Volume 2 Section 2 Chapter 4

Part 9 BD 78/99 Geometric Design

4. GEOMETRIC DESIGN

General low traffic demands, the composition and speed of the

traffic flow, construction costs, and the economic and
4.1 This Chapter describes the requirements for the safety benefits that ensue. Drivers shall be aware of their
geometric design of carriageways within road tunnels approaching a tunnel and of any need to adjust their
and the provisions to be made for traffic space in driving style accordingly.
relation to the structure and form of tunnel that has been
chosen following the engineering appraisal of scheme Junctions in Tunnels
options. The requirements provide the adjustments that
are to be made to the Standards used for the design of 4.4 The safe provision of junctions within, and in
carriageways on open roads. These adjustments make close proximity to, tunnels is made difficult by limited
allowances for the special demands and conditions of sight lines, limited space for advance warning and
approaching and driving through tunnels. direction signs and the high constructional cost of
producing variations to a tunnel cross-section. The
4.2 Geometric design and traffic space requirements increased accident risk at junctions is undesirable in a
are presented from the standpoint of providing safe tunnel because of the restricted access for the attendance
passage, under free flow conditions, for the type of of the emergency services. The provision of junctions in
traffic that is permitted to use the tunnel. Basic layout tunnels should be avoided and alternatives determined.
and tunnel geometry, however, shall also be related to
other aspects concerning the design and operation of a
tunnel. This may affect tunnel geometry or require Geometrical Standards
additional space beyond that needed to enclose specified
carriageway widths and traffic clearances eg 4.5 Geometrical design standards are influenced by
requirements for: the special features of tunnels which distinguish them
from open road conditions. Departures from Standards
i. Ventilation (length and gradients) that would normally be adopted for comparable sections
of open road could be considered by the Technical
ii. Traffic movements (maintenance, emergencies) Approval Authority of the Overseeing Organisation,
bearing in mind that tunnels are special sections of road
iii. Portals (provision for parking/turning emergency requiring high investment for their construction,
vehicles) operation and maintenance.

iv. Operational Safety (verge widths, lay-bys and 4.6 The nature and extent of any modifications to the
long tunnels) criteria that are used for open roads, particularly
Standards TD9 (DMRB 6.1.1), TD20 (DMRB 5.1) and
v. Traffic escort (marshalling facilities in portal the Traffic Appraisal Manual (DMRB 12.1), will vary
areas) according to the circumstances at each tunnel and a
detailed consideration of the following:
vi. Adjacent road network (disruption or queues due
to tunnel closures, etc). i. Traffic composition and design flows
For further information, reference should be made to ii. Design speed
relevant sections of this document.
iii. Sight distances and the relations between
4.3 The geometric planning and design of tunnels is alternative tunnel cross-sections and minimum
an iterative process. Initial plans shall be based on the horizontal radii
design criteria and hourly traffic flows for comparable
sections and classes of open road. Consideration shall iv. Scope for tunnel widening at curves
then be given to the physical characteristics of the tunnel
profile and cross section, the design of the approach v. Basis of tunnel operation (one way, two way,
roads, and the proximity of the tunnel portals to any contra flow)
surface junctions. Account shall be taken of high and

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Chapter 4 Volume 2 Section 2
Geometric Design Part 9 BD 78/99

vi. Tunnel cross section 4.13 A reduction of one design speed step (10mph)
may be used for determining SSD on approach and
vii. Approach road geometry and traffic threshold zones where drivers are alerted by signing for
measurements (lane merge, diverge, climbing a tunnel ahead. Inside the tunnel, away from the portals,
lane, proximity of junctions) the road surface can be expected to retain a higher skid
resistance and a further one design speed step Relaxation
viii. Any other aspects peculiar to a particular tunnel. may be applied. The resultant minimum SSDs are given
in Table 4.3.
Tunnel Traffic
4.14 Such Relaxations shall only be used over the
4.7 Confirmation of carriageway width and adoption of desirable standards to TD9 (DMRB
number of lanes shall be based on the maximum 6.1.1) where they are warranted by benefits, and shall
hourly design flow rates set out in Table 4.1 and not be used in combinations with any other layout
correction factors of Table 4.2. Cut and cover tunnels Relaxations or Departures.
shall be designed for the flow rates set out in TD20
4.15 SSD and Full Overtaking Sight Distance (FOSD)
(DMRB 5.1).
shall be verified in both vertical and horizontal planes, at
4.8 The figures in Table 4.1 shall be corrected for the centre of the inside lane on curves, as described in
the tunnel gradients and percentage of HGVs. TD9 (DMRB 6.1.1).
Correction factors are set out in Table 4.2 and apply
4.16 Overtaking in a road tunnel, involving access
to bored/driven tunnels and immersed tube tunnels,
to the lanes open to traffic travelling in the opposite
but not to cut and cover tunnels. The gradient shall
direction shall not be permitted.
be based on the average of a 0.5 km section.
Horizontal Curvature
Design Speed, Stopping Sight Distances (SSD) and
Overtaking
4.17 On tight curves on open roads, the required SSD
can be achieved by widening verges etc to provide the
4.9 Additional definitions are required for road
necessary sight lines. As this is impractical in most
tunnels:
tunnels, the degree of horizontal curvature attainable
i. Approach Zone: The length of approach road will be restricted by the need to achieve the minimum
from the portal equal to 1.5 times the open road SSD.
SSD.
4.18 For many situations, TD9 (DMRB 6.1.1) permits
ii. Threshold Zone: The length of tunnel, measured relaxations below the desirable minimum horizontal
from the portal, which an obstruction shall be radius of between 2 and 4 design speed steps, depending
clearly visible, so that a driver approaching a on the type of road. Table 4.4 compares these minimum
tunnel, having passed the last point at which he horizontal radii with those required to achieve the
or she could stop before the portal, will be able to minimum SSD for a tunnel of typical cross-section. It
avoid the obstruction. can be seen that in most instances it is the SSD
requirement which limits the horizontal curvature,
4.10 The tunnel design speed shall be the same as especially for all purpose roads where more relaxation
the approach road design speed. steps are permitted.

4.11 Table 4.3 shows the recommended relationship 4.19 It is important to check the SSD for each
between the speed limit, the design speed and stopping horizontal curve, as it depends on the length of the curve
sight distances (SSD) and Table 4.4 between the design as well as its radius and the tunnel cross-section.
speed and the horizontal curvature, based upon TD9
(DMRB 6.1.1) alignment standards. Vertical Alignment

4.12 Stopping sight distance (SSD) is determined from 4.20 Crest Curves: At crests, visibility may be
the design speed, the driver’s reaction time and the obstructed by the intervening road. TD9 (DMRB 6.1.1)
average deceleration rate to stop. The desirable SSD is gives details of crest curve and visibility requirements.
based on a 2 second reaction time and 0.25g deceleration
and is shown in Table 4.3.

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Volume 2 Section 2 Chapter 4
Part 9 BD 78/99 Geometric Design

4.21 Sag Curves: To accommodate long full height vehicular traffic ie maintained headroom etc) plus, for
vehicles, TD27 (DMRB 6.1.2) requires additional vertical clearance, an additional allowance of 250mm.
headroom clearance for sag radii of 6000m, or less. SSD This additional clearance gives some protection to
and FOSD shall be checked for a driver’s eye height of “soft” equipment, such as luminaires, from high
2.0 m. If the minimum values are not achieved either the vehicles carrying compressible loads that have passed
tunnel headroom should be increased (which will not under the portal soffit, loose ropes, flapping
normally be economical, particularly in a bored tunnel), tarpaulins etc. Clearances shall be carefully related to
or, if practical, the speed limit reduced. Visibility on sag carriageway and side verge widths and to the
curves will not normally be a problem with full height structure gauge ie the minimum “as-built” structural
tunnels. profile that the tunnel must achieve. [Dimensional
tolerances of bored, cut and cover and immersed tube
4.22 Gradients: For tunnels the penalties of steep tunnels are strongly influenced by the construction
gradients are more severe than on open roads and will process].
include higher ventilation costs, due to increased vehicle
emissions. Also traffic speeds may be reduced 4.26 Additional clearances to avoid damage to
unacceptably with large proportions of HGVs. Trunk electrical, mechanical and communications
road tunnels with gradients exceeding 6% are unlikely to operational equipment shall be provided as follows:
be practical. A climbing lane is not normally a practical
provision within a tunnel. In a steeply graded bi- i. 600mm horizontally from edge of kerb
directional tunnel, for example, a climbing lane might be
provided by a 3 lane carriageway, two lanes up and one ii. Other dimensions as given in Figures 4.1 and
down. Where adequate alternative routes can be 4.2.
provided, it may be advantageous to prohibit heavy
vehicles from steeply graded tunnels. Any proposed Width
departure in a tunnel from the open road desirable
maximum gradient shall be subject to a cost-benefit 4.27 Traffic lane widths in tunnels shall be in
study. accordance with TD27 (DMRB 6.1.2). These clauses
do not apply to limited facility tunnels, see Chapter 1.
4.23 Superelevation: To provide comfortable levels of
lateral acceleration, it is desirable to provide 4.28 The need for provision of carriageway hard strips
superelevation for certain levels of horizontal curvature. within a road tunnel shall be subject to a cost benefit
The standards for superelevation are set out in TD9 study undertaken by the Design Organisation and
(DMRB 6.1.1). However, the provision of considered for approval by the Technical Approval
superelevation may have an adverse effect on the tunnel Authority of the Overseeing Organisation.
cross section and on the provision of service ducts under
the road. The full recommended levels of superelevation
Height and Asphalt Types
provide only small compensation for lateral acceleration
and, where necessary, may be relaxed to the minimum
crossfall needed for occasional drainage requirements. 4.29 The maintained headroom, in Figures 4.1 and
4.2, shall be based on the same requirements of TD27
4.24 Crossfalls: On the open road, where the (DMRB 6.1.2): Chapter 5, as for over-bridges on
superelevation is not greater, a crossfall of 2.5% (1 in open roads, and may need to be compensated for on
40) is used to provide stormwater drainage of the road sag curves. Further guidance is contained in BD65
surface. For tunnels, the need to drain the road surface (DMRB 2.2.5): Design Criteria For Collision
arises from routine wall washing, flushing away Protection Beams. The maintained headroom does
accidental spillage and any seepage. It is recommended not include any allowance for pavement overlays for
that the normal cross-fall of 2.5% is provided which appropriate (and minimal) adjustments to
throughout the tunnel. headroom shall be made. The Overseeing
Organisation will confirm whether the tunnel is to
Clearances for Traffic form part of a High Load Route. This clause does not
apply to limited facility tunnels, see Chapter 1.
4.25 All equipment in a road tunnel shall be placed 4.30 The life of asphalts within tunnels can be longer
outside of the equipment gauge. The equipment gauge than on the more exposed open roads. The planned use
for a road tunnel is determined by the traffic gauge of micro-surfacing (coarse graded slurry seals) or thin
(the theoretical clearance envelope required for wearing course surfacing should be considered to reduce

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Geometric Design Part 9 BD 78/99

whole life costs of surfacings and the disruption, dust Safety Fences
and fumes of planing out and relaying operations within
tunnels. Porous asphalts are unsuitable as they may 4.34 Provided that the lower 1.2m of tunnel side walls
retain flammable or toxic spillages arising from an are smooth and continuous (to avoid “snagging” during
incident. vehicle impact) and are structurally resistant to impact
from vehicles, then the walls shall be considered to
Side Verges provide the same function as vertical concrete safety
barriers, as used on the open road, and the provision of
4.31 Pedestrians are prohibited from using trunk road additional safety fencing is neither desirable nor
tunnels. However, verges need to be provided as necessary. At emergency cross passage doorways and
walkways for road users during emergencies and for open recesses, the exposed, upstream vertical lower edge
tunnel maintenance and operating personnel. Verges of the doorway or recess shall be chamfered
provide a convenient location for drains, fire mains, horizontally, over a height of 1.2m, at an angle of 1 in
fireproof cable ducts etc, free from the regular pounding 12 to the traffic direction. The horizontal depth of
of heavy vehicles. chamfer, at the leading edge, shall be 30mm. On
balance, it is also not considered desirable to provide
4.32 Verge widths will often be determined by the pedestrian safety barriers opposite the exits from
extent of provision for services beneath or the need for emergency cross passages. Such barriers may hinder the
driver visibility. A 250mm width is needed to prevent vital work of the rescue services during an emergency
vehicles from contacting the sides of a tunnel. The within a congested tunnel. Cross passage doors are
minimum verge width shall be 1.0m. The maintained provided with glazing to ensure awareness of oncoming
headroom need be provided over only the first 0.6m of traffic within the bore exited to, as well as establishing
the verge as shown in Figures 4.1, 4.2 and Table 4.5. A the presence of any smoke from a fire.
kerb height of 0 to 75mm facilitates the opening of car
doors, on the nearside, so that occupants are not forced
to exit into the offside fast moving traffic. A low kerb is
easier to mount, particularly by those who are disabled
or injured. It is also easy for a vehicle to mount to allow
stopping out of the traffic stream, especially if a half
battered profile is used. The verge is to be designed to
take the weight of a fully laden HGV. For rectangular
cross section tunnels, if drainage aspects for all
circumstances permit, then the need for any raised kerb
should be considered. Drainage shall not pond against
the tunnel wall structure to cause structural corrosion.
For tunnels of a circular cross-section, the provision of a
low level kerb is necessary to guide vehicles away from
areas of low headroom. Particularly for multi-lane
circular tunnels, care is needed to avoid unnecessarily
increasing the cross section and consequent construction
costs.

4.33 In the exceptional circumstance of a need of

provision for pedestrian use of a road tunnel, then
consideration should be given to a separate bore for the
pedestrians. If this is not possible, a guarded walkway at
least 1000mm wide shall be raised 500mm or more
above the road surface to protect the pedestrians from
traffic. A partition from the main tunnel with separate
ventilation for the walkway, should also be considered.
When a raised walkway is used, it is desirable to
maintain the provision of a low-level verge for
emergency use by vehicle occupants and to improve
sight-lines on bends.

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Part 9 BD 78/99 Geometric Design

Tunnel Flow/Type Cut and Cover Bored Tunnels Immersed Tubes

Uni-directional v/hr/lane TD20 (DMRB 5.1) 2000 2000

Bi-directional v/hr/lane TD20 (DMRB 5.1) 1800 1800

Note: Over or underestimation of traffic capacities can lead to severe economic penalties especially for major
tunnels. Special scheme specific studies may be beneficial. Refer to PIARC Technical Committee on Road Tunnels
report XVII World Roads Congress, Sydney 1983.

Table 4.1 Maximum Hourly Design Flows

% HGVs Gradient

< 2% > 2% < 4%

5 - -15

10 -5 -20

15 -10 -25

20 -15 -30

Table 4.2 Percentage Correction Factors

Speed Limit mile/h 70 60 50 40 30

Design Speed km/h 120 100 85 70 60

Desirable SSD m 295 215 160 120 90

One Step Relaxation m 215 160 120 90 70

Two step Relaxation m 160 120 90 70 50

Table 4.3 Design Speed, Stopping Site Distances

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Design Speed km/h 120 100 85 70 60

Super- Radius (m)

elevation *

Desirable minimum 5% 1020 720 510 360 255

for open road from
TD9 (DMRB 6.1.1):
Table 3

Typical SSD Determined

Minimum Horizontal
Radii for 2 or 3 lane
one-way tunnels with
3.65m lane width, 1.0m
hard strips and 1.0m
verges on both sides

Desirable Minimum 5% 2850 1510 840 470 265

One Step Relaxation 7% 1510 840 470 265 160

Two Step Relaxation 7% 840 470 265 160 80

* Superelevation in tunnels may be relaxed as stated in text.

Table 4.4 Horizontal Curvature in Tunnels to Provide SSD Standards

Dimension Description Box Profile Arch Profile

A Walkway headroom 2300mm 2300mm

B Width of verge with full headroom 600mm 600mm

C Width of verge 1000mm 1000mm

Table 4.5 Minimum Dimensions (See Figures 4.1 and 4.2)

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Part 9 BD 78/99 Geometric Design

Additional Clearance

B
Maintained C
Headroom

C A

Figure 4.1 Example Box Profile

Additional clearance

Equipment

Maintained
Headroom

A A

C C
B B

Figure 4.2 Example Arch Profile

G r a p h ic S e r v ic e s 9 8 0 9 8 3 .D S F

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