demonstrate that Chlorophyll is necessary for Photosynthesis
Take a potted plant with variegated leaves – for example, money plant or
crotons.
Keep the plant in a dark room for three days so that all the starch gets used
up.
Now keep the plant in sunlight for about six hours.
Pluck a leaf from the plant. Mark the green areas in it and trace them on a
sheet of paper.
Dip the leaf in boiling water for a few minutes.
After this, immerse it in a beaker containing alcohol.
Carefully place the above beaker in a water-bath and heat till the alcohol
begins to boil.
Now dip the leaf in a dilute solution of iodine for a few minutes.
Take out the leaf and rinse off the iodine solution.
Observe the colour of the leaf and compare this with the tracing of the leaf
done in the beginning .
Question 1. What happens to the colour of the leaf? What is the colour of the
solution?
Answer. The green leaf becomes colourless. On immersing green leaf in a alcohol,
chlorophyll responsible for its green colour gets dissolves in alcohol. The colour of
the alcohol solution turns green
Question 2. What can you conclude about the presence of starch in various
areas of the leaf?
Answer. The green areas of leaf, which turns dark blue on dipping in iodine
solution, indicate the presence of starch where as colorless part of leaf show no
formation of starch. From this activity we can conclude that chlorophyll is essential
for photosynthesis
NCERT ACTIVITY
(AASAN BHASHA MEI)
Activity to show that amount of Carbon Dioxide (CO2), essentially affects the process
and outcome of Photosynthesis
Take two healthy potted plants which are nearly the same size.
Keep them in a dark room for three days.
Now place each plant on separate glass plates. Place a watch-glass
containing potassium hydroxide by the side of one of the plants. The
potassium hydroxide is used to absorb carbon dioxide.
Cover both plants with separate bell-jars as shown in Fig. .
Use Vaseline to seal the bottom of the jars to the glass plates so that the set-
up is air-tight.
Keep the plants in sunlight for about two hours.
Pluck a leaf from each plant and check for the presence of starch as in the
above activity.
Question 1. Do both the leaves show the presence of the same amount of
starch?
Answer. No, both the leaves do not show the presence of the same amount of
starch, because in photosynthesis starch is produced using sun light, chlorophyll
and CO2. In first set up availability of CO2 will be less for making starch by the
plant leaves, as potassium hydroxide (KOH ) absorb the CO2. In second plant
setup, the leaves will have more amount of starch.
Question 2. What can you conclude from this activity?

Answer. From this activity, we can conclude that amount of Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
, essentially affects the process and outcome of photosynthesis.

# Raw materials required for photosynthesis:
CO2 – It is taken up through stomata from the atmospheric in case of land plants
,while in aquatic plants take up CO2 dissolved in water.
Water- it is taken up by the roots through the process of osmosis and its
transported to the leaves by xylem vessels.
Other Materials- Nitrogen, Iron and Magnesium are also required for
photosynthesis taken up from soil.
#Significance of Photosynthesis:
→
It not only sustains plants but indirectly provides nutrition and oxygen to other
organisms as well as it provides
a) Food- green plants synthesize food from raw materials for themselves and other
organisms and thus sustain life on earth.
b) Oxygen- In process of photosynthesis, oxygen releases in air which is used by other
organisms.
(L.P.) : Is ‘nutrition’ a necessity for an organism? Discuss.

All the living organisms ned energy to perform various life processes. They get enery
from nutrition i.e. food. Thus, it is the basic requirement of all organisms. It is needed
because-
1. It provides energy to perform various metabolic processes in body.
2. It is essential for growth of new cells and repair of worn out cells.
3. It is needed to develop resistance against various diseases. Therefore, nutrition is a
necessity for an organism.
(L.P.) :Draw a well labelled diagram of stomata. List of two functions of stomata.
1. Allow the loss of water from surface of leaves(transpiration).
2. Allow the exchange of gases i.e. intake of carbon-di-oxide and release of oxygen
during photosynthesis.
1. HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION
In this mode of nutrition, organisms can’t prepare their own food on their own.They
instead obtain from other organism. Types:
1. Holozoic Nutrition- complex food molecules are taken in and then broken down
into simpler and soluble molecules in this type of nutrition. Eg- Amoeba, human
being, herbivores, carnivores and omnivores posses this mode of nutrition.
2. Saprophytic Nutrition- In this, organism usually feed upon dead and decay
organic matter, breaking down complex material outside body and absorb it. Eg-
Fungi,Yeast,etc.
3. Parasitic Nutrition- In this organism live either on or inside the body of

organism(host) to obtain nutrition without killing them. Eg- amarbel.

NUTRITION IN AMOEBA
Amoeba is a unicellular organism that does not possess specialised organs for the
process of nutrition. Mode of nutrition is holozoic and takes place with the help of
pseudopodia.
PROCESS:
Ingestion: pseudopodia engulfs the food comes in contact with it’s cell surface
and form food vacuole. This process is called ingestion.
Digestion: it is intracellular (takes place inside the cell) in Amoeba. Inside the
food vacuole, complex food is broken down into small soluble molecules.
Absorption: Small soluble molecules are then readily absorbed by cytoplasm. This
process is called Absorption.
Assimilation: the absorbed food is farther assimilated by amoeba to use energy
for growth.
Egestion: the undigested food material is removed by cell membrane which
ruptures suddenly at any place and eliminated out the undigested food which is
known as egestion.
NUTRITION IN HUMAN BEINGS
Digestion is a catabolic process in which complex and large components of food are
broken down into simpler and smaller forms with help of enzymes. These simpler parts
are taken by different parts of body and absorbed. Entire system is known as
digestive system.
(L.P.) :Why herbivores have long small intestine while carnivores have shorter ones?
Herbivores have longer small intestine to facilitate cellulose digestion. Cellulose is not digested
by human alimentary canal as there is no digestive enzyme that can act upon cellulose.
Carnivores have shorter length of small intestine as meat is easily digestible.
NCERT ACTIVITY
(AASAN BHASHA MEI)
Take 1 mL starch solution (1%) in two test tubes (A and B).
Add 1 mL saliva to test tube A and leave both test tubes undisturbed for 20-30
minutes.
Now add a few drops of dilute iodine solution to the test tubes.
Question 1. In which test tube do you observe a colour change?

Answer. We will observe a colour change in test tube B, showing presence of
starch. Where as test tube A will show no colour change as due to addition of
saliva, starch is converted into sugar.

MECHANISM OF DIGESTION OF FOOD
Question 2. What does this indicate about the presence or absence of
Ingestion- it means taking in food into mouth or buccal cavity. As the food
starch in the two test tubes?
enters the mouth it is moistened by saliva and moved around in mouth in order to
Answer. It indicates that test tube A does not contain starch where as test tube B
make chewing and swallowing easy by tongue. Food is converted to small
does contain starch.
particles by teeth.
Digestion- as food is complex in nature, so it is converted into it’s simpler form

Question
by the 3. Whatofdoes
action this tell
biological us about
catalyst the
called action of
enzymes. saliva
This on of
process starch?
breaking
Answer.
down It of
tells us that
large on addition
organic of (like
molecules saliva in starch solution,
carbohydrates) the molecules
to small starch gets
(like
converted
simple into some
sugar) otherdigestion.
is called product (here maltose sugar )
Absorption- it is the process by which digested food passes from alimentary

canal into the blood. All the digested food is taken up by walls of intestine. The
inner surface of small intestine has numerous villi and lacteals which increase the
surface area of intestine and helps in absorption of digested food.
Assimilation- it is the process of distribution of digested food products to

various cells of the body for their utilisation in various metabolic processes. The
villi in small intestine are richly supplied with blood vessels which take the
absorbed food to each and every cell of body to building new cells or repair the
older ones.
Egestion- the process of elimination of undigested food formed in the color of

the large intestine through anus is called egestion.
PERISTALTIC MOVEMENT
Contraction and expansion of muscles of the oesophagus to push the food forward.
(L.P.) :Differentiate between autotrophic and heterotrophic nutrition?
Autotrophic Nutrition Heterotrophic Nutrition
(i) In this mode of nutrition, food is (i)In this mode of nutrition, food is
prepared by organism itself. obtained from other organisms.
(ii) Raw material is required to (ii)Raw material is not required.
make food.
(iii) Chlorophyll is present in (iii)It is absent.
autotrophs for trapping sunlight.
(iv) They are known as producers. (iv)They are known as consumers
Tooth Decay :
The tooth decay in mouth occurs due to formation of a plaque. It occurs when bacterial
cells act upon the food particles, containing sugars and produce acids that soften the
enamel.
Brushing of teeth after eating is one of the treatment.
(L.P.) : What happens if mucus is not secreted by the gastric glands?

If mucus is not secreted by gastric glands, it will lead to the destruction of inner lining of
stomach causing acidity and ulcer by HCL.
(L.P.) : A patient in hospital had his gall bladder removed and needs a special
diet. Which nutrient free diet would be suitable for this patient?
The diet free from fat would be suitable for the patient whose gall bladder is removed
because bile stored in gall bladder helps in the digestion of fat.
(L.P.) : Function of digestive enzymes?

It helps to breakdown large and insoluble food molecules into small water soluble
molecules.
Eg- Amylase breakdown, starch and trypsin breakdown, protein and form maltose and
peptones.
(L.P.) : How are fats digested in our bodies? Where does this process take place?
The small intestine is site of the complete digestion of fats. The upper part of small intestine
receives bile juice from bileduct which contains bile salts for breakdown of fats into smaller
globules thereby increasing the efficiency of the enzyme action. This process is known as
emulsification. Bile also makes medium alkaline so that pancreatic lipase further converts fats
into fatty acids and glycerol. The walls of small intestine also secrete intestinal juice
containing enzyme called lipase that finally convert the fats into fatty acids and glycerol.
Thus completing fat digestion.
(L.P.) : How is small intestine designed to absorb digested food?
OR
Why does absorption of digested food occur mainly in small intestine?
Maximum absorption of digested food occurs in small intestine due to following reasons-
1. Digestion is completed in small intestine.
2. Inner lining of small intestine is provided with villi which increases the surface area for
better absorption.
3. Wall of intestine is richly supplied with blood vessels which take the absorbed food to each
and every cell.
RESPIRATION
It is the process by which food is oxidised to release energy. For this oxygen
is required from outside of the body to breakdown the food.
The organic substances undergoing oxidative breakdown during respiration
are called respiratory substances. Eg- Glucose
Types of Respiration:
1) Aerobic Respiration: It is described as the process in which fairly large amount of

energy is released in the presence of oxygen from the breakdown of food substances.
Glucose → Pyruvate + Energy → 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38 ATP
C6H12O6 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
This process starts in cytoplasm and continues in the mitochondria of cell. Each
glucose molecule releases 38 ATP molecules. Water and Glucose are waste
products. The energy released is utilised in other life processes.
2) Anaerobic Respiration: it is described as the respiratory process in which small

amount of energy is released in absence of oxygen from breakdown of food
substances. It takes place in yeast, bacteria and in human muscles. Only 2 molecules
of ATP is released.
Types:
i) Alchoholic fermentation- it is the process of incomplete breakdown of sugar into

ethanol, and CO2 to release energy. This process occurs mainly in yeast which is used
→ →
to producd beer, urine, etc. Equation-
Glucose Pyruvate + Energy 2Ethanol + 2CO2+ 2ATP
ii) Lactic Fermentation- it is process of incomplete breakdown of sugar into lactic

acid + energy in some bacteria and in our muscle cells.
3
In our muscles during vigorous exercise glucose is metabolised to form lactic acid
and then fatigue and muscle cramp occur. This usually takes place when small
amount of ATP stored in muscles is used up for immediate need of energy.
NCERT ACTIVITY
(AASAN BHASHA MEI)
Take some freshly prepared lime water in a test tube.
Blow air through this lime water.
Question 1. Note how long it takes for the lime water to turn milky?
Answer. When we blow air through mouth, the lime water in test tube turns milky
within no time. Use a syringe or pichkari to pass air through some fresh lime water
taken in another test tube.
Question 2. Note how long it takes for this lime water to turn milky?
Answer. When we use syringe or pichkari, to pass air through the lime solution, it
takes much time and effort to turn the lime water milky.
Question 3. What does this tell us about the amount of carbon dioxide in the
air that we breathe out ?
Answer. This indicates that the amount of carbon dioxide in the air that we
breathe out is much more as compared to normal air outside.
NCERT ACTIVITY
(AASAN BHASHA MEI)
Take some fruit juice or sugar solution and add some yeast to this. Take this
mixture in a test tube fitted with a one-holed cork.
Fit the cork with a bent glass tube. Dip the free end of the glass tube into a
test tube containing freshly prepared lime water.
Question 1. What change is observed in the lime water and how long does it
take for this change to occur?
Answer. The lime water becomes milky as carbon dioxide is produced by mixing
yeast in sugar along with alcohol. Time taken for this change to occur, should be
observed by students themselves.
Question 2. What does this tell us about the products of fermentation?

Answer.The products of fermentation are alcohol and carbon dioxide.
(L.P.) :Differentiate between aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic respiration
1. It occurs in presence of 1. It occurs in absence or lack of
oxygen. oxygen.
2. Energy is released in large 2. Energy is released in relatively
amount. (38 ATP) small amount. (2 ATP)
3. Eg- most of plants and 3. Eg- anaerobic bacteria, yeast.
animals.
(L.P.) : Name the energy currency in the living organism. When and where it is
produced?
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is the energy currency of cell as it provide energy for
doing functions of cells and other organs. It is produced in mitochondria of cell during
respiration in the living organisms.
Different stages of respiration

1.External breathing-
a)Breathing- it is process of taking in required gas and giving out unrequired
gases. It has two types inhalation and exhalation. For eg- human beings, takes in O2
and gives out CO2.
b) Exchange of gases- it involves diffusion of O2 from lungs to blood and CO2

from blood to lungs. In plants, gaseous exchange takes place through stomata of leaf
with the environment.
1. Internal breathing- it is gaseous exchange between arterial blood and cells.

(a)Cellular respiration- it is process of breakdown of glucose on other
respiratory substrate in the cell to produce energy for performing various functions.
(L.P.) : Respiration is a catabolic process. Justify the statement.

It is a catabolic process because it involves the breakdown of complex organic molecule i.e.
glucose into pyruvate and further breakdown into carbon dioxide and water with release of
energy.
(L.P.) : Anaerobic respiration plays and important role in process of bread making.
Discuss the statement.
During bread making, yeast is mixed with dough where it undergoes anaerobic respiration
partially oxidising the starch of flour into CO2 + ethanol. CO2releases in this process causes
dough to rise and makes bread fluffy. This shows that it is important.
(L.P.) : Compare alcohol and lactic fermentation.

In alcohol fermentation, pyruvate is breakdown into ethanol and CO2 with release of energy.
Whereas in lactic fermentation pyruvate is breakdown into lactic acid with release of energy.
Respiration in plants
Lallu Problem (L.P.) : Diffusion acts as the process of gaseous exchange. Write the
factors on which it depends.
Factors-
1. Conditions of the environment.
2. Requirements of the plant.
Lallu Problem (L.P.) : Which structures are responsible for the gaseous exchange in
the stem of a woody plant?
Gaseous exchange occurs trough small pores called lenticles in stem of woody plant.
Lallu Problem (L.P.) : Explain the structures of a plant that are involved in the
process of respiration.
1. Roots- the exchange of gases (respiration) in roots of a plant takes place by process of
diffusion.
2. Stems- in herbaceous plants stomata helps in respiration and in woody plants,
respiration takes place through tiny pores called lenticles.
3. Leaves- respiration takes place by diffusion of oxygen through stomata into cells of leaf
and CO2 released from same stomata into atmosphere.
Lallu Problem (L.P.) : Green plants fails to photosynthesis at night while respiration
occurs during the daytime as well as night. Justify the
statement.
During night, the process of photosynthesis does not occur in green plants due to absence of
sunlight. But respiration keep on going, plant take O2 and give out CO2in night while in daytime
CO2 is utilised for photosynthesis.
Lallu Problem (L.P.) : Land plants cannot survive for a long time without water. Do
you agree? If yes, justify the statement.
Yes, land plants extend to die when their roots water logged for longer time. This happen
because O2 present in soil is not available to perform aerobic respiration. The roots starts
anaerobically alcohol which can kill the plant.
Lallu Problem (L.P.) : What happens to the waste products of respiration generated
in a plant?
1. Water- it is usually used for photosynthesis in leaves, as a solvent for transport of
mineral salts and nutrients.
2. CO2- it diffuses out of the plant tissues into surrounding during night. During day time, it is
used by the plants in photosynthesis.
Mechanism of gaseous exchange in humans
The phenomenon of taking in oxygen is termed as inspiration and of giving out
carbon-di-oxide is termed as expiration.
Breathing or gaseous exchange in human involves three steps-
1. Inhalation- when we breathe in, air passes through trachea and ribs move up
and flatten the diaphragm due to which the chest cavity becomes larger. As a
result, air is sucked into the lungs and fills the expanded alveoli.
2. Gaseous Exchange- haemoglobin binds with the oxygen and carries along it
along the blood in the body. As the blood passes through the tissue of the body,
oxygen from the blood diffuses into the cell, and CO2 which is produced as
waste products during respiration diffuses into blood and is carried back to lungs
for expiration.
3. Expiration- Ribs moves down and diaphragm becomes dome-shaped decreasing

the chest cavity. Thus, pushing the air out from lungs.
Complete Pathway-
→ → → →
Nostrils Nasal passage Pharynx Larynx Trachea lungs bronchi → → →
→ →
bronchioles Alveoli blood cells. →
Parts:
1. Trachea- the air passes from it. Rings of cartilage keep trachea open allowing
the passage of air to lungs and also prevent it from collapsing when there is not
air in it.
2. Bronchi- Trachea divides into two smaller tubes on entering air into the lungs.
3. Bronchioles- Bronchi are sub-divided into smaller branches called bronchioles.
Each bronchioles is finally terminated into many alveoli.
4. Alveoli- these are balloon like structures which increases the surface area for
gaseous exchange in lungs.
5. Diaphragm- Movement in diaphragm helps in breathing.

Lallu Problem (L.P.) : What is the role of respiratory pigment in respiration? Give
one example.
Animals have large body size due to which, the diffusion pressure alone can’t deliver oxygen
to all parts of body. Therefore the respiratory pigments take up oxygen from lungs along
with blood and carry into all tissues which are deficient of oxygen.
Haemoglobin is one such respiratory pigment found in Red Blood Cells (RBCs) of human
beings to carry oxygen.
Answer1: For respiration purpose, terrestrial organisms survive on atmospheric
oxygen, which is present in plenty, therefore their breathing rate is much less.
Where as aquatic organisms make use of dissolved oxygen from water for their
respiration purpose. The concentration of oxygen in dissolved form is very less in
the water, therefor rate of breathing in aquatic organisms is much faster compare
to terrestrial organisms
Answer2: First step of break-down of glucose, a six-carbon molecule, takes place
in the cytoplasm of cells of all organisms. This process results into a three-carbon
molecule called pyruvate.
Further, the pyruvate may be broken down in different manners in different
organisms
1. Anaerobic respiration : This process takes place in the absence of oxygen. This
process takes place in yeast during fermentation and results in formation of
ethanol and carbon dioxide
2. Aerobic respiration : In aerobic respiration, breakdown of pyruvate takes place
in presence of oxygen to give rise of three molecules of carbon dioxide and
water. The release of energy in aerobic respiration is much more than
anaerobic respiration.
3. Lack of oxygen : Sometimes, when there is lack of oxygen, especially during
vigorous activity, in our muscles, pyruvate is converted into lactic acid which is
also a three-carbon molecule. This build-up of lactic acid in our muscles
during sudden activity causes cramps.

Answer3:. (a) Transportation of oxygen : The respiratory pigment is haemoglobin,
which is present in the red blood corpuscles and has a very high affinity for
oxygen. It take up oxygen from the air in the lungs and carry it to tissues which are
deficient in oxygen
(b) Transportation of carbon dioxide : Carbon dioxide is more soluble in water
than oxygen is and hence is mostly transported from body tissues in the dissolved
form in our blood plasma to lugs where it diffuses from blood to air in the lungs
and then exhaled out through mouth and nose.
Answer4:. In the lungs, the wind pipe divides into smaller and smaller tubes, called
bronchi, which in turn form bronchioles. The bronchioles, which finally terminate in
balloon-like structures , called alveoli. The alveoli provide a enlarged surface
where the exchange of gases can take place. The walls of the alveoli are very thin
and contain an extensive network of blood-vessels to facilitate exchange of
gases.
TRANSPORTATION
It is a life process in which a substance absorbed is transported from one
body part to it’s other parts.
In Human Beings
Blood- it is red coloured fluid connective tissue, which circulates in our body.
Its red colour is due to presence of a pigment called haemoglobin in it’s red cells.
The deficiency of haemoglobin in our body is referred to as anaemia.
Maintenance by Platelets:
In case of any injury when bleeding occurs, the loss of blood from the system has to
be minimised as it leads to loss of pressure of pumping system. To prevent this, the
platelets circulates around the body help in clotting of blood at site of injury.
Functions of blood
1. Transport of excretory products- nitrogenous wastes like urea, uric acid and
ammonia are collected from the tissue and are transported to kidney for their
removal.
2. Transport of O2- Haemoglobin present in RBCs combines with O2 from lungs and
transports to all tissues of body for respiration.
3. Transport of CO2- CO2 generated as waste products during respiration is
transported by blood and haemoglobin attached to it to lungs where it is
eliminated.
4. Clotting of blood- Platelets present in blood form a clot at site of the injury to
prevent loss of blood.
5. Protection from disease- the WBCs engulfs disease causing microbes and is
known as soldiers of body.
Heart
It is pumping machine that pushes out the blood into the blood vessels and from
these to different parts of the body. It has four chambers separated by septum which
prevent mixing of pure and impure blood.
Chambers-
1. Atrium(upper chambers)- there are two atrium seperated by septum (dividing
walls).
2. Ventricle(lower chambers)- The two inferior chambers of heart are right and left
ventricle.
Flow of blood in Humans
Humans have double circulation, which means that blood goes through heart twice to
supply blood once around the body.
Process-
1. Pulmonary Circulation- the movement of blood from heart to lungs and back to
heart constitutes pulmonary circulation.
↓
Right Ventricle pushes the blood to lungs for oxygenation via pulmonary arteries.
The oxygenated blood comes back to left atrium of heart through
↓
pulmonary veins.
The left atrium then pushes blood to left ventricle.
1. Systematic Circulation- The movement of blood from heart to various places of
body except lungs and back to heart.
↓
As the blood fills in the left ventricle, the blood is pushed out.
↓
The blood is pumped to whole body via aorta.
The deoxygenated blood enters into right atrium via Vena Cava from lower body.
Double circulated is considering as it prevents mixing of oxygenated and
deoxygenated blood.
Lallu Problem (L.P.) : What would be consequences of deficiency of haemoglobin in

our bodies?
Haemoglobin efficiently binds with O2 and transports to various parts of body. Deficiency of
haemoglobin is referred to as anaemia. The consequences of such condition is that blood is
unable to carry O2 required by body for respiration and produce energy. In anaemia, the
person feels weak, skin becomes pale, etc.
Lallu Problem (L.P.) : Why is it necessary to separate oxygenated and de-

oxygenated blood in mammals and birds?
As they are warm blooded so they need energy constantly to maintain their body
temperature. Thus, it is important that their oxygenated blood should not get mixed with
deoxygenated blood in order to make circulatory system more efficient.
Blood Pressure
The pressure at which blood is pumped around the body by heart is called blood
pressure.
The maximum pressure at which blood leaves the heart through main artery
during contraction phase, is called systolic pressure.
The min. pressure in arteries during relaxation phase of heart is called diastolic
pressure.
Normal systolic- 120 mm Hg
Diastolic- 80 mm Hg
It is measured by instrument called sphygmomanometer.
High blood pressure is called Hypertension.
Lymph
It is another type of fluid found in our body, which is also involved in transportation.
Formation- it is formed when some amount of plasma proteins and blood cells
escape into intracellular spaces through pores present in capillaries.
Functions- (i) it is involved in transportation of substances where blood vessels do

not reach.
(ii)Lymph carries digested and absorbed fat from intestine and drains excess fluid
from extracellular space back into the blood.
Lymph Capillaries- Lymph from intracellular spaces chains into lymph capillaries
which further join to form large lymph vessels that finally opens into larger veins. They
are thin walled.
Some differences between Blood and Lymph

Blood-
1. It is red in colour.
2. Haemoglobin is present.
3. It transports materials from one organ to another.
Lymph-
1. It is colourless.
2. Haemoglobin is Absent.
3. It transports materials from tissues into blood.

Some differences between Lymph capillaries and
Blood Capillaries
Lymph Capillaries-
1. They are colourless.
2. They carry lymph.
3. They are wider.
Blood Capillaries-
1. They are red in colour.
2. They carry blood.
3. They are narrower.
Lallu Problem (L.P.) : What are component of transport system in human beings?
Write function also.
The component of transport system in human are-
1. Heart- It pumps and receives blood.
2. Blood- It consists of two main components-
a)Plasma- It transport food, CO2 and nitrogenous waste, etc in dissolved form.
b)Blood Corpuscles- they constitute RBCs, WBCs and platelets. RBCs transports
respiratory gases,WBCs protect body from harmful pathogens help in clot of blood at site of
injury.
3.Blood Vessels- Three Types-
a)Arteries- these transport blood from heart to various organs of the body.
b)Veins- these transport blood from various body parts to heart.
c)Capillaries- These allows exchange between blood and tissues.
4.Lymph- It carries digested and absorbed fats from small intestine.
Lallu Problem (L.P.) : How are water and minerals transported in Plants?
Water and minerals are transported through xylem in plants. The cells in roots that are in
contact with soil actively take up ions, creating a difference in concentration of ions between
root and soil.
Water moves into root to eliminate this difference of concentration forming a steady
movement of water in root xylem. This creates a column of water that is steadily pushed
upwards. Further, transpiration of water from leaves creates a partial vacuum that pulls
water from xylem of roots to leaves and other parts.
Lallu Problem (L.P.) : Explain why transportation of materials is necessary in

animals?
The distribution of all necessary substances such as food, O2 and water throughout body is
carried out through system of transportation. It also displaces wastes from where it is
expelled out from body. Thus, it is very important.
Lallu Problem (L.P.) : How is food transported in plants?
The transportation of food is done by phloem by utilising energy (ATP). The transport of
soluble products (sugar) of photosynthesis from leaves to other parts of plant is known as
translocation. Pressure generated by osmotic pressure allows movement of food from
phloem to tissue which have less pressure.
EXCRETION
It is biological process by which an organism removes harmful metabolic
wastes from the body.
Types of Organisms
1. Unicellular Organism- these organism get rid of waste products by diffusing it
into surrounding through general body. Eg- Amoeba, paramecium.
2. Multicellular Organism- these organism get rid of waste products by

specialised organs for function of excretion.
Function of Kidneys
1. It helps in removing excess water from body and nitrogenous waste from blood in
form of urine.
2. Maintaining the constant cone.
3. Regulates pH of blood.
Excretion in human beings

The main function of human excretory system is to remove nitrogenous wastes such
as urea from the body.
Kidney- the main organ of excretory system. It is reddish brown and bean shaped
structure. The left kidney is placed higher than right. It is caused by liver.
Nephrons- it is basic filtering unit found in kidney. It is long coiled tubular whose one
end is connected to cup shaped structure called Bowman’s capsule contain bundle
of blood capillaries called glomerulus that is followed by tubular part of nephrons
and loops at some places.
Functioning-
1. Glomerulus filters the blood passing through it.
2. It also ensures to remove only harmful substances from the body that include
waste materials.
3. The useful substances like glucose, amino acids, salts, and major amount of water
is selectively reabsorbed by tubular part of nephron.
4.Some substances like K+ are actively secreted into the urine through tubule.
5.The collecting dust collects the urine and passes it to ureter.

Lallu Problem (L.P.) : Differentiate between Alveoli in lung and Nephrons in kidneys
Alveoli in lungs-
1. These are balloon like structure found within lungs.
2. Diffusion is employed in exchange of gases can takes place.
3. A large no. of alveoli are present in lungs.
Nephrons in kidneys-
1. These are long, circled tubule-like structure present in kidney.
2. Nephrons apply selective re-absorption of useful substances in capillaries.
3. They are very small in size but are large in no. in each kidney.
Excretion in plants
1. Gaseous wastes i.e. CO2 and O2 are removed through stomata in leaves and
lenticles in stems to the air.
2. Plant get rid of excess water by transpiration.
3. Some waste products are stored as resins and gums.
4. Plants also excrete some waste into soil around them.
5. Waste products also stored in leaves which fall off.
6. Useful Waste- Essential oils,Gums, O2(during daytime)

Ans-C
Ans-B
Ans-D
Ans-D
Ans-B
Ans-B
A is true R os false
Ans-D
Ans-D
Ans-B
Ans-B
Ans-D
Ans-C
Ans-B
Ans-B
Ans-C
Ans-A
Ans-B
Ans-D
Ans-B
Ans-B
Ans-C
Ans-B
Ans-B
Ans-C
SHOBHIT NIRWAN's
DESIGNED
LIGHT REFLECTION
AND REFRACTION

NCERT Activities
Flowchart
Reflection
law of Reflection
-
-
Plane mirror
-
Spherical Mirror
ray diagrams concave mirror
-
-
-
Image formation by convex mirror

-
Uses of concave 4 Convex mirror

-
Mirror formula
Light
Refraction
-
-
causes of Refraction
-
Refraction through Rectangular glass slab

-
laws of Refraction
-
Refractive Index
-
spherical lens
lens
Kay diagrams convex
I
-
Image formation by concave lens

-
lens formula
-
Power of lens
travels in ⑥
⑨
Light a
straight line .
REFLECTION
coming back
a surface .
of light rays to the same medium , when they fall on
# LAWS of Reflection :
)
*
Angle of incidence kit-AngkofreH.frincidence .
is Incidentrayg normal at the point of

and reflected ray all lie in the same plane .
K3B oAny ray of light

which is incident
normally
}
..
on a mirror is reflected back along its n
own
path .
;
Normal
°
Object -
Point of intersection of incident ray .is called object .
intersection of reflected ray

°
Image Point of is called
image
-
Real virtual
Image Image
It the light rays coming from a Height rays coming from a point ,
after reflection does not meet actually

paint actually , meet after reflection to meet at another
but point
,
appear
then
image formed is real .
then
image formed Ps virtual .
Trick :
-
def light vo Real
,
set Aet E virtual .
" s
go.pt?.af.noghtEd
r
i real ±
> I -
-
-
i. !
'
-
-
-
780
object i
←
'
-
-
-
Image
(Intersection of
z s
s
'
-
line.tn?sedecnttfnoayts, e
I reflected rays) y
'
Red -
Reflected rays
Black > Incident rays
Plane mirror
°
Object and image are equidistant from the plane mirror
°
If object is real then image will be virtual and vice-versa .
°
Image is laterally inverted i. e. left seems to be right and
vice-versa
°
Size of image is equal to size of object .
°
Uses →
looking glass , periscopes etc .
②
right
Spherical Mirror
!
in
÷
-
!
'
G whose reflecting surfaces are spherical :
.
ConniffYaga moiYak
( IT mirror Ets sphere # et part # El ) p a .
Reflecting Reflecting
*← for example surface surface
•
c
UET tf tht HT
Patil ITT I
¥ 6 ¥3# spherical mirror Ittf et th
imaginary sphere 14h17 IF 3114T
314 tht IF 3ft sphere af
HIT
* mirror FI
°
Radius of Curvature : Radius of curvature of a spherical mirror is the
radius of
imaginary sphere of which , mirror is part .
o centre of curvature : centre of that

imaginary sphere of which mirror ispart , .
o Pole : It is the mid -
point of its reflecting surface .

Symbols P .
°
Principal Axis : line paining pole and centre of curvature .
° Focus Cfl point on principal axis of the mirror at which the light
: A
rays coming parallel to principal axis , after reflection actually meet .
-
f'
!
focus of Real
! !
concave →
!!
n
←-
-
I, convex → virtual
q :
.
. F-
>
¥
focal length →
Distance between
It pole and focus .
if in mirror @ my
) ff=RzT
←
°
Aperture : diameter of reflecting surface of spherical mirror .
RAY DIAGRAMS
¥ ns.gmagrpuaiuaiieitoprinuopaeaxissatterretk " "
!! ÷
will pass
through the principal focus in case
of a concave mirror or appear to diverge from the
÷
.
principal focus in case of a convene mirror

.
.
.
.
.
③
;¥÷÷ ÷
'
through principal focus of concave

passing
;÷
•
A a
ray .
.
mirror or a which is directed towards the ,

ray
.
.
principal focus of a corner mirror , after reflection

will emerge
parallel to principal axis .
"
.÷÷
'
"
2%89:sings:O: Kassitedeft # inattention. '
÷
.
: .
.
centre of curvature of a convex mirror , after
reflection , is reflected back along same path .
°
Theincident and reflected rays make ,
-1
equal angles with principal axis

It
i
.
. c
c Eri P
E E
p
,
1-
# IMAGE FORMATION BY CONCAVE MIRROR :

'
EM
# By convex mirror : .
ftp.go
↳ Here we consider
only two
positions of the object firstly, .
.
when object is at infinity and the

second
position is when
distance
, object is
at a finite from mirror .
Uses of convex Mirror :

o Rear view mirrors in vehicles
because they always give an erect
and have wider field of
image outward
view as theymirrorscurvedare
used as shops
°
Big convex
mirror : security mirrors

Uses of concave
.
-
↳ mirror torch , dentists ,

Shaving
in solar
, →
furnace
T.IS#tT9T72IT!
.
④
#
Sign -
convention : -
o Pole is origin .
°
Principal axis is a -
anis
Torigin
MIRROR FORMULA 9
n-an.is
*
•
÷ +
ut ft
-
-
T IT
[ with sign)
f- a- coordinate of focus
✓ n -
coordinate of image
✓ se -
coordinate of object
Magnification ( m ) : Gives
with
the relative extent to which the image of an
object
is
•
magnified respect to object size .
he hz -
height of Image
m=
Iu
-
ho ho -
height of Object
MII An
mirror
object
It
is placed at a distance of 12cm infront of a concave
.
forms image four times larger
a real than the object .
Calculate the distance of image from the mirror #E

→ units
.
④B
Trick : HTT -
obtect Image -
"
same same invested
-
"
RO RI
Is
? From
=p
( inverted m= ve →
-
. VO VI -
Invested i. •
vote
UT
m=I RO VI
Is Erect
I
.
R2
f ro -
zf gift at # (Trickett Mitt 3111471)
solution) ;
-
Givens .
v= -12cm ( as we know obtect is
always on left :O -
resign)
m
-
-
4 times [ but mtt sign ? ? ]
↳ 359 Uef Trick that # 41*1
object B
"
Sayyed
"
as →
.
: Ro .
4 given R I . .
&
object
'af8bF&¥
RO Real
invested
- -
R2 - Real
Image R O . .
412.2 . → same -
same !
.
Vidya and we know for inverted , m -e
⑤
Red pen part rough # that Pt is not
% m= -
y f. for boards , because
,
27 Teeth Tricked )
-4
as , m=
if To
Iu =
4¥54
µ=-48cm_
LII An object is placed at a distance of 8cm from a convex mirror
of focal length 12cm Find position of image . .
set: given g E +12cm8cm -
f- I ?
f- v at sign A #* iet
feat )
=
mirror formula
using , f- f- nth ro automatically
f- =
If HII,s¥qn,
÷¥= 's
f- =
# ¥ +
# E
f
-
-
÷
,
-
H48cm_ .
REFRACTION
in path of a
change light ray as it passes from one medium to another
medium is called Refraction of light .
,
'
p l
o
l l l
l
'
y
-
T denser rarer
T
' ' T -
fer) Tx denser Li >r)

,
>
-
µ -
rarer 8 -
:
- -
i .
. - i .
'
.
.
.
.
:
when light ray goes from denser when light rays goes from rarer to
to rarer medium it bends denser medium it bends towards the
, away
from normal .
normal .
Cause of Refraction ? → As we know speed of light is different

different media , in rarer medium and
in i.e .
more
comparatively
less in denser medium when enters a denser medium , its
. So
, light
speed reduces and it bends towards the normal and when it enters
rarer medium gits speed increases and it bends away from the normal . .
⑥
# Refraction through a
Rectangular Glass slab or
E- angle of incidence Rarer
of refraction T
F-
angle
e
angle of emergence
-
Denker
Angle Angle of emergence , LE Le
of incidence
° =
°
If the incident ray falls normally to the surface
of glass slab , then there is no bending of ray
of light ii. e it
goes straight ti
.
.
rarer
# LAWS OF REFRACTION :
'% The incident say , the refracted
ray and the normal to the interface of
two transparent media at the point of incidence, all lie in the same plane .
The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction

for light of given colour is constant for a given pair of media (Snell 's law) .
It is expressed as '
saying = At constant flu

→
refractive index)
# Refractive Index : The extent of direction that takes place

changeininterms
in
given pair of
a media is expressed of refractive index .
g. Nz represents refractive index of medium 2 with respect to medium Ig

when
light is going from medium L to medium 2 .
i. ME
HE =
ssipnni
° The refractive index of a medium with
, respect to vacuum is called
absolute refractive index of medium .
fight itt that Faf

for glam / water pair w Hg = AMI w 8.
.
Vac Kum ⑨
all w et II 's ]
°
It question is related to speed :
speed of light in race um lair
|M=f#
→ ,
-
speed of light in medium @ate)
,
for egg ang rglegouftgroffpigghntinnai.cn Ey aMw
I
- -
on
-
-
-
⑦
LE : calculate angle of incidence of light ray incident on surface of a
plastic slab of refractive index B g Tf angle of refraction is 30?
Sd : air
given,
.
Lr -
-
30
# glass , light is going from air to glass
,④
aMg=,Mu8_a= ginning
to
speed given ett af speed

" "
STA
sin att l t
" "
4TH formula 4TH
iz
-
zinnias
sin i = I
2
SPHERICAL LENS %lE=6O°#

↳ A material bound
transparent by two surfaces got which both surfaces are
spherical, forms a lens .
Thick at middle Thin at middle

th ⇐ He
←y
convey converging dens concave/ Diverging lens
k3④ Lens k¥4# ¥ ?

,
of spheres of Isis *at Sai BEI Htt
El ( Just an imagination for
.
a
.
a
questions easily)
solving
→
sphere
°
Centre of Curvature Cc) : A lens has two spherical surfaces Each surface
.
forms a part of a sphere The centre of these .

spheres are called centre
of curvature ( 34T Cs 4G ) for Zfs & 2 Fa)
.
°
Principal Axis : An
imaginary straight line passing through
lens is called its
the two
centres of curvature of a Axis principal .
°
Optical centre lo) : lens is called optical centre
Central point of a .
°
Aperture : Effective diameter of the circular outline of a spherical lens is
called its aperture .
°
Principal focus If ) : The point where the rays
parallel to principal axis after
⑧
refraction meet is called principal focus .

A lens has two principal foci .
o focal length If ) : The distance of principal focus from optical centre .
RAY DIAGRAMS
# Rules :
parallel to principal axis after
9
°
Rays which are ,
refraction will
>
pass through principal focus in

>
"
F
"
-
of lens and will appear to becoming

•
case convex F, o
;
r o
Iz
from principal focus in case of concave lens .
°
Ray passing through or directed to the focus i
>
will emerge parallel to principal axis
'
soft
'
o.ro
-
.
-
'
Es o
Fez
s
o
Ray directed to
optical centre will
emerge ,
>
out vndeviated .
.fr
F-L o Es TE
formation
byconrentens.gg
'
Image
'
#
object → at infinity
•
image →
At Fz
Fs a
Nature → Real , inverted & diminished
double
2 a
object →
Beyond zf,
between Fz and 2fz
→E
meeeanngmfs.tt
image
→
L s
nature -
real , inverted oldiminished
z a
object → At zf,
s s image →
At Zfz
size
nature -
Real gin rested 4 same as of object .
object Between hand 2A

→
image ? Beyond 2Ez

-
l l z
nature Realginrerted 4 magnified

→
.
⑨
Object - Atf
image at
infinity
' z
l z →
nature → Real , inverted 4 magnified .
object -
Between dens and Fs
image → On same side of lens as object
virtual , erect and
nature magnified
z -
i - .
# Image formation by concave lens 's .
Lens Formula
sign convention is same as that for mirrors .
f- f- =¥
-
Also In convex lens
,
and in concave
focal lengths ⑦ ve
- ore
T f y
( with sign)
hi height of image
-1
|m=hh÷=Y-
-
no -
height of object
#
-
fpg ⑨ tfk3BdensyTHt applicable if

-
# POWER of LENSLP) :
Ability
of
Ofa
the dens .
lens to
converge or
diverge light rays is called power
p=L_ fsfocallengthin metre

Flinn) SI unit ID) ( called Dioptre -
-
Lmg
of ⑦ re
"
converters → ④ re → →
Power
fogy concave lens - ① re - If → ore
1. To find the focal length of a concave mirror, Sita should choose which one of the
following :
(a) A mirror holder and screen holder
(b) A screen holder and a scale
(c) A mirror holder, a screen holder and a scale
(d) A screen, a mirror, holders for them and a scale [1M,2011]
2. By using a convex lens, a student obtained a sharp image of his classroom window
grill on a screen. In which direction should he move the lens to focus a distant tree
instead of the grill?
(a) Towards the screen
(b) Away from the screen
(c) Very far away from the screen
(d) Behind the screen [1M,2011, 2016, 2017]
3. Out of the five incident rays shown in the figure find the three rays which are
obeying the laws of refraction and may be used for locating the position of the image
formed by a convex lens: [1M,2013, 2014]
4. What is the range of wavelength of visible light? [1M, 2018]

a) 480 to 700 nanometers
b) 320 to 750 nanometers
c) 280 to 500 nanometers
d) 380 to 700 nanometers
5. The refractive indices of glass and water with respect to air are 3/2 and 4/3
respectively. If the speed of light in glass is 2 x 10^8 m/s, find the speed of light in water.
[2M,2016]
a)2.15X10^8 m/s
b) 2.25X10^9 m/s
c)2.25X10^8 m/s
d)1.25X10^8 m/s
6. What is the minimum number of rays required for locating the image formed by a
concave mirror for an object? [2M,2009]
a)1
b)2
c)3
d)4
Ans.
1d
2a
3b
4d
5c
6b
7. Draw the given diagram in your answer book and complete it for the path of ray of
light beyond the lens. [1M,2009]
Ans.
8. Explain why a ray of light passing through the centre of curvature of a concave mirror
gets reflected along the same path. [1M,2010]
Ans. A ray of light passing through the centre of curvature of a concave mirror falls
the mirror along the normal to the reflecting surface. Hence, it gets reflected along the
same path following the laws of reflection.
9. Why does a ray of light bend when it travels from one medium into another?
[1M,2009]
Ans. Light has different speeds in different media and it takes such a path of
propagation for which time taken is minimum.
5. What is the nature of the image formed by a concave mirror if the magnification
produced by the mirror is +3? [1 M,2010]
Ans 5. The nature of the image formed by a concave mirror if the magnification
produced by the mirror is +3 is virtual, erect and magnified.
10. A student obtained a sharp image of the grills of a window on a screen using a
concave mirror. His teacher remarked that for getting better results a well lit distance
object (preferably the Sun) should be focused on the screen. What should be done
for this purpose? [1M,2012, 2013]
Ans. The screen is moved away from the mirror so as to focus the object for a fixed position
of the mirror and the object.
11. An object is placed at a distance of 15 cm from a concave lens of focal length 30

cm. List four characteristics (nature, position, etc.) of the image formed by the lens.
[1M,2017]
Ans. Given,
u =-15 cm (It is to the left of the lens)
f =-30 cm (It is a concave lens)
Using the lens formula
1/f = 1/v-1/u
v = -10cm
The negative sign of the image distance shows that the image is formed
on the left side of the concave mirror. Thus, the image formed by a mirror
is virtual, erect and on the same side as the object.
12. Write two different uses of concave mirrors. [1M,2017]

Ans. Concave mirrors are used in reflecting telescopes. They are also used to provide a
magnified image of the face for applying make-up or shaving.
13. What makes things visible? [1M]

Ans. Objects are visible due to reflection. Light gets reflected from the object and
makes it visible.
14. If the image formed by a spherical mirror for all positions of the object placed in front
of it is always erect and diminished, what type of mirror is it? Draw a labelled ray
diagram to support your answer [2M,2018]
Ans.
15. List four precautions which a student should observe while determining the focal
length of a given convex lens by obtaining an image of a distant object on a screen.
[2M,2019]
Ans. (i) The lens should be held in vertical position with its face parallel to the screen.
(ii) A clear and sharpest image of the distant object should be obtained by suitably adjusting
the position of the lens.
(iii) At least three observations should be taken.
(iv) Measure the distance between the convex lens and the screen carefully.
16. List four properties of the image formed by a concave mirror when an object is placed
between the focus and pole of the mirror. [2M,2012]
Ans. When an object is placed between the focus and the pole of a concave mirror, the
image formed is
(i) Virtual
(ii) Enlarged
(ii) Behind the mirror
(iv) Erect
17. A ray of light travelling in air enters obliquely into water. Does the light ray bend
towards the normal or away from the normal. Why? [2M]
Ans. The ray of light bends towards the normal. When a ray of light enters from an
optically rarer medium (having low refractive index) to an optically denser medium
(having high refractive index), its speed slows down and it bends towards the
normal. Since water is optically denser than air, a ray of light entering from air into water
will bend towards the normal.
18. Differentiate a real image from a virtual image giving two points of difference. [2M]
Ans.
Real Image Virtual Image
Either reflection or refraction of light is The image is obtained when the light from
responsible for obtaining the real image. an object strikes the particular point.
To obtain a real image on the screen, the The image is not obtained on the screen as
rays of light must intersect with each other. the rays of lights do not intersect as they
are imaginary.
19. Name the type of mirror used in the design of solar furnaces. Explain how high
temperature is achieved by this device. [2M,2016]
Ans. (i) Concave mirror/ converging mirrors
(ii) When a solar furnace is placed at the focus of a large concave mirror/reflector, it focuses
a parallel beam of light on the furnace, consequently a high temperature is achieved after
some time.
20. State the laws of refraction of light. Explain the term 'absolute refractive of a
medium' and write an expression to relate it with the speed of light in vacuum.
[3M,2018]
Ans. Laws of Refraction of light: Refraction of light follows the following two laws :
First Law : The incident ray, the normal to the transparent surface at the
point of incidence and the refracted ray, all lie in one and the same plane.
Second Law : The ratio of sine of the incidence angle to the sine of the
refracted angle of the medium is called refractive index. It is denoted by N.
i.e., sini/sinr = n
Refractive index of the second medium with respect to the first medium is denoted by 2n1 .
Thus, eq. (i) can be written as
2n1 = sini/sinr
This law is called Snell's law as it was stated by Prof. Willebrord Snell (Dutch
mathematician and astronomer).
Absolute Refractive index : Absolute refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of
the speed of light in vacuum or air to the speed of light in the medium. It is denoted by n.
Then,
It has no unit.
21. The image formed by a spherical mirror is real, inverted and is of magnification -2. If
the image is at a distance of 30 cm from the mirror, where is the object placed? Find
the focal length of the mirror. List two characteristics of the image formed if moved 10
cm towards the mirror
[3M,2016]
Ans.Given: Magnification, m =-2
Distance of the image, v =-30 cm
Magnification, m= -v/u
u = -v/m = -(-30)/(-20)
Therefore, u =-15 cm
Substituting these values in the mirror formula
1/f = 1/v + 1/u = 1/(-30) - 1/(-15)
1/f = -1/10
Therefore, f = -10 cm
When the object is moved 10 cm towards the mirror the new position of the object is
u' =-(15-10) = 5 cm
Substituting the new value in the mirror formula
1/f = 1/v + 1/u
1/v’ = 1/f - 1/u = 1/10 - 1/(-5)
1/v’ = 1/10
Therefore, v' = 10 cm
Thus, the image is located 10 cm behind the mirror.
m’ = v’/u’ = -10/(-5)
And magnification,
m' = 2
Since magnification is positive the image is erect and virtual.
Thus, the image is erect, virtual and magnified in nature.
22. An object of height 5 cm is placed perpendicular to the principal axis of a concave

lens of focal length 10 cm. f the distance of the object from the optical centre of the
lens is 20 cm, determine the position, nature and size of the image formed using the
lens formula. [3M,2015]
Ans. Height of the object is h = 5 cm
Focal length of concave lens is f =-10 cm
Object distance is u =-20 cm
From lens formula, we have
1/f=1/v-1/u
1/v = 1/f + 1/u = 1/(-10) + 1/(-20)
1/v = 1/(-10) - 1/20 = -3/20
v = -20/3
Hence, the image is situated at a distance -20/3 cm from the lens on the same side as the
object. So, the image is virtual.
Magnification produced by a lens is
m = h’/h = v/u
h’ = (v/u)h = [-20/(3x(-20))]5 = 5/3 = 1.67 cm
Hence, the image is virtual and erect.
23. List the sign conventions for reflection of light by spherical mirrors. Draw a diagram
and apply these conventions in the determination of focal length of a spherical
mirror which forms a three times magnified real image of an object placed 16 cm in
front of it. [5M,2012]
Ans. Sign conventions of spherical mirror :
(i) Object is always placed to the left of the mirror.
(if) All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror.
(iii) Distances measured in the direction of the incident ray are positive
and the distances measured in the direction opposite to that of the
incident ray are negative.
(iv) Distances measured along the-axis (upwards) above the principal
axis are positive and that measured along the-axis (downwards)
below the principal axis are negative.
Given that: u =-16cm and m = 3

We know that magnification for a spherical
Mirror, m= -(v/u) = h2/h1
i.e., -(v/u)= 3
v= -3u
Using mirror formula:

1/f = 1/u + 1/v
1/f = 1/(-16)+ 1/(-3x-16)
1/f = 48/(-4)
f= -12 cm
Negative sign of focal length implies that the focal length is being measured against the
direction of incident light and it is a concave mirror.
24. What is meant by power of a lens? Define its SI unit. You have two lenses A and B
of focal lengths +10 cm and-10 cm, respectively. State the nature and power of
each lens. Which of the two lenses will form a virtual and magnified image of an
object placed 8 cm from the lens? Draw a ray diagram to justify your answer.
[5M,2015, 2018]
Ans 30. The power of a lens is defined as the reciprocal of its focal length. It iS
represented by the letter p.
The power p of a lens of focal length f is given as
p=1/f
The SI unit of power is dioptre (D).
Given:
Focal length of lens A, FA = +10 cm = +0.1 m
Focal length of lens B, FB =-10 cm =-0.1 m
To calculate the power of lens A:
The power of lens A,
p = 1/fA
p= 1/0.1
p = +10 D
The positive sign indicates that it is a converging or convex lens.
To calculate the power of lens B :
The power of lens B,
p=1/fB
p=1/(-0.1)
p= -10D
The negative sign indicates that it is a diverging or concave lens.
In a convex lens, when the object is placed between the pole and focus, the image
formed is always virtual and magnified.
On the other hand, a concave lens produces a virtual, erect but diminished image. Here
the object iS placed 8 cm from the lens which is at a distance less than the focal length,
i.e. less than 10 cm. Thus, the 8 cm position of the object placed in front of the convex
lens will produce a virtual and magnified image. The diagram for the same is as shown
below :
SHOBHIT NIRWAN's
DESIGNED
HUMAN EYE AND

THE COLOURFUL
WORLD

NCERT Activities
Flowchart
Prism [CBSE 2012,2017]
A transparent refracting medium bounded by at least two lateral surfaces inclined to
each other at a certain angle.
Dispersion Of White Light By A Glass Prism: [CBSE 2017] The phenomenon of
splitting of white light into its constituent colours when it passes through a prism is
called dispersion. This band of seven colours so obtained the VIBGYOR(violet, indigo,
blue, green, yellow, orange, red) is called a spectrum.
Why Dispersion Occurs?

Light rays of different colours travel with the
same speed in vacuum and in air but in any
other medium they travel with different speed
and bend through different angles which leads
to dispersion of lights.
Recombination Of White Light: [CBSE 2016,2017,2020] Reverse of dispersion is
also possible. Seven coloured light of the spectrum can be recombined to give back
white light by passing two prism one by upside down.

Rainbow: A natural spectrum produced by the dispersion of sunlight by raindrops in
the atmosphere.
Water droplets acts as a small prisms
Water droplets refract and disperse the incident sunlight then refract internally
and finally refract it again when it comes out of the raindrop.
Atmospheric Refraction
When refraction takes place between two mediums and if one of the medium is
earths atmospheric then the process is known as atmospheric refraction.
Effects of Atmospheric Refraction:

Twinkling of stars: [CBSE 2016,2018] The twinkling of stars is due the atmospheric
refraction of starlight, the starlight on entering the earth’s atmosphere undergoes
refraction continuously before it reaches the earth. In this way the starlight reaching
our eyes increases and decreases continuously and the stars appear to twinkle at
night.
Stars seem higher than they actually appear: [CBSE 2017] As the light from a star
enters the earth's atmosphere it undergoes refraction and bends towards the normal
each time due to the atmospheric refraction. Therefore, the apparent position of the
star is slightly different from its actual position. The star appears to be slightly higher
than its actual position when viewed near the horizon.

Planets do not Twinkle: The planets are much closer to the earth and are
considered a collection of a large number of sized sources of light, the total amount
of light entering from all the individual point sized sources will average out to zero
thereby nullifying the twinkling effect.
Advance sunrise and Delayed sunset: [CBSE 2014,2016] The sun is visible to us
two minutes before the actual sunrise and about two minutes after the actual sunset.
This is due to the atmospheric refraction.
Scattering of light
The reflection of light from an object in all directions is called scattering of light. It
depends on type of particle
Very fine particles scatter mainly in blue colour.
Large sized particle scatter light of longer wavelength
Shorter wavelength greater will be the scattering
Effects Of Scattering Of Light

Tyndall Effect The earth's atmosphere is a heterogeneous mixture of minute particles
of smoke , tiny water droplets, dust of air which becomes visible due to scattering of
light.
Colour of Sky is blue: [CBSE 2012,2015] The molecules of air and other fine
particles in the atmosphere have smaller size and are more effective in scattering
light of shorter wavelength at the blue end than light of longer wavelengths at the
end. Thus when sunlight passes through the atmosphere the tiny particles in air
scatter the blue colour more strongly than red. The scattered blue light enters our
eyes which makes the colour of sky blue.

If earth had no atmosphere then there would not have been any scattering then
the sky would have looked dark. The sky appears dark to the passengers flying at
very high altitudes.
Danger signal lights are RED in colour as the red is least scattered by fog or
smoke therefore it can be seen in the same colour from a particular distance.
Colour of Sun at Sunrise and Sunset: [CBSE 2013] Light from the sun near the
horizon passes through thicker layers of air and layer distances in the earth's
atmosphere before reaching our eyes.
Near the horizon, most of the blue light and shorter wavelengths are scattered away
by the particles. Therefore, the light that reaches our eyes is of longer wavelengths .
This gives rise to reddish appearance of sun.

Both A and R is true but R is not correct explanation for A
Ans A
Ans B
Ans D
Ans C

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SHOBHIT NIRWAN's

Including PYQs in MCQ Format

chemical identity and property.

A chemical equation is the symbolic representation of a chemical reaction. Symbols

In words- Hydrogen + Oxygen ----> Water; called Word Equation.

Balanced Chemical Equation:

law of conservation of mass('mass can neither be created nor be destroyed during a

Lallu Problem (L.P.) : Balance: Fe + H2O ⟶ Fe3O4 + H2

Step 2: First of all, to balance oxygen atoms we multiply H2O molecules by 4.

Step 5: Balancing Fe by multiplying by 3 on LHS

Hence the equation is balanced!

Kuch Kaam Ki Baat (K3B) :

Chalo Ab Ise AASAN BHASHA MEI Samajhte hai :

Take about 2 cm long magnesium ribbon .

Clean it with sand paper.

The Magnesium Ribbon starts burning.

BUT IT'S NOT BURNING ALONE.

It starts burning with a WHITE DAZZLING FLAME .

Q: Why Magnesium ribbon is cleaned before burning in the air ?

Q: Why the magnesium ribbon should be burned by keeping it as far as

it as far as possible from the eyes.

Endothermic Reactions: Reactions in which energy is absorbed.

or CaCo3 ⟶ CaO + CO2 ( Heat symbol)

- Photosynthesis is also endothermic reaction.

of products eg: CaO + H2O ⟶ Ca(OH)2 + Heat

Kuch Kaam Ki Baat (K3B) :

asked in the question.

Chalo Ab Ise AASAN BHASHA MEI Samajhte hai :

(i) Take some lead nitrate solution in a test-tube (or a

(ii) Add potassium iodide solution to it.

(iii) A yellow precipitate of lead iodide is formed at once.

(iv) A change in colour (from colourless to yellow) also

takes place in this chemical reaction.

Question from SQP 2021 issued by CBSE:

Chalo Ab Ise AASAN BHASHA MEI Samajhte hai :

(Take some Zinc Granules in a Conical Flask

Now on Adding the Sulphuric Acid you will See a Magic.

when passed through soap solution (As shown below diagram)

the Chemical Reactions.

eg:- 1. Quick Lime reacts with water to form slaked lime.

CaO(s) + H2O(l) ⟶ Ca(OH)2 (aq) + Heat (exothermic)

(quick lime) (slaked lime)

Kuch Kaam Ki Baat (K3B) :

CaOH(aq) + CO2(g) ⟶ CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)

eg:- 2. Formation of water from hydrogen gas & oxygen gas:

2H2(g) + O2(g) ⟶ 2H2O(l)

eg:- 3.Burning of coal;

C(s) + O2(g) ⟶ CO2(g)

products ( basically opposite of a combination reaction). Decomposition reactions

(i) Thermal Decomposition :

a. Calcium carbonate on heating decomposes to give calcium oxide in and carbon

CaCO3(s) ⟶ CaO(s) + CO2(g)

NOTE:- CALCIUM OXIDE IS USED FOR MANUFACTURING OF CEMENT

of crystallization and forms dehydrated FeSO4 which on decomposition gives ferric

and SO3 are gases.

2FeSO4 (s) ⟶ Fe2O3(s) + SO2 (g) + SO3 (g)

actually ferrous sulphate heptahydrate, FeSO4.7H2O. They contain 7 molecules

coloured ferrous sulphate heptahydrate crystals (FeSO4.7H2O) are heated, they

first lose 7 molecules of water of crystallisation to form anhydrous ferrous

crystallisation just to keep the equation simple.