L.D.

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT

EXPERIMENT NO.
KIRCHHOFF’S LAW
AIM: To verify the Kirchhoff’s law for the given network

APPARATUS:
Sr. Name of Apparatus Range Quantity
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6

THEORY:
Kirchhoff’s laws Kirchhoff’s laws are particularly useful (a) in determining the equivalent resistance of a
complicated network and (b) for calculating the currents flowing in the various conductors.
 KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW :
It states that “the algebraic sum of products of currents and resistances in each of the conductors in any closed
path in a network plus the algebraic sum of the e.m.fs in that path is zero”. In other words,
∑IR + ∑e.m.f. = 0
It should be noted that algebraic sum is the sum which takes into account the polarities of the voltage drops.
Following sign convention is suggested :
SIGN CONVENTIONS :
a) battery e.m.f.: A rise in voltage should be given a + ve sign and a fall in voltage a –ve sign. Keeping this
in mind, it is clear that as we move from negative terminal of source to positive terminal, there is a rise in
potential, hence this voltage should be given a +ve sign. If, on the other hand, we move from +ve terminal
to –v terminal of voltage source, then there is a fall in potential, hence it is to be considered as –ve.

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b) Sign of IR Drop: - Whenever we move in the direction of current there is a drop in voltage, Since the
current always flows from point at higher potential to the point at lower potential. Hence Voltage drop in
the current direction is taken as –ve. However, if we go in a direction opposite to that of the current, then
there is a rise in voltage.

 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW (KCL) :

It states that “in any electrical network, algebraic sum of the currents meeting a point is zero”. In another
way, it simply means that the total current leaving a unction is equal to the total current entering that
junction. It is obviously true because there is no accumulation or depletion of current at any junction of the
network. Consider the case of a few conductors meeting at a node as in fig.

Some conductors have currents leading to node whereas some have currents leading away from node.
Assuming the incoming currents to be positive and the outgoing currents negative, applying KCL at node
we have,
I1 + I2 -I3 -I4 = 0 OR I1 + I2 = I3 + I4
PROCEDURE:
i. Connect the circuit as per circuit diag.
ii. Switch on the DC voltage supply, Adjust the voltage to any suitable value
iii. Change the position of rheostats check that none of the ammeter reads excessive current.
iv. Take the reading of all the ammeters. And Measure the voltages across all the rheostats.
v. Changed the voltage of power supply and repeat step (iv) and (v). and verify laws.

CONCLUSION:

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EXPERIMENT NO:
SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
AIM: To verify the superposition theorem in the given network.

APPARATUS:
Sr. Name of Apparatus Range Quantity
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6

THEORY:
The superposition theorem states that in any linear network containing two or more sources, the response in
any element is equal to the algebraic sum of the responses caused by individual sources acting alone, while
the other sources are non-operative; that is, while considering the effect of individual sources, other ideal
voltage sources and ideal current sources in the network are replaced by short circuit and open circuit across
their terminals.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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PROCEDURE:
Connection are made as per the circuit diagram shown in figure given above.
1. Vary the supply voltage VS1 & VS2 and take the corresponding reading I from the ammeter.
2. Now VS2 is short circuited. Vary VS1 & take the corresponding reading I1 from the ammeter as
shown in figure .2

3. . Now VS1 is short circuited. Vary VS2 & take the corresponding reading I2 from the ammeter as
shown in figure .3

Finally Verify whether I = I1 + I2

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OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION:

CONCLUSION:

LAB ASSIGNMENT:
Calculate the current in 200Ω branch by using superposition theorem at 30 V and 20 V.

ANSWERS SPACE:

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EXPERIMENT:
Thevenin’s Theorem.
AIM: To verify Thevenin’s Theorem for given network.
APPARATUS :
SR.NO Name Of Appartus Range Quantity
1
2
3
4
5
6

THEORY:
Thevenin’s theorem states that any network containing active and/or passive element and one or more
dependent and/or independent voltage/or current sources and be replaced by an equivalent network
containing a voltage source (Vth or Voc) and a series resistance (called Thevenin’s equivalent resistance
Rth).
Figure given above illustrates concept of thevenin’s theorem.
Figure shows that given network is replaced by thevenins equivalent which contains a voltage source Voc
or Vth and a thevenins equivalent resistance RTH.
Voc orVth:
This voltage is called open circuit voltage .It is the voltage between open circuited load terminals.

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So Voc=Vth=VAB with RL open circuited.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per fig (1)

2. Adjust the output voltage of the regulated power supply to an appropriate value (Say 30V).
3. Note down the response (current, IL) through the branch of interest i.e. AB (ammeter reading).
4. Reduce the output voltage of the regulated power supply to 0V and switch-off the supply.
5. Disconnect the circuit and connect as per the fig (2).

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6. Adjust the output voltage of the regulated power supply to 30V.

7. Note down the voltage across the load terminals AB (Voltmeter reading) that gives Vth.
8. Reduce the output voltage of the regulated power supply to 0V and switch-off the supply.

.
9. Disconnect the circuit and connect as per the fig (3).

10. Adjust the output voltage of the regulated power supply to an appropriate value (Say V = 30V).
11. Note down the current (I) supplied by the source (ammeter reading).
12. The ratio of V and I gives the Rth.

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION TABLE:

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CONCLUSION:

LAB ASSIGNMENT: For Given Circuit Find Out Current From 1kilo Ohm Using Thevenin Theorem.
Consider RPS2= 20 V

ANSWERS SPACE:

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EXPERIMENT:-
VERIFICATION of NORTON’S THEOREM
AIM: To find the Norton’s equivalent circuit from the given circuit.

APPARATUS :

Sr. Name of the Apparatus Range Quantity

No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

THEORY:
Norton’s theorem states that any two terminal linear network with current sources, voltage sources and
resistances can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current source in parallel with a
resistance. The value of the current source is the short circuit current between the two terminals of the
network and the resistance is equal to the equivalent resistance measured between the terminals with all the
energy sources are replaced by their internal resistances

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connection are made as per the circuit diagram shown in figure 1 given above.
2. Vary the supply voltage and take the corresponding reading from the ammeter.
3. Now connect the circuit diagram in figure2 in bread board (Removing the load resistor and shorting the
terminals).
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4. Vary the supply voltage as done in step 2 and note down the corresponding IN from the ammeter.
5. Find out the RN (same as previous practical) and draw the Norton’s Equivalent circuit.
OBSERVATION TABLE:

CONCLUSION:

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LAB ASSIGNMENT: For Given Circuit Find Out Current From 1kilo Ohm Using Norton Theorem. Consider
RPS2= 20 V

ANSWERS SPACE:

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EXPERIMENT NO –

POLARITY TEST AND TURNS RATIO TEST OF SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER

AIM : To Find The Polarity And Turns Ratio of A Single Phase Transformer.

APPARATUS:

S.NO. Name of the Apparatus Range Quantity

1
2
3
4
5

THEORY:
It is essential to know the relative polarity at any instant of primary and secondary terminals for making
correct connections. When the two transformers are to be connected in parallel to share the load on the
system. The marking is correct if voltage V3 is less than V1, such a polarity is termed as subtractive
polarity.
The standard practice is to have subtractive polarity because it reduces the voltage stress between
adjacent loads. In case V3 > V1, the EMF induced in primary and secondary have additive relation and
transformer is said to have additive polarity.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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PROCEDURE:

 POLARITY TEST: -

a) Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram. –

b) Switch on the single phase a.c. supply. –
c) Record the voltages V1, V2 and V3. In case V3 1 polarity is additive. –
d) Switch off the a.c. supply b) Turn Ratio Test: - Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram. –
e) Switch on the a.c. supply. –
f) Record voltage V1 across primary and V2 across various tappings of secondary.
g) If V1>V2 then transformer is step down. –
h) If V2> V1 then transformer is step up. –
i) Switch off a.c. supply.

 TURN RATIO TEST: -

a) Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram.

b) Switch on the a.c. supply.
c) Record voltage V1 across primary and V2 across various tappings of secondary.
d) If V1>V2 then transformer is step down.
e) If V2> V1 then transformer is step up.
f) Switch off a.c. supply

OBSERVATION TABLE:

CONCLUSION:

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EXPERIMENT NO –

AIM: TO DETERMINE R – C TIME CONSTANT.

APPARATUS:

Sr. Name of Apparatus Range Quantity

No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

THEORY:
In various electrical circuits the time constant is an important value that is required to be
known the speed at which the circuit will work. This experience will help in appreciating this
phenomenon.
Before performing this experience you should have the knowledge of charging and discharging
phenomenon and their formulas. When capacitor is connected across D.C supply, it starts charging i.e.
some electrostatic stress is produced in dielectric medium

and charge is stored in capacitor the charging equation is Where V=applied voltage, v=

voltage across capacitor, t= time taken to reach 63% of full voltage and ‫=ג‬R.C= time constant. Similarly
after the charging when capacitor is connected across resistor it starts discharging through the resister.

The discharging formula is this discharging phenomenon is mostly used to prepare the timer

circuit.
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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect up the equipments as per the circuit diagram.
2. Keep the power supply voltage 15 volts.
3. Move the switch to position ‘a’.
4. Note down the reading of the ammeter A1 after every 30 seconds.
5. Simultaneously note down the voltage across the capacitor also after every 30 seconds.
6. Continue to note down the readings till the voltage reaches a steady state value i.e. till the current in
the ammeter reads zero.
7. Now move the switch to position ‘b’.
8. Note the reading of the voltmeter V2 after every 30 seconds.
9. Note down the ammeter reading A2 after every 30 seconds.
10. Find the product of R1 and C.
11. Find the product of R2 and C and name it.
12. Compare the time constant (R1C) of the charging RC circuit with the actual time from the
observation table.
13. Compare the time constant (R2C) of the discharging RC circuit with the actual time from the
observation table.
14. On the same sheet plot the graph between the charging voltage and time observed.
15. Continue on the same graph sheet to plot the time observed for the discharging voltage across the
capacitor.

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OBSERVATION TABLE:

During Discharging.
Sr. No. Time Interval in sec. Voltage Across Capacitor
In volts (V1)

PRECAUTIONS

Observe safety precaution up till now you have observed in previous experiments.

CONCLUSION:

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EXPERIMENT NO –

IMPEDANCE & POWER CALCULATIONS WITH VERIFICATION FOR R-L SERIES CIRCUIT

AIM: TO DETERMINE RESISTANCE, INDUCTANCE, POWER AND POWER FACTOR OF

CHOKE COIL.

APPARATUS:

Sr. Name of Apparatus Range Quantity

No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

THEORY:

A choke coil can be considered as a series combination of resistance r and self-inductance L. Choke coil is
connected in series with a non – inductive resistance R (lamp-bank) across a 230 V, 50 Hz AC supply. From the
circuit diagram,

(1)

(2)

(3)

It is evident that (4)

But,

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(5)

But,

(6)

But,

Thus, resistance and inductance of choke coil can be calculated.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

(1) Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram.

(2) Set suitable values of the parameters and switch on the supply.
(3) Take various readings for each set of the parameters and record in the observation table.
(4) Calculate the value of r, L, power and power factor.
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OBSERVATION TABLE:

Supply Voltage Voltage

across across Current Power
Sr. No. voltage
resistor VR coil Vcoil I (amps) P (watts)
Vs (volts) (volts) (volts)

1.

2.

3.

4.

CALCULATIONS:

(1) = = =

(2) = = =

(3) = Power =

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RESULT TABLE:

Inductan
Resist Inductive ce of coil
ance reactance Power Power
Sr. LH
R Zckt Zcoil of coil of coil factor
No. P Watt cosΦ
r Ω XΩ

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

PHASOR DIAGRAM:

1. Select the scale 1 cm = _______ volts.

2. Draw the current (I) as a reference phasor OE as shown in Fig. 1.
3. Draw the phasor OB (=VR) to the scale in phase with the current phasor OE.
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4. From the point B, draw an arc of radius equal to Vcoil (to the scale).
5. From the point O, draw an arc of radius equal to Vs (to the scale) such that it intersects the previous arc
at A.
6. Thus, phasor BA represents the voltage across the coil and phasor OA represents the supply voltage.
7. Draw the perpendicular from the point A intersecting the current phasor at D.
8. Phasor BD represents the voltage across the resistance of the coil. Hence BD = Ir.
9. Phasor AD represents the voltage across the inductive reactance of the coil. Hence AD = IX
10. Determine r and L from the phasor diagram. Compare the results.

CONCLUSION:

(1) Resistance of the coil = _______________ Ω

(2) Inductance of the coil = _______________ H

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EXPERIMENT NO-
VERIFICATION OF RESONENCE IN SERIES R-L-C- CIRCUIT
AIM: TO PLOT AND ANALYSE RESONANCE CURVE OF R-L-C SERIES AC CIRCUIT.

APPARATUS:

Sr. Name of Apparatus Range Quantity

No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

THEORY:

An AC circuit in which the resistance, inductance and capacitance are connected in series across a 230 V, 50
Hz AC supply is shown in the circuit diagram.

Let, Vs = Supply voltage

VR = Potential difference across the resistance = IR

VL = Potential difference across the inductance = IXL

VC = Potential difference across the capacitance = IXC

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From the phasor diagram,

Where,

But

If for some frequency of the applied voltage,

Hence,

and

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The impedance is minimum and hence the current is maximum for given values of R, L and C. The whole
circuit behaves as purely resistive circuit and hence the current is in phase with the supply voltage. This
condition is called as series resonance in the circuit. Under this condition, potential difference across L and C
are equal and many times the supply voltage. Hence, it is sometimes called as a voltage resonance. Current at
resonance is maximum i.e. it receives maximum current from the source. So it is also known as acceptor circuit.
The frequency at which resonance occurs is called "resonant frequency".

At resonance,

fr is known as resonant frequency which can be calculated from the above expression.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. Set suitable values of the parameter and switch on the supply. Adjust the minimum frequency of the
supply.
3. Increase the frequency gradually and note down the various readings.
4. Continue to increase the frequency for taking the readings until the current increases to a maximum and
starts decreasing.
OBSERVATION TABLE:

Case – I: Capacitance C1 = 0.001 µF; Inductance L1 = 50 mH

Sr. No. Frequency (kHz) Current (mA)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Case – II: Capacitance C2 = 0.002 µF; Inductance L2 = 100 mH

Sr. No. Frequency (kHz) Current (mA)

1.

2.

3.

4.

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5.

6.

7.

Draw the graph of frequency vs. current for both cases on same graph paper.

CONCLUSION:-

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EXPERIMENT NO-
AIM: TO MEASURE POWER IN THREE PHASE CIRCUIT BY TWO WATTMETER METHOD.

APPARATUS:

Sr. Name of Apparatus Range Quantity

No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

THEORY:
Power in a three phase system with balanced or unbalanced load can be measured by two wattmeter method.
The load may be star or delta connected. Here we have considered star connected load as shown in fig, although
it can be equally applied to a delta connected load.

Two wattmeter methods is the most common method for the measurement of power in 3- phase system. The
current coils are of two wattmeters are connected in series in any two lines and the potential coils are connected
between these lines and the third line in which the current coil is not connected. It can be proved that the sum of
instantaneous values of power indicated by these wattmeters equal s the total power absorbed by the 3-phase
load.

Let us consider two wattmeters connected to measure power in three phase circuit as shown in circuit diagram.

Instantaneous reading of P1 wattmeter, P1 = I1. (V1 - V3)

Instantaneous reading of P2 wattmeter, P2 = I2. (V2 - V3)

Sum of instantaneous readings of two wattmeter’s, P = P1+ P2

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= I1 (V1 - V3) + I2. (V2 - V3)

= V1I1+ V2I2 - V3 (I1 + I2)

From Kirchoff’s law, I1 + I2 + I3 = 0 OR I3 = - (I1+I2)

Therefore, the sum of instantaneous readings of two wattmeters, V1I1 + V2I2 + V3I3

Therefore the sum of 2 wattmeter readings is equal to the power consumed by the load. This is irrespective of
whether the load is balanced or unbalanced.

For balanced star connected load

ABBREVIATIONS:

Line Voltage (VL) = 3 Phase Voltage (VPH)

Line Voltage (VL) = VRY = VYB = VBR = VL = 3 VPH

Phase Voltage (VPH) = VR = VY = VB = VPH =V

Line Current (IL) = Phase Current (IPH) = I

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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PROCEDURE:

(1) Make connections as per circuit diagram.

(2) Set variable load resistance (position) for all phases at their maximum value & adjust them in order
to obtain balanced load condition.
(3) Keep operating dial of 3-phase variac at its null ('0') position & then switch ON 3-phase input a.c.
supply.

(4) By controlling the operating dial of 3-phase variac, set the input phase voltage (V) at 415 Volts.
(5) Note line voltages and line currents of respective lines.

(6) Note readings of wattmeter (W1) and wattmeter (W2).

(7) Gradually increase load in all phases and note down various readings.
OBSERVATION TABLE:

Observation Table Calculations

Wattmeter 3 ф Active Power

Sr. Line Voltage Line Current
Reading (=P)
No.
P = W1 P = √3 VL
VRY VYB VBR IR IY IB W1 W2
+W2 IL cos ф

1.

2.

3.

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SAMPLE CALCULATION:

3- ф Active Power P = √3 VL IL cos ф = _________

3-ф Re active Power Q = √3 VL IL sin ф = _________

Apparent Power S = √3 VL IL = _________

RESULT:

Three-Phase actual / active power consumed by 3-phase balanced connected load, measured by two-
wattmeter method is found out to be kW.

CONCLUSION:

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EXPERIMENT NO-
CONSTRUCTION & OPERATION OF DC MACHINE

AIM: To Study Construction of DC Machine (Generator & Motor)

The dc generators and dc motors have the same general construction. In fact, when the machine is being
assembled, the workmen usually do not know whether it is a dc generator or motor. Any dc generator can be run
as a dc motor and vice-versa. 

All dc machines have five principal components

1. Magnetic frame or Yoke
2. Pole Cores and Pole Shoes
3. Pole Coils or Field Coils
4. Armature core  
5. Armature winding
6. Commutator  
7. Brushes and Bearings

The diagram given below represents the various parts of a DC machine.

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Yoke

The outer frame or yoke serves double purpose :

1. It provides mechanical support for the poles and acts as a protecting cover for the whole machine
2. It carries the magnetic flux produced by the poles.

In small generators where cheapness rather than weight is the main consideration, yokes are made of cast iron. 
But for large machines usually cast steel or rolled steel is employed. 
The modern process of forming the yoke consists of rolling a steel slab round a cylindrical mandrel and then
welding it at the bottom. The feet and the terminal box etc. are welded to the frame afterwards. Such yokes
possess sufficient mechanical strength and have high permeability.
Pole Cores and Pole Shoes

The field magnets consist of pole cores and pole shoes. The pole shoes serve two purposes:
they spread out the flux in the air gap and also, being of larger cross-section, reduce the reluctance of the
magnetic path 
1. they support the exciting coils (or field coils) There are two main types of pole construction.

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 The pole core itself may be a solid piece made out of either cast iron or cast steel but the pole shoe is
laminated and is fastened to the pole face by means of counter sunk screws 
 In modern design, the complete pole cores and pole shoes are built of thin laminations of annealed steel
which are rivetted together under hydraulic pressure. The thickness of laminations varies from 1 mm to
0.25 mm. 
Field system

The function of the field system is to produce uniform magnetic field within which the armature rotates. Field
coils are mounted on the poles and carry the dc exciting current. The field coils are connected in such a way that
adjacent poles have opposite polarity. The m.m.f. developed by the field coils produces a magnetic flux that
passes through the pole pieces, the air gap, the armature and the frame. Practical d.c. machines have air gaps
ranging from 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm.

Since armature and field systems are composed of materials that have high permeability, most of the m.m.f. of
field coils is required to set up flux in the air gap. By reducing the length of air gap, we can reduce the size of
field coils (i.e. number of turns).
Armature core and Laminations

The armature core is keyed to the machine shaft and rotates between the field poles.
It consists of slotted soft-iron laminations (about 0.4 to 0.6 mm thick) that are stacked
to form a cylindrical core as shown in figure. 
The laminations are individually coated with a thin insulating film so that they do not come in electrical contact
with each other. The purpose of laminating the core is to reduce the eddy current loss. Thinner the lamination,
greater is the resistance offered to the induced e.m.f., smaller the current and hence lesser the I²R loss in the
core.The laminations are slotted to accommodate and provide mechanical security to the armature winding and
to give shorter air gap for the flux to cross between the pole face and the armature “teeth”.

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Armature winding

The slots of the armature core hold insulated conductors that are connected in a suitable manner. This is known
as armature winding.This is the winding in which “working” e.m.f. is induced. The armature conductors are
connected in series-parallel; the conductors being connected in series so as to increase the voltage and in
parallel paths so as to increase the current. 

The armature winding of a d.c. machine is a closed-circuit winding; the conductors being connected in a
symmetrical manner forming a closed loop or series of closed loops. Depending upon the manner in which the
armature conductors are connected to the commutator segments, there are two types of armature winding in
a.c.machine viz.,
(a) lap winding
(b) wave winding.
Commutator
A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the alternating voltage generated in the armature
winding into direct voltage across the brushes. 

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The commutator is made of copper segments insulated from each other by mica sheets and mounted on the shaft
of the machine . The armature conductors are soldered to the commutator segments in a suitable manner to give
rise to the armature winding.

Depending upon the manner in which the armature conductors are connected to the commutator segments, there
are two types of armature winding in a d.c. machine viz.,
(a) lap winding
(b) wave winding.

Great care is taken in building the commutator because any eccentricity will cause the brushes to bounce,
producing unacceptable sparking. The sparks may bum the brushes and overheat and carbonise the
commutator. 

Brushes

DC motors are of two types : one is brushed dc motor and the other one is brushless dc motor. Brushless dc
motors are mainly used in high speed applications such as multicopters (eg:- quadcopters). The purpose of
brushes in a dc generator is to ensure electrical connections between the rotating commutator and stationary
external load circuit. The brushes are made of carbon and rest on the commutator. The brush pressure is
adjusted by means of adjustable springs. 

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If the brush pressure is very large, the friction produces heating of the commutator and the brushes. On the other
hand, if it is too weak, the imperfect contact with the commutator may produce sparking. 

Multipole machines have as many brushes as they have poles. For example, a 4-pole machine has 4 brushes. As
we go round the commutator, the successive brushes have positive and negative polarities. Brushes having the
same polarity are connected together so that we have two terminals viz., the +ve terminal and the -ve terminal

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