Matter and its Properties

• MATTER - anything that occupies space o combustibility, ability of iron to

(volume) and has mass rust, ability of wood to decay
o anything that you have; anything that
you can see around; anything that the Classification of Matter
bulk of the universe is made up of
A. ELEMENTS
Properties of Matter • simplest form of matter
• made up of only one type of atom
A. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES • cannot be broken down into simpler forms
by ordinary chemical means
• describe physical appearance
• can be observed without causing any • represented by symbols
change in chemical composition • BERZELIUS - introduced the use of letter/s
in the symbolism of elements
• could be perceived by our senses
One-letter Two letters Latin names
1. EXTRINSIC OR EXTENSIVE
symbol (first letter-
PROPERTIES
(capital capital
• qualities that are not characteristic of letter-from letter;
the substance itself the first second
• those that depend on the amount or letter of letter-small
quantity of materials present the name) letter
o size, shape, length, weight,
temperature, velocity, height Carbon - C Calcium - Ca Potassium
(Kalium) - K
2. INTRINSIC OR INTENSIVE Hydrogen - Chlorine - Cl Tungsten
PROPERTIES H (Wolfanium) -
• qualities that are characteristic of any W
sample of a substance regardless of Oxygen - O Cesium - Cs Sodium
the size or shape of the sample (Natrium) - Na
• those that depend on the quality or Nitrogen - N Chromium - Mercury
kind of materials present Cr (Hydrargyrum)
o hardness, melting point, - Hg
boiling point, freezing point, Sulfur - S Cobalt - Co Copper
density (Cuprum) - Cu
• those that cannot be measured Antimony
o taste, color odor (Stibium) - Sb
• those that are measurable Gold (Aurum) -
o melting point, boiling point, Au
freezing point, density Iron (Ferrum) -
Fe
B. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES Tin (Stannum)
• characteristics which describe chemical - Sn
behavior Silver
• describe the tendency of a substance to (Argentum) -
undergo chemical change alone or by Ag
interaction with other substances and in
so doing to form different materials
 • Types of elements: acid Ca(OH)2 KNO3
(monoprotic
Metals Non-metals
Metalloids or acid) Al(OH)3 Mg3(PO4)2
Amphoteric
elements H2SO4 –
conductors of non- exhibit sulfuric acid
electricity conductors of properties (diprotic acid)
electricity that are
intermediate H3PO4 –
they have between phosphoric
luster metals and acid (triprotic
non-metals. acid)

malleable C. MIXTURES
ductile • made up of 2 or more elements or
in forming in forming compounds that are not chemically
compounds, compounds, combined
they tend to they tend to • could be decomposed or broken down or
separated by physical or mechanical
donate accept
processes such as : evaporation,
electrons electrons decantation, distillation, magnet, etc.
crystalline • do not abode the Law of Definite Proportion
form (except
• each component retains its own
Hg) characteristics
ex. Ag, Au, ex. O, Cl, N, ex. Al, Si • Types of mixtures:
Cu, Fe, Pt, P, etc.
Ni, etc. Homogeneous Colloid Heterogeneous
also called a also called also called a
B. COMPOUNDS “solution” colloidal “suspension”
• made up of 2 or more elements that are uniform in dispersion
chemically combined appearance has
• could be decomposed by simple chemical uniform in particles not uniform in
means into 2 or more different substances appearance that are appearance
• abide the Law of Definite single or one evenly distinct phases
Proportion/Composition distributed
phase
• represented by a chemical formula throughout
• Types of compounds: the mixture
& remain
Acids Bases Salts suspended
sour taste bitter taste made up of a without
Yield Yield positive part settling at
hydrogen ion hydroxide ion other than H+ the bottom
(H+) in water (OH-) in and a of the
solution water negative part container
solution other than particle size: particle particle size:
turn blue Turn red OH- size:
litmus paper litmus paper < 1x10-7 cm > 1x10-4 cm
to red to blue >1x10-7,
slippery to <1X10-4
the touch cm
HCl – NaOH NaCl ex. salt + ex. milk, ex.sand+water
hydrochloric water blood
 Changes of Matter Interconversions of the Different States of
Matter
• PHYSICAL CHANGE
• only the physical condition or property is 1. MELTING : Solid to Liquid
altered
2. EVAPORATION : Liquid to Gas
• chemical composition is not altered
• no formation of a new substance
3. CONDENSATION : Gas to Liquid
o chopping of wood, bending of iron, 4. SUBLIMATION : Solid to Gas or Gas to
change of state Solid
5. FREEZING : Liquid to Solid
• CHEMICAL CHANGE
• chemical composition is altered Energy
• involves disappearance of the original
substance and the formation of a new A. TYPES OF ENERGY
one • POTENTIAL ENERGY – energy at rest
o rusting of iron, decaying of wood, • KINETIC ENERGY – energy at motion
burning of paper
• represented by means of a chemical B. FORMS OF ENERGY
equation • Heat
o Reactant/s -> Product/s • Light
• Evidences: • Electrical
1. formation of bubbles - gas is • Mechanical
evolved • Chemical
2. formation of an insoluble • Radiant
substance or precipitate
• Nuclear or Atomic
3. formation of moisture or water
• Geothermal
droplets
4. production of energy • Sound

STATES/ PHASES OF MATTER C. TYPES OF ENERGY EXCHANGE

• EXOTHERMIC - when energy is
State Shape Volume Resistance to released by a body to its surroundings
compression • ENDOTHERMIC - when energy is
absorbed by a body from its surroundings

solid Definite definite high

Laws About Matter and Energy
liquid Indefinite definite high
or takes A. LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
the shape • Mass is neither created nor destroyed in
of any transformation of matter
container • Mass before reaction = Mass after
gas Indefinite indefinite low reaction or mass of reactants = mass of
or takes products
the shape
of
container
B. LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
• Energy is neither created nor destroyed
in any transformation of matter
• Chemical energy of reactants = Chemical
energy of products + E
C. LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTION /
COMPOSITION
• A pure compound is always made up of
the same elements combined in a definite
proportion by weight

D. LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTION

• When 2 elements combine to form more
than one compound the different weights
of one that combine with a fixed weight of
the other must be in a ratio of small-whole
numbers such as 1:1; 1:2; 1:3; 2:3 etc
 Formulas and Uses of Common Chemical Compounds

• CARBONIC ACID GAS • BATTERY ACID

o Carbon dioxide • sulfuric acid
o CO2 • NH3
o used by plants during photosynthesis • used for cleaning purposes

• TABLE SALT Separation Techniques

o Sodium chloride
o NaCl
o Used in food preservation and as a • FILTRATION
condiment o one of the most common methods of
separating solids from liquids
• BAKING SODA o requires a filtering medium like
o Sodium bicarbonate cheesecloth or filter paper, which
o NaHCO3 traps the insoluble substances while
o Used in baking and for cleaning allowing the liquid that contains the
purposes soluble substances to pass through.
o The solid component that remained
on the cheesecloth or filter paper is
• LIMESTONE
called the residue.
o Calcium carbonate
o The clear liquid that was collected is
o CaCO3
called the filtrate.
o Used as a material for construction
o This is often used to separate water-
soluble from water-insoluble
• VINEGAR
components.
o Acetic acid
o CH3COOH
• SEDIMENTATION
o Used as a condiment and for cleaning
o used to separate components of
purposes
mixture based on their varying
weights.
• RUBBING ALCOHOL
o heavy suspended particles are
o Isopropyl alcohol
allowed to settle at the bottom of the
o (CH3)2CHOH
container.
o used as a disinfectant o The liquid portion is then poured out
carefully in such a way that the
• CREAM OF TARTAR sediments are not disturbed. This
o potassium bitartrate process is called decantation.
o KC4H5O6
o used in baking • SUBLIMATION
o solid turns into a gas without going
• LYE through the liquid stage.
o sodium hydroxide
o NaOH • EVAPORATION
o used in the manufacture of soaps o process of separating a soluble solid
to a liquid or solvent.
• MURIATIC ACID o the solution is subjected to heat until
o hydrochloric acid the liquid (solvent) evaporates and
o HCl the solid crystals of the salt will be
o used for cleaning purposes left.
• DISTILLATION
o separation of mixtures through the
continuous cycle of evaporation and
condensation of the volatile
components of the mixture, which
have different boiling points.

• CHROMATOGRAPHY
o used to separate
and identify the components of a
mixture.
o A mixture dissolved in the fluid
mobile phase, which percolates
through the material called the
stationary phase.
o The components of
the mixtures separate as they travel
at
different speeds toward the phase for
which they have an affinity.
 Atom

• ATOM - An atom is a small, indivisible • FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES OF AN

particle considered to be the basic unit of ATOM
matter.
name symbol charge mass mass
Atomic Theory of Matter (g) (amu)
Proton p+ +1 1.67262 1.00727
x 10-24
• ARISTOTLE (4TH CENTURY BC) - rejected
Neutron n0 0 1.67493 1.00866
the idea of the “atomism” of matter. He x 10-24
believed that matter is continuous and can
be divided into smaller particles. electron e- -1 9.10939 5.4858x
x 10-28 10-4
• LEUCIPPUS (5TH CENTURY BC) - A Greek
philosopher who conceived the idea of Models of an Atom
indivisible units called atoms, meaning
“uncut”.
• JOHN DALTON
• DEMOCRITUS - believed that matter o Dalton pictured the atom as spheres
consisted of tiny particles called ATOMOS and since atoms of different elements
(uncut) and that the infinite variety of were unlike, he represented his
observable things could be explained by the atoms with spheres with
combination of different sizes and shapes of distinguishing marks on them.
these particles

• JOHN DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY (1803

– 1847)
o All matter is made up of tiny, indestructible
unit particles called ATOMS.
o The atoms of a given element are all alike.
o During chemical reactions, atoms may
combine or combination of atoms may
break apart but the atoms remain • JOSEPH JOHN THOMSON (1856 – 1940)
unchanged. o the atom was composed of a
o When atoms form molecules, they unite in positively-charged sphere in which
small-whole numbered ratios such as 1:1; electrons are loosely embedded on
1:2; 1:3; 2:3, etc. the surface
o His model is similar to a “raisin bread”
• ATOM - extremely small electrically neutral or “plum-pudding”
particle that has a tiny but massive positive
core or nucleus and one or more electrons
that are relatively far outside the nucleus.
• ERNEST RUTHERFORD (1871 – 1937) o ATOMIC WEIGHT - average relative
#$
o The new structure of the atom has a weight of an element referred to % 𝐶
massive nucleus containing the o ISOTOPES - atoms of the same
positively-charged protons around element having the same atomic
which at a relatively great distance number but differ in mass number
revolves the electrons. # $
o “nuclear atom” § # 𝐻 (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑖𝑢𝑚); # 𝐻 (𝑑𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚);
3
𝐻 (𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑢𝑚)
1
#$ #&
§ % 𝐶 ; % 𝐶

o ISOBARS - atoms of different

element having the same mass
number but differ in atomic number.
'% '%
• NIELS BOHR (1885 – 1962) § ($ 𝐺𝑒 ; (& 𝐺𝑒
o “minute solar system” : 1913 - most
widely accepted model o ISOTONES - atoms of different
o Electrons in the outer region of the element having the same number of
atom must be moving in simple neutrons
(# ($
circular orbit or shell around the § #) 𝑃 ; #% 𝑆
nucleus. The atom has a number of
principal energy levels which are
separated from each other by
considerable distance. Each energy Fundamental Particles of an Atom
level except the innermost consisted
of energy sublevels. 1. ELECTRON
• They travel in straight lines away from the
negative electrode unless acted upon by
an outside force.
• They are negatively-charged.
• They consist of particles of definite mass,
1/1837 times as much as the lightest
known atom.
• The nature of cathode rays are the
same irrespective of:
o the material of which the cathode is
made
• DEFINITION OF TERMS o The type of residual gas present in
o ATOMIC NUMBER (Z) - number of the evacuated tube
protons = number of electrons o the kind of metal wires used to
o MASS NUMBER (A) - number of conduct current to the cathode
protons + neutron in the nucleus of an o the materials used to produce the
atom; whole-number value closest to current
the atomic weight of an element • J.J. Thomson, an English physicist,
!
§ "𝑋 determined the value of e/m for the
§ X = symbol of element electron by studying the deflection of
§ A = mass number cathode rays in electric and magnetic
§ Z = atomic number fields.
 • he value of e/m was derived by Thomson • RADIOACTIVITY - a type of reaction in
is - 1.7588 x 108 coulombs/g. which atoms of certain elements
• Robert Millikan, an American physicist, decompose, producing atom of other
obtained the first accurate measurement elements and liberating energy
of an electron’s charge by performing the o Ra, U, Po
Oil Drop Experiment.
• The charge of a single electron was • WILHELM ROENTGEN - found out that
determined to be -1.6022 x 10-19 when cathode rays struck certain
coulombs. materials, a new type of invisible rays
o m = 1.6022x10—18 C/-1.7588x108 which he called X-rays were emitted
C/g = 9.1096x10-28 g
• HENRI BECQUEREL - discovered the
2. PROTON process of radioactivity ≈ spontaneous
• Eugen Golstein, a German physicist, emission of radiation
known for his work on electrical
phenomena on gases discovered new • ERNEST RUTHERFORD - made further
particles which he called canal rays. The studies on radioactivity; explained the
name arose from the fact that the rays nature of 3 types of radiation emitted by
are attracted to the cathode (-) and pass radioactive substances that occur in
through the holes or “canals” in the nature
cathode.
o e/m = +9.5791x104 C/g particle symbol charge Relative shield
m = 1.6022x10-19 C/9.5791x104 penetrating
strength
C/g = 1.6726x10-24g
Alpha g +2 10 paper

• RUTHERFORD’S ALPHA
SCATTERING EXPERIMENT Beta b -1 100 concrete
o Observations:
§ Most of the alpha particles
went through the Gamma c 0 10000 Lead
supposedly closely-packed sheets
gold atoms.
§ A few of the speeding
alpha particles were • SOURCES OF RADIATION
deflected by something. o Natural - ground; brick / concrete
§ A very few of the alpha houses
particles bounced back o Cosmic rays - protons of high
from the gold foil energy which come to the earth
o Explanations: from outer space
§ Atom is made up of an o Other sources
empty space. § C-14 (body)
§ Nucleus is positively- § Ra-226 (water)
charged. § luminous watches/rosaries
§ Nucleus for the gold atom
is much larger than the 3. NEUTRON
alpha particle. • ERNEST RUTHERFORD
§ Electron is extra nuclear o a given atom must contain as
and cannot deflect the many electrons as protons
alpha particle. o since the particle is uncharged, it
is difficult to detect and
characterize.
 • JAMES CHADWICK o It shows the number and kind of
o published the result of his work atoms present in a molecule of a
which established the existence of compound
neutron. He was able to calculate § H2O – water
the mass of the neutron from data § NaCl – table salt
on certain nuclear reactions in § C12H22O11 - sugar
which the neutrons are produced.
§ m = 1.6749 x 10-24 g • MOLECULAR FORMULA - also called as
true formula; represents the actual number
Common Isotopes and Their Uses of atoms of each element present in one
molecule of a compound

• PROTIUM - usually involved in the • EMPIRICAL FORMULA - also called as

hydrogenation of materials simplest formula gives the smallest whole-
number ratio of atoms present in a
• DEUTERIUM - sometimes called heavy compound
hydrogen is used to form “heavy water,”
which is denser than ordinary water; also name Molecular Empirical
involved in some nuclear reactions formula formula
Ethane C2H6 CH3
• TRITIUM - Used as fuel in some nuclear Butane C4H10 C2 H5
fusion Potassium K2Cr2O7 K2Cr2O7
dichromate
• P-32 - incorporated into nutrients giving
information on metabolic pathways and used • OXIDATION STATE/ VALENCE
for detecting of skin cancer o combining capacity of an element
o shows the number of electrons lost /
• I-131 - Used in medical diagnostic tests and gained / shared by an atom
treatment of illnesses of the thyroid gland o shown only when atoms are
combined
• Cu-64 - Used in studying brain tumors
• ION - an atom carrying a positive or negative
• Fe-55 - Used as an X-ray source for different electric charge.
methods of scientific analysis o CATION - positively (+) charged ion
§ Na+ ; Ca++ ; Al +++
• Na-24 - Used for detecting blood clots and o ANION - negatively charged (-)
tumors charged ion
§ Cl-;O-2
• Co-60 and Cs-137 - Used for the radiation
therapy of cancer • POLYATOMIC ION/RADICAL - ion that
involves more than one element, either
positively (+) or negatively – charged
Chemical Formulas o OH-;SO4-2;PO4-3

• RULES IN FORMULA WRITING

• CHEMICAL FORMULA: o Write the symbols side by side.
o It is a way of expressing in symbols o Above each symbol, write the
the elements present in a compound, valence.
as well as the number of atoms of o Criss-cross valences.
each element present in the o Where the subscript is supposed to
compound. be one (1), it is no longer written since
 with no number written after a symbol, • NEW OR STOCK METHOD
it is understood that there is only one o indicate oxidation state by the use
atom of the element or a unit of the of Roman numeral enclosed with
radical present. a parenthesis
o If a radical already contains
parenthesis, enclose it with a bracket. examples Old method New/Stock
o Omit subscripts whenever subscripts method
are numerically equal (except FeO ferrous oxide iron (II) oxide
peroxides). Fe2O3 ferric oxide iron (III)
o Reduce subscripts to the smallest oxide
whole-number ratio. SnCl4 stannic tin (IV)
o If a radical already contains chloride chloride
parenthesis, enclose it with a bracket. SnCl2 stannous tin (II)
chloride chloride
Positive(+) Negative(-) example
Element Element NaCl C. HYDROACIDS – hydrogen + non-metal
Element Radical NaOH
Radical Element NH4Cl formula Name of Name of
Radical Radical NH4OH pure acid (hydro
compound + root ic +
Chemical Nomenclature or Systematic (hydrogen + acid)
Naming of Compounds nonmetal
ide)
HCl Hydrogen Hydrochloric
A. BINARY COMPOUNDS – contain 2 chloride acid
elements HBr Hydrogen Hydrobromic
• METAL + NON-METAL - Give the name bromide acid
of the metal (+ element), then the name HI Hydrogen Hydroiodic
of the non-metal (- element) changing the iodide acid
last letters to ide. HF Hydrogen Hydrofluoric
o NaCl – sodium chloride fluoride acid
o K2S – potassium sulfide H2 S Hydrogen Hydrosulfic
o AlBr3 – aluminum bromide sulfide acid
• NON-METAL + NON-METAL - Many
binary compounds of hydrogen bear the D. TERNARY COMPOUNDS – contain 3
trivial or unsystematic names. different elements
o H2O - water • OXYACIDS - hydrogen + non-metal +
o NH3 - ammonia oxygen
o CH4 – methane
o C2H6 – ethane OS of the middle
element
B. COMPOUNDS WHICH CONTAIN A per (root) ic acid +7
MULTIVALENT ION (root) ic acid +6, +5
• OLD METHOD (root) ous acid +4, +3
o HIGHER OXIDATION STATE - hypo (root) ous acid +1
affix the suffix -ic
o LOWER OXIDATION STATE – 1. HCl+7O4 – perchloric acid
affix the suffic -ous 2. HCl+5O3 – chloric acid
3. H2S+4O3 – sulfurous acid
4. H3P+5O4 – phosphoric acid
5. H2S+6O4 – sulfuric acid
 6. HN+5O3 – nitric acid
7. HN+3O2 – nitrous acid Solution: Apply Rule 3
8. HCl+3O2 – chlorous acid * let x be the OS of the unknown
9. HCl+1O – hypochlorous acid element
1. 1(x) + 3(-2) = -1
• RULES IN ASSIGNING OXIDATION x = +5
NUMBER/ STATE 2. 1(x) + 3(-2) = -1
1. The oxidation state (OS) of an x = +5
element in its uncombined / free / 3. 1(x) + 4(-2) = -1
elemental state is zero. x = +7
§ The OS of Na in Na is 0. 4. 1(x) + 4(-2) = -3
The OS of Cl in Cl is 0. x = +5
The OS of O in O is 0. 5. 1(x) + 4(-2) = -2
• The OS of an element in its x = +6
diatomic state is zero.
§ The OS of H in H2 is 0. • SALTS OF OXYACIDS - give the name
The OS of Cl in Cl2 is 0. of the positive part + the name of
2. The algebraic sum of the oxidation oxyanion changing ic to ate or ous to ite
states of elements in a compound o NaClO4 - sodium perchlorate
is zero. o NaClO3 - sodium chlorate
3. The algebraic sum of the oxidation o NaClO2 - sodium chlorite
states of elements in a radical is o NaClO - sodium hypochlorite
equal to the charge of the radical.
E. Most oxygen-containing compounds are
• EXAMPLES systematically named by the use of
A. Determine the oxidation state (OS) of prefixes used to indicate the number of
the middle element oxygen atoms in the compound.
1. HNO3 • mono -1
2. NaClO3 • di - 2
3. KMnO4 • tri - 3
4. H3PO4 • tetra - 4
5. MgSO4 • penta – 5
Solution: Apply Rule 2 • hexa-6
*let x be the OS of the unknown • hepta - 7
element • octa - 8
1. 1(+1) + 1(x) + 3(-2) = 0 • nona - 9
x = +5
• deca – 10
2. 1(+1) + 1(x) + 3(-2) = 0
o CO - carbon monoxide
x = +5
o CO2 - carbon dioxide
3. 1(+1) + 1(x) + 4(-2) = 0
o SO3 - sulfur trioxide
x = +7
4. 3(+1) + 1(x) + 4(-2) = 0
F. HYDRATES - compounds that contain a
x = +5
definite amount of water called water of
5. 1(+2) + 1(x) +4(-2) = 0
hydration or crystallization
x = +6
o CaCl2 . 6H2O - calcium chloride
hexahydrate
B. Determine the oxidation state of :
o Na2CO3.10H2O - sodium carbonate
1. N in NO3 -1
decahydrate
2. Cl in ClO3 -1
3. Mn in MnO4 -1
4. P in PO4 -3
5. S in SO4 -2
 Balancing of Chemical Equations o AB → A + B

1. Heating of oxide, generally oxygen is

• CHEMICAL EQUATION - an expression given off as one of the products
which shows by the use of symbols and ex. 2HgO → 2Hg + O2
formulas, the changes that take place during 2. Heating of carbonates, yield CO2
a chemical reaction ex. CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
3. Heating of bicarbonates
• STEPS ex. 2NaHCO3 → Na2CO3 + H2O + CO2
o Determine exactly the reacting 4. Heating of hydrates – substances that
substances (reactants) and the contain one or more molecules of water
resulting substances (products). for each formula unit
o Write the reactant/s on the left side ex. CuSO4 . 5H2O → CuSO4 + 5H2O ;
and product/s on the right side of the Na2CO3 . 10H2O → Na2CO3 + 10H2O
equation. The two sides are
connected by an arrow which • SUBSTITUTION or DISPLACEMENT or
indicates the direction of the change. REPLACEMENT
o Balance the equation by choosing - one element reacts by replacing another
proper coefficients. element in a compound
- Law of Conservation of Mass
o Final check. 1. METAL: A + BC → AC + B
- same number and kind of atoms on ex. Zn + 2HCl → ZnCl2 + H2
both sides o ACTIVITY OR ELECTROMOTIVE
SERIES - only metals above H in the
Types of Chemical Equations activity series can displace the
hydrogen in acids
2. NONMETAL: A + BC → BA + C
• DIRECT COMBINATION or SYNTHESIS ex. F2 + 2HI → 2HF + I2
- two or more elements combine to form
a more complex substance • DOUBLE DECOMPOSITION or
o A + B → AB METATHESIS
- exchange of atoms or radicals between
1. Metal + Nonmetal → Salt two or more compounds
ex. Fe + S → FeS o AB + CD → AD + CB
2. Nonmetal oxide + Water → Oxyacid
ex. SO2 + H2O → H2SO3 1. salt + base
3. Metal + Oxygen → Metal oxide ex. Ca(NO3)2 + 2NaOH → 2NaNO3 +
ex. 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO Ca(OH)2
4. Metal oxide + Water → Metal 2. two salts
hydroxide ex. 2KCl + Pb(NO3)2 → PbCl2 + 2KNO3
ex. CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2 3. salt + acid
5. Nonmetal + Oxygen → Nonmetal ex. Ba(NO3)2 + H2SO4 → BaSO4 +
oxide 2HNO3
ex. S + O2 → SO2 4. metal carbonate + acid
6. Metal oxide + Nonmetal oxide → Salt ex. MgCO3 + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2O +
ex. MgO + SO3 → MgSO4 CO2
5. base + acid (neutralization reaction)
• SIMPLE DECOMPOSITION or ANALYSIS ex. NaOH + HCl → NaCl + HOH/H2O
- breaking down of a complex substance
into its simpler forms
- heat is usually required to complete this
action
 Quantum Numbers
b) if n=2, #subshell=2 then l =0 and 1
• ATOMIC ORBITALS - The most probable since there are only 2 subshells)
place where a pair of electrons could be
found. • MAGNETIC ORBITAL QUANTUM
NUMBER, ml
• TYPES OF ORBITALS - determines each orbital within a given
o s-orbital - spherically-shaped subshell; for any subshell, the values of
o p-orbital - dumb-bell shaped; Px, Py, Pz ml is given by the series: m l = + l l, +( l
o d-orbital - clover-leaf shaped: dz2; dxz; l-1)...0..-( l l-1), - l l
dxy, dx2-y2; dyz but easily identified as: o if l = 0; ml = 0; if l = 1, ml = +1, 0, -1 ;
d1,d2,d3,d4,d5 if l = 2, m l = +2, +1, 0,-1,-2; If l =3, m
l =+3,+2, +1, 0, -1,-2,-3
• there is only one kind of s-orbital; 3 kinds of L value 0 1 2 3 4 5
p-orbital; 5 kinds of d-orbitals; 7 kinds of f- Notation s p d f g h
orbitals # of 1 3 5 7 9 11
orbitals
• QUANTUM NUMBERS
- explained by wave mechanics; electron o So if ml = 0 it represents the s-orbital;
distribution of an atom is divided into ml = +1, 0, -1 it represents the 3 kinds
shells, then subshells where orbitals are of p-orbitals (px, pY, pZ) ml = +2, +1,
found and the electrons spinning on its 0,-1,-2 – 5 kinds of d-orbitals ml
axis (x, Y or z) =+3,+2, +1, 0, -1,-2,-3 – 7kinds of f
- each electron of an atom is identified by orbitals
a combination of FOUR QUANTUM
NUMBERS • MAGNETIC SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER,
ms
• PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER, n - the spin of the electron on its axis; either
- identifies the main shell or main energy clockwise, or counterclockwise or
level where an electron is found n- designated as upwards (+1/2) or
values are positive integers: n = 1, 2 , 3, downwards (-1/2) - the spin of two
4, 5, 6, 7(highest value so far) electrons per orbital will be one upwards
- the larger the value of n, the farther is the and the other spins downwards
electron from the nucleus
L value 0 1 2 3 4 5
• AZIMUTHAL QUANTUM NUMBER Notation s p d f g h
- identifies the subshell within a main shell # of 1 3 5 7 9 11
o # subshells = n (principal quantum orbitals
number) # of 2 6 10 14 18 22
§ example: if n=1 then subshell =1; electrons
if n=2 then subshells=2 (maximum)

• SUBSIDIARY QUANTUM NUMBER, l

- identifies the kind of subshell within the Orbital Filling and Hund’s Rule of
main shell
- The values of l are positive integers but Maximum Multiplicity
starting with 0 then 1,2,3,4 ..etc
o a) if n=1, #subshell=1 then l = 0 since • electron configuration is the way electrons
there is only one subshell are arranged in an atom; as electrons fill up
the orbitals:
 (1) electrons tend to occupy the lowest l=0, then ml=0 NOT 1. ANSWER: NO
energy level – n= 1 or K-level (Neils Bohr electrons
theory) first then n=2..etc
(2) In filling up the orbitals, according to 5. Given the following elements: (A) Ca20
Hund’s rule is: electrons tend to occupy and (B) S16
separate orbitals; s orbital is filled up first i. Write the electronic configuration and
until two electrons with opposite spin; orbital diagram
other orbitals with many kinds like p- ii. Quantum numbers of the electrons in the
orbital with 3 p’s- PX, PY & PZ – electron highest main shell
distribution is one by one to each p- iii. From the orbital diagram, which is a
orbital (same direction of spin)before paramagnetic or diamagnetic substance
other • paramagnetic substance: attracted to a
magnetic field; with unpaired electrons
• diamagnetic substance: weakly repelled
by a magnetic field; all electrons are paired

ANSWER:
a. Ca20
i.1s22s22p63s23p64s2
#
Application of the Atomic Orbitals and ii. n =4; l = 0 ; ml = 0 ; ms= ±
$
Quantum Mechanics iii. ⇆ ⇆ ⇆ ⇆ ⇆ ⇆ ⇆ ⇆ ⇆ ⇆
1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz 3s 3px 3py 3pz 4s
it is diamagnetic since all electrons are
1. What is the maximum number of paired
electrons in an atom that can have the ff b. S16
quantum number/s? i.1s22s22p63s23p4
n subshell l orbital # Total # #
electrons electrons ii.n=3; l=0; ml=0; ms=± $
# # #
3 3 0 s 2 18 n=3;;l=1;ml=+1,0,-1;ms=± $,+ $ ,+ $
1 p 6
iii ⇆ ⇆ ⇆ ⇆ ⇆ ⇆ ⇆
2 d 10
1s 2s 2px 2py 2pz 3s 3px 3py 3pz
Elec config: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 ELEMENT:
it is paramagnetic since there are two
ARGON; has 8 valence electrons; belongs to
group VIIIA unpaired electrons

2. GIVEN: n=4, l=3, ml =2 : this means Chemical Bonds

electron in the 4th shell; l=3 occupying
the f- orbital; ml=2 means one kind of f- • LEWIS SYMBOLS - consists of the common
orbital = maximum of two electrons chemical symbol surrounded by dots. The
ANSWER: 2 electrons chemical symbol represents the nucleus and
the inner shell electrons. The DOTS
3. GIVEN: n=2; l =1; ml=0; ms = -1/2 representing the outer shell electrons or
Answer: n=2 ; l= 1 means the p-orbital; ml =0 valence electrons.
means pY type ; ms= -1/2 refers to spin of
one electron. ANSWER; ONE electron

4. Given:n=1;l=0;ml=1
Answer: n =1 (electron is found in the 1st
main shell); l=0 is the s-orbital that can exist
but if ml = 1, then it is not possible since if
• LEWIS STRUCTURE - a combination of - With dissimilar atoms, molecular orbitals
Lewis symbols representing the transfer or are unsymmetrical; uneven sharing. The
sharing of electrons in a chemical bond shared electron is more closely
associated with one nucleus that has a
• IONIC BOND FORMATION greater number of valence electrons; the
- An ionic bond results from the transfer of uneven sharing produces partial
electrons between a metal and a non- negative charges on the atom having a
metal atom. In this transfer, the metal greater share leaving the other atom
atom becomes a positively-charged ion partially positive and so the bond will be
(cation) and a non- metal, a negatively- POLAR. There is surplus of negative
charged ion (anion). charge around one nucleus and
o ION - an atom or group of atoms deficiency around the other.
(polyatomic ion) that is electrically - Polarization of a covalent bond is
charged as the result of the loss or correlated with electronegativity of the
gain of electrons. atoms involved.
- The metal gains a sufficient number of o NON-POLAR COVALENT
electrons to produce an ion with a noble COMPOUNDS
gas electron configuration. 1. H2
- A formula unit of an ionic compound is
the smallest collection of ions that is
electrically neutral. The formula unit is
obtained automatically when the Lewis
structure is written.
§ Na and Cl
2. O2

Na+ + Cl- NaCl

§ K and S

3. N2

2K+ + S-2 K2S

• COVALENT BONDING
- This is a chemical bond involving
sharing of electrons between non- o POLAR COVALENT COMPOUNDS
metals. 1. HCl
- A bond that is formed between similar or
identical atoms of the same kind has
their molecular orbitals symmetrical to
both nuclei. There is an equal share of
electrons and this makes the compound
NON-POLAR.
 2. HOH

3. HBr

o CO

4. NH3

2. EXPANDED OCTET
• Molecules that “violate’’ the octet rule
consists of species in which the central atom
is surrounded by more than 4 pairs of
valence electrons.
o PCl3 and PCl5
5. HCN

o ClF3

Exceptions to the Octet Rule

1. COORDINATE COVALENT BOND

• It is a bond in which both electrons of a o XeF4
shared pair come from one of the two
involved in the bond. It allows an atom that
has 2 or more vacancies in its valence shell
to share a pair of non-bonding electrons that
are located on another atom.
• It helps to rationalize the existence of certain
molecules or ions whose electron bonding o SF6
arrangement present problems.

o N2 O
 Molecular Geometry occupy the equatorial positions (like
the x-axis position) rather than axial
1. Lewis structures accounts for the formula of positions (like the y or z axis position)
covalent compounds but do not indicate the o Non-bonding electron pairs exert
shapes of molecules. They simply show the greater repulsive forces on adjacent
numbers and types of bonds between electron pairs and tend to compress
atoms. the angles between the bonding
2. Lewis structures accounts for the formula of pairs.
covalent compounds but do not indicate the o Bond angles decrease as the number
shapes of molecules. They simply show the of non-bonding electron pair
numbers and types of bonds between increases.
atoms. o Electrons in multiple bonds like non-
3. The over-all shape of a molecule is bonding pairs exert a greater
determined by its: repulsive force on adjacent electron
a. BOND ANGLES - the angles made by than do single bonds
the lines joining the nuclei of the atoms
in the molecule.
b. BOND LENGTH- defines the size of the
bond; depends upon the nature of the
atom and the type of bonds. As bond
length increase, the bond strength
weakens. A triple bond is shorter than a
double bond; the double bond is shorter
than a single bond.
4. Bond polarity depends on the
electronegativity difference of the bonding
atoms.
Electronegativity characteristic
difference
0 - 0.4 Non-polar
0.41 - 1.7 Polar
>1.7 ionic

• MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
- It can be predicted based on electron- • HYDROGEN BONDING - molecules
pair repulsion of the Valence-shell containing hydrogen atoms covalently
electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory bonded to a small electronegative atom are
as suggested by Sidgwick and Powell in drawn by force called hydrogen bonding
1940. • HYDROGEN BOND - is a force exerted
- According to this theory, the valence between a hydrogen atom to fluorine,
electron pairs surrounding an atom repel oxygen, or nitrogen atom in one molecule
one another so the orbitals containing and unshared pair of fluorine, oxygen or
those electron pairs are oriented to be as nitrogen atom of a neighboring molecule.
far as possible.
o When one or more of the electron
pairs around the central atom is
unshared, the molecular geometry is
quite different.
o Non-bonding pairs exert larger
repulsions than bonding pairs so they
 Formula Stoichiometry
• ATOMIC MASS (mas=24.999 u); 11.17% Mg-26 (mass =
- Atoms are very small. It is impossible to 25.98 u)
place single atom on any analytical
balance and directly determine its mass Given:
(weight), If it were possible, you would Isotopes Percent Fractional Mass
find that the mass of a single atom is of Mg abundance abundance
about 1 x 10-23 g, a figure that is Mg-24 78.70% 0.7870 23.99
somewhat clumsy to write. u
- A carbon that is made up of 6 protons, 6 Mg-25 10.13% 0.1013 24.99
neurons, and 6 electrons has been u
arbitrary defined to have an atomic mass Mg-26 11.17% 0.1117 25.98
of exactly 12 atomic mass units (12.0 u
amu). The symbol for such a carbon
atom is 12C (or carbon-12). It is read as Required: average atomic mass of Mg
carbon twelve. From this comes the
definition of 1 amu. One atomic mass Solution:
unit is the amount of mass that is exactly
one-twelfth of a carbon with mass Average atomic mass of Mg =
- 1 amu = 1/12 mass of 12C ∑(𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠)
- Atomic mass unit (amu): 1/12 atomic = (f.a. Mg-24 x Mass Mg-24) + (f.a. Mg-25 x
mass of C-12 Mass Mg-25) + (f.a. Mg-26 x Mass Mg-26)
- 1 amu: 1/6.0221415 x 1023 = (0.7870 x 23.99 u) + (0.1013 x 24.99 u) +
- Carbon (12 amu): 6.0221415 x 1023 (0.1117 x 25.98 u)
particles (Avogadro) = 24.31 u
- Carbon a (12 amu): 1 mole
• MOLE CONCEPT
• RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS - The chemist’s counting unit is known as
- Sometimes called the atomic weight mole (abbreviated mol.)
- Average of the atomic masses of all - Mole is equivalent to 6.022 x 1023
different isotopes in a sample with each objects.
isotope’s contribution to the average - This large number is called the
determined by how big a fraction of the Avogadro’s number in honor of Amadeo
sample makes it up Avogadro
- The relative atomic masses given in - The word “mole” was introduced around
periodic table entries are calculated for the year 1896 by the German chemist
all the naturally occurring isotopes of Wilhelm Ostwald, who derived the term
each element, weighted by the from the Latin word moles meaning a
abundance of isotopes on earth. ‘heap’ or a ‘pile’

• AVERAGE ATOMIC MASS • SAMPLE PROBLEMS

- The average atomic mass of an element 1. How many nitrogen atoms are in 0.25
can be found on the periodic table, mole of Ca(NO3)2 an inorganic
typically under the elemental symbol. substance used in fertilizers, explosives,
and pyrotechnics?
• SAMPLE PROBLEM
What is the average atomic mass of Mg? Given:
The elements consist of 78.70% Mg-24 1 mole of Ca(NO3)2 = 6.022 x 1023
(mass = 23.999 u); 10.13% Mg-25 molecules
1 molecule of Ca(NO3)2 = 2 N atoms
 Solution: 2. Ferric sulfate [Fe2(SO4)3]
$(
6.022𝑥10 molecules 3. Ammonium phosphate [(NH4)3PO4]
𝑁 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 = 0.25 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 x
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
2 𝑁 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 Solution:
= 1.5 𝑥 10$( 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑥 1. C6H8O6
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒
= 3.0 𝑥 10$( 𝑁 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
Atomic weight:
2. Calculate the no. of mole of glucose C = 12.011 g/mol ; H = 1.008 g/mol; O =
(C6H12O6), otherwise known as blood 15.999 g/mol
sugar, that contains 2.36 x 1023 C6H12O6
+
particles. 𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑓 𝐶% 𝐻* 𝑂% = (6 𝑥 12.001 ,-.) +
𝑔 𝑔
Given: V8 𝑥 1.008 X + V6 𝑥 15.999 X
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙
1 mole C6H12O6 = 6.022 x 1023 particles 𝑔
= 176.124 𝑜𝑟 176.124 𝑎𝑚𝑢
𝑚𝑜𝑙
Solution: 2. Fe2(SO4)3

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶% 𝐻#$ 𝑂% Atomic weight:

1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 Fe = 56 g/mol; S = 32 g/mol; O = 16g/mol
= 2.36 𝑥 10$( 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑥
6.022 𝑥 10$( 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑔
𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑒$ (𝑆𝑂& )( = V2 𝑥 56 X+
= 0.392 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶% 𝐻#$ 𝑂% 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑔 16𝑔
V3 𝑥 32 X + [12 𝑥 \
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑔
3. How many molecules of water contains = 400
2.67 moles of Hydrogen? 𝑚𝑜𝑙
3. (NH4)3PO4
Given: Atomic weight:
1 mole H2O = 6.022 x 1023 molecules N = 14 g/mol; H = 1 g/mol; P = 31 g/mol;
1 mole H2O = 2 moles H O = 16 g/mol
Solution: 𝑔
𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑓 (𝑁𝐻& )( 𝑃𝑂& = V3 𝑥 14 X+
𝑚𝑜𝑙
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐻$ 𝑂 𝑔 𝑔
𝐻$ 𝑂 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 2.67 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻 𝑥 V12 𝑥 1 X + V1 𝑥 31 X+
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙
6.022 𝑥 10$( 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑔
= 1.335 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻$ 𝑂 𝑥 V4 𝑥 16 X
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐻$ 𝑂 𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 149 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 8.04 𝑥 10$( 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻$ 𝑂
• CONVERSION CHART
• MOLAR MASS
- Sum of the total mass in grams of all
the atoms that make up a mole of a
particular molecule.
- Expressed in grams per mole
- Known as either the molecular weight
or formula weight

• SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Find the mass of each of the following
compounds:
1. Ascorbic acid (C6H8O6)
• SAMPLE PROBLEMS Required:
1. What is the mass, in grams, of 5.36 mol No. of vitamin C molecules
of MgSO4?
Solution:
Given: 𝑔
𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑓 𝐶% 𝐻* 𝑂% = V6 𝑥 12.011 X+
No. of moles of MgSO4 = 5.36 mol 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑔 𝑔
V8 𝑥 1.008 X + V6 𝑥 15.999 X
Required: 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑔
Mass of MgSO4 = 176.124
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐶 =
Solution: 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 6.022 𝑥 10$( 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑔 250 𝑔 𝑥 𝑥
𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂& = V1 𝑥 24.305 X+ 176.124 𝑔 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑔 𝑔 = 8.55 𝑥 10$( 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝐶
V1 𝑥 32.065 X + V4 𝑥 15.999 X
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑔 • PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION
= 120.366
𝑚𝑜𝑙 - % 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂& /-/0. ,022 -3 4.4,45/
𝑔 ,022 -3 # ,-.4 -3 6-,7-859 𝑥 100 %
120.366 𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 5.36 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥 - % 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 (0/-,;6 <4;+=/ 4.4,45/ > 28?26@;7/)
= 645 𝑔 𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂& ,-.0@ ,022 -3 /=4 6-,7-859 𝑥 100 %

2. How many moles of NaHCO3 antacid are • SAMPLE PROBLEMS

present in 11.7 g of this substance? 1. Water, the most abundant compound in our
solar system, is composed of hydrogen and
Given: oxygen. Calculate the mass percentage of
Mass of NaHCO3 = 11.7 g each element in water.

Required: Solution:
Moles of NaHCO3 𝑔
𝑀𝑀 𝐻$ 𝑂 = V2 𝑥 1.008 X+
𝑚𝑜𝑙
Solution: 𝑔 𝑔
𝑔 V1 𝑥 15.999 X = 18.015
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝐴𝐻𝐶𝑂( = V1 𝑋 23.000 X+ 2 𝑥 𝑎𝑡. 𝑤𝑡. 𝐻
𝑚𝑜𝑙 % 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐻 = 𝑋 100%
𝑔 𝑔 𝑀𝑀 𝐻$ 𝑂
V1 𝑥 1.008 X + V1 𝑥 12.001 X+ 𝑔
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑥 1.008 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑔
V3 𝑥 15.999 X = 𝑥 100% = 11.191%
𝑚𝑜𝑙 18.015 𝑔
𝑔 1 𝑥 𝑎𝑡. 𝑤𝑡. 𝑂
= 84.016 % 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑂 = 𝑥 100%
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑀𝑀 𝐻$ 𝑂
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝐴𝐻𝐶𝑂( = 11.7 𝑔 𝑥 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑥 15.999 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
84.016 𝑔 = 𝑥 100%
18.015 𝑔
= 0.139 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝐴𝐻𝐶𝑂(
= 88.809%
3. Vitamin C has the formula C6H8O6,
2. Oil of wintergreen or methyl salicylate
calculate the number of vitamin C
(C8H8O3) is used for temporary relief of
molecules present in 250 g tablet of pure
muscle or joint pain caused by strains,
vitamin C.
arthritis, bruising, or backaches.
Given:
Solution:
Mass of vitamin C tablet = 250 g 𝑔
𝑀𝑀 𝐶* 𝐻* 𝑂( = V 8 𝑥 12.011 X+
𝑚𝑜𝑙
 𝑔 𝑔 4. It is found that 8.250 g of a metal combined
V8𝑥 1.008 X + V3 𝑥 15.999 X
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙 with oxygen to form 17.80 g of metal oxide.
𝑔
= 152.149 Calculate the % mass of the metal and the
𝑚𝑜𝑙 oxygen respectively.
8 𝑥 𝑎𝑡. 𝑤𝑡. 𝐶
% 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 = 𝑥 100%
𝑀𝑀 𝐶* 𝐻* 𝑂( Solution:
𝑔
8 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑥 12.011 Equation: metal + oxygen metal oxide
= 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑥 100%
152.149 𝑔 8.250 g 17.80 g
= 63.154%
8 𝑥 𝑎𝑡. 𝑤𝑡. 𝐻 I. Compute the mass of Oxygen
% 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐻 = 𝑥 100% Mass of oxygen = mass of metal
𝑀𝑀 𝐶* 𝐻* 𝑂(
𝑔 oxide – mass of metal
8 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑥 1.008 𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 17.80 g – 8.250 g = 9.55 g
= 𝑥 100% = 5.300%
152.149 𝑔
II. Calculate the % mass of the metal
%𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑂 = 100% − (%𝐶 + %𝐻) and the oxygen
100% − (63.154% + 5.300%) = 31.546% % 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙
8.5250 𝑔
= 𝑥 100%
3. Aluminum carbonate [Al2(CO3)3], used as an 17.80 𝑔
anti-acid for acid reflux, stomach = 46.35%
inflammation and ulcers. Calculate the mass % 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛
percentage of each element in [Al2(CO3)3]. 9.55 𝑔
= 𝑥 100%
17.80 𝑔
Solution: = 53.65%
𝑔
𝑀𝑀 𝐴𝑙$ (𝐶𝑂( )( = V2 𝑥 26.982 X+
𝑚𝑜𝑙 • MOLE PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION
𝑔 𝑔
V3 𝑥 12.011 X + V9 𝑥 15.999 X - Is a mole percentage of each element in
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑔 a compound. We only need the
= 233.988 molecular formula of a compound to
𝑚𝑜𝑙
% 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑙 determine it.
2 𝑥 𝑎𝑡. 𝑤𝑡. 𝐴𝑙 !"
= 𝑥 100% - % 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 = ∑ 𝑥 100%
!"
𝑀𝑀 𝐴𝑙$ (𝐶𝑂( )(
𝑔 o n = no. of mole/s of the element
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑥 26.982 𝑚𝑜𝑙 o ni = total moles of an element per
= 𝑥 100%
233.988 𝑔 mole of the compound
= 23.063% o Σni = total moles of element in the
% 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 compound
3 𝑥 𝑎𝑡. 𝑤𝑡. 𝐶
= 𝑥 100% • SAMPLE PROBLEM
𝑀𝑀 𝐴𝑙$ (𝐶𝑂( )(
𝑔 Carbon dioxide is commonly called dry ice.
3 𝑥 12.011 𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 𝑥 100% The molecular formula carbon dioxide is
233.988 𝑔 CO2. Calculate the mass percentage of each
= 15.400% element in CO2.
9 𝑋 𝑎𝑡. 𝑤𝑡. 𝑂
% 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑂 = 𝑥 100%
233.988 𝑔 Solution:
3 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑥 12.011 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑛𝐶
= 𝑥 100% % 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 = 𝑥 100%
233.988 𝑔 𝑛𝐶 + 𝑛𝑂
= 61.538% 1
= 𝑥 100%
3
= 33.33%
 𝑛𝑂 • SAMPLE PROBLEMS
% 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑂 = 𝑥 100%
𝑛𝐶 + 𝑛𝑂 1. Assume 100g of unknown compound
2 containing 32.4% Na, 22.6% S, and
= 𝑥 100%
3 45.1% O
= 66.67%
Solution:
Determination of Chemical Formulas I. Assume 100 g of the compound
so that the given percentage of
each element is the mass in
• EMPIRICAL FORMULA – reflects the grams of the element.
smallest whole number ratio of atoms !"## %& '"
% 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎 = !"## (%!)%*+, 𝑥 100% =
present in the compound. % (%!)%#./.%+ %& '" 0 !"## %& *+1+%2+ (%!)%*+,
=
344%
• MOLECULAR FORMULA – it is the true 56.8% 0 3449
= 32.4 𝑔
344%
formula and shows the actual number of !"## %& :
atoms each element present in one molecule % 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑆 = !"## (%!)%*+, 𝑥 100%
% (%!)%#./.%+ %& : 0 !"## %& *+1+%2+ (%!)%*+,
of the compound. = =
344%
66.;% 0 3449
= 22.6 𝑔
• CALCULATING THE EMPIRICAL 344%
!"## %& <
FORMULA % 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑂 = !"## (%!)%*+, 𝑥 100% =
% (%!)%#./.%+ %& < 0 !"## %& *+1+%2+ (%!)%*+,
=
1. Assume a 100 g sample of the compound 8=.3% 0 3449
344%

2. Use each element’s molar mass to 344%

= 45.1 𝑔
convert the grams of each element to
moles II. Calculate the number of moles of
3. In order to find a whole number ratio, each element in 100 g of unknown
divide the moles of each element by compound.
whichever the moles from step 2 is the
smallest. Atomic wt.: Na = 23.000 g/mol;
4. If all moles at this point are whole S = 32.064 g/mol; O = 15.999 g/mol
numbers, the empirical formula can be
written with the moles as subscript of 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
each element. 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎 = 32.4 𝑔 𝑥
23.000 𝑔
5. In some cases, one or more of the moles = 1.41 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁𝑎
calculated in step 3 will not be whole 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
numbers. Multiply each of the moles by 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆 = 22.6 𝑔 𝑥 𝑔
the smallest whole number that will 32.064 𝑚𝑜𝑙
convert each into a whole number. Write = 0.705 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑆
the empirical formula. 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑂 = 45.1 𝑔 𝑥 𝑔
15.999 𝑚𝑜𝑙
• DETERMINATION OF THE MOLECULAR
= 2.82 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂
FORMULA
1. Obtain the Empirical Formula (EF)
III. Get the ratio of the elements by
2. Compute the empirical formula mass
dividing each number of moles by
(EFM)
,-.0@ ,022 the smallest number of mole.
3. 𝑛 = BCD 1.41 𝑚𝑜𝑙
4. Molecular formula = (EF)n 𝑁𝑎 = = 2
0.705 𝑚𝑜𝑙
0.705 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑆 = = 1
0.705 𝑚𝑜𝑙
2.82 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑂 = =4
0.705 𝑚𝑜𝑙
 2.52 𝑚𝑜𝑙
IV. Determine the empirical formula 𝐻 = = 1.79
1.41 𝑚𝑜𝑙
EF: Na2SO4 1.41 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝐶𝑙 = = 1
1.41 𝑚𝑜𝑙
2. The insecticide DDT, dichloro-diphenyl-
trichloro-ethane, had the following Note: multiply the ratio by 5 to
composition by mass: 47.5% C, 2.54% H, make the subscript a whole
and 50.0% Cl. Determine the empirical number.
formula of DDT
C = 2.80 x 5 = 14
Solution: H = 1.79 x 5 = 8.95 = 9
I. Assume 100 g of DDT so that the Cl = 1 x 5 = 5
given percentage of each element
is the mass in grams IV. Derive the empirical formula
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 EF: C14H9CL5
% 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝐷𝑇
= 3. Caffeine, a stimulant found in coffee, tea,
100%
47.5% 𝑥 100 𝑔 chocolate and some medications,
= = 47.5 𝑔 contains 49.48% carbon, 5.15%
100%
% 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻 hydrogen, and 28.87 nitrogen and
%𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝐷𝑇 16.49% oxygen by mass and has a molar
= mass of 194.2 g/mole. Determine the
100%
2.54% 𝑥 100 𝑔 molecular formula of the caffeine.
= = 2.54 𝑔
100%
% 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑙 Atomic wt.: C = 12.011 g/mol;
% 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑙 𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝐷𝑇 H = 1.008 g/mol; N = 14.007 g/mol;
= O = 15.999 g/mol
100%
50.0% 𝑋 100𝑔
= = 50.0 𝑔 Solution:
100%
I. Assume 100 g of caffeine
II. Calculate the number of moles of Mass of C = 49.48 g
each element in 100 g of DDT Mass of H = 5.15 g
Mass of N = 28.87 g
Atomic wt.: C = 12.011 g/mol; Mass of O = 16.49 g
H = 1.008 g/mol; Cl = 35.453 g/mol
II. Number of moles each element
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶 = 47.5 𝑔 𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 = 49.98 𝑔 𝑥
12.011 𝑔 12.011 𝑔
= 3.95 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶 = 4.120 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐶
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻 = 2.54 𝑔 𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻 = 5.15 𝑔 𝑥
1.008 𝑔 1.008 𝑔
= 2.52 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻 = 5.11 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑙 = 50.0 𝑔 𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁 = 28.87 𝑔 𝑥
35.453 𝑔 14.007 𝑔
= 1.41 𝑔 𝐶𝑙 = 2.061 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑁
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑂 = 16.49 𝑔 𝑥
III. Get the ratio of elements by 15.999 𝑔
dividing each number of moles by = 1.031 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂
the smallest number of mole.
3.95 𝑚𝑜𝑙 III. Find the mole of ratios of moles:
𝐶 = = 2.80
1.41 𝑚𝑜𝑙
 4.120 𝑚𝑜𝑙 I. Calculate the mass of oxygen
𝐶 = = 4 Mass of oxygen
1.031 𝑚𝑜𝑙
5.11 𝑚𝑜𝑙 = mass of aluminum oxide – mass
𝐻 = = 5 of aluminum
1.031 𝑚𝑜𝑙
2.061 𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 1.030 g – 0.345 g
𝑁= = 2
1.031 𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 0.485 g
1.031 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑂 = =1
1.031 𝑚𝑜𝑙 II. Calculate the number of moles of
each element
IV. Determine the empirical formula 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
EF: C4H5N2O 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑙 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑥
26.982 𝑔
= 0.0202 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴𝑙
V. Derive the molecular formula 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝐸𝐹𝑀 𝑜𝑓 𝐶& 𝐻) 𝑁$ 𝑂 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑂 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑂 𝑥
𝑔 15.999 𝑔
= V4 𝑥 12.011 X = 0.0303 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑔
+ V5 𝑥 1.008 X III. Find the mole ratio
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑔 0.0202 𝑚𝑜𝑙
+ V2𝑥 14.007 X 𝐴𝑙 = = 1
𝑚𝑜𝑙 0.0202 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑔 0.0303 𝑚𝑜𝑙
+ V1 𝑥 15.999 X 𝑂 = = 1.5
𝑚𝑜𝑙 0.0202 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑔
= 97.097
𝑚𝑜𝑙 IV. Multiply the ratio by 2 to make the
𝑀𝑀 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑛 = subscript a whole number
𝐸𝐹𝑀 Al = 1 x 2 = 2
194.2 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
= O = 1.5 x 2 = 3
97.097 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
=2 V. Determine the empirical formula
(EF)n = (C4H5N2O)2 EF: Al2O3
= C4x2H5x2N2x10O1x12
MF: C8H10N4O12

4. 0.545g aluminum burns completely in

oxygen, producing 1.030g of aluminum
oxide. Find the empirical formula of the
oxide

Atomic wt.: Al = 26.982 g/mol;

O = 15.999 g/mol

Given:
Mass of Aluminum = 0.545 g
Mass of Aluminum oxide = 1.030 g

Required:
Empirical formula of aluminum oxide

Solution:
Equation:
aluminum + oxygen aluminum oxide
 Equation Stoichiometry
Mole – Mole Relationship respectively. Therefore the mole ratio
of O2 and C6H6 is:

• desir
Moles of Moles of
Reaction
ratio from
15 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑂$
desired
ed
substance
= substance x balanced
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶% 𝐻%
given
chemical
subst equation
ance b. Use dimensional analysis method
m
• SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. Phosphoric Acid (H3PO4) may be 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑂$
15 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑂$
prepared by dissolving P4O10 in water = 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶% 𝐻% 𝑥
according to the equation: 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶% 𝐻%
= 7.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑂$
P4O10 + H2O H3PO4
c. Use ratio and proportion
+;E45 ,-.42 F! G! ,-.42 -3 H"
How many moles of H3PO4 are
@4.0/;E4 ,-.42 F G
= @4.0/;E4 ,-.42 -3 H
! ! "
produced by use of 3.20 moles of water?
0.38 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶% 𝐻% 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑂$
Given: =
Moles of water = 3.20 moles 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶% 𝐻% 15 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑂$

Required: 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑂$
0.38 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶% 𝐻% 𝑥 15 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑂$
Moles of phosphoric acid =
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶% 𝐻%
Solution: = 2.85 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑂$
Balanced equation:
P4O10 + 6H2O 4H3PO4 3. Automotive airbags inflate when sodium
Azide, NaN2, rapidly decomposes to its
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻( 𝑃𝑂& constituent elements. The equation for
4 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻( 𝑃𝑂& the reaction is
= 3.20 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻$ 𝑂 𝑥
6 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻$ 𝑂
= 2.13 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻( 𝑃𝑂& 𝑁𝑎𝑁$(2) → 𝑁𝑎(+) + 𝑁$(+)

2. Benzene, C6H6 is a known carcinogen The gaseous N2 so generated inflates the

that burns in air according to the following airbag. How many moles of NaN2 would
equation: have to decompose in order to generate
253 million (2.53 x 108) molecules of N2?
2𝐶% 𝐻%(.) + 15𝑂$(.) → 12𝐶𝑂$(+) + 6𝐻$ 𝑂(+)
Solution:
a. What is the mole ratio of O2 to C6H6? Balanced equation:
b. How many moles of O2 are required 𝑁𝑎𝑁$(2) → 𝑁𝑎(+) + 𝑁$(+)
to react with each mole of C6H6?
c. How many moles of O2 are required 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁6 =
3 !%?@ '!
to react with 0.35 mole of C6H6? 2.53 𝑥 10> 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑁6 𝑥 ;.466 0 34!" !%?@(*?@# '
!
3 !%?@ 𝑁𝑎𝑁2
𝑥
Solution: 3 !%?@ 𝑁2

a. Based on the balanced chemical = 4.20 𝑥 10A3; 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑁𝑎𝑁2

equation, the relative moles of O2 and
C6H6 are 15 moles and 2 moles
 Mass-Mass Relationship Atomic wt.: C = 12.011 g/mol;
H = 1.008 g/mol

• SAMPLE PROBLEMS Solution:

1. In the commercial preparation of 𝐶( 𝐻* + 5𝑂$ → 3𝐶𝑂$ + 4𝐻$ 𝑂
hydrogen chloride gas, what weight of 2.50 g ? mole
HCl in grams may be obtained by heating
284 g of NaCl with excess of H2SO4? 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑂$
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶( 𝐻* 5 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑂$
Equation: = 2.50 𝑔 𝐶( 𝐻* 𝑥 𝑥
44.097 𝑔 𝐶( 𝐻* 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶( 𝐻*
𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻$ 𝑆𝑂& → 𝑁𝑎$ 𝑆𝑂& + 𝐻𝐶𝑙 = 0.283 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑂$
Atomic wt.: Na = 23.000 g/mol; 2. What weight of arsenic acid (H3AsO4)
Cl = 35.453 g/mol; H = 1.008 g/mol should be used with lime CaO to prepare
3.50 moles of calcium arsentate
Solution: [Ca3(AsO4)2] insecticide material?
Balanced equation:
2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻$ 𝑆𝑂& → 𝑁𝑎$ 𝑆𝑂& + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 Equation:
284 g ? wt. 3𝐶𝑎𝑂 + 2 𝐻( 𝐴𝑠𝑂& → 𝐶𝑎( (𝐴𝑠𝑂& )$ + 3𝐻$ 𝑂
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐻𝐶𝑙
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻𝐶𝑙 36.461 𝑔 𝐻𝐶𝑙
Atomic wt.: H = 1.008 g/mol;
= 284 𝑔 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 As = 74.922 g/mol; O = 15.999 g/mol;
38.453 𝑔 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐻𝐶𝑙
C = 12.011 g/mol
= 146 𝑔 𝐻𝐶𝑙
Solution:
2. What weight of sulfur must combine with
aluminum to prepare 3.5 grams of
𝑤𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐻5 𝐴𝑠𝑂8
aluminum sulfide? 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻5 𝐴𝑠𝑂8
= 3.50 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎5 (𝐴𝑠𝑂8 )6 𝑥
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑎5 (𝐴𝑠𝑂8 )6
Atomic wt.: S = 32.085 g/mol; 141.942 𝑔 𝐻5 𝐴𝑠𝑂8
Al = 26.982 g/mol = 7 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻5 𝐴𝑠𝑂8 𝑥
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐻5 𝐴𝑠𝑂8
= 994 𝑔 𝐻5 𝐴𝑠𝑂8
Solution:
Balanced Equation: 3. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3), is often
3𝑆 + 2𝐴𝑙 → 𝐴𝑙$ 𝑆( used in commercial antacids it acts to
?g 3.5 g reduce the acidity in the stomach by
neutralizing stomach acid, HCl, by the
𝑤𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑆 following reaction
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑙6 𝑆5 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑆 32.085 𝑔 𝑆
= 3.5 𝑔 𝐴𝑙6 𝑆5 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
150.219 𝑔 𝐴𝑙6 𝑆5 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝑙6 𝑆5 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑆 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂!(#) + 𝐻𝐶𝑙(%&) → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙'(%&) + 𝐶𝑂(()) + 𝐻' 𝑂(*)
= 2.2 𝑔 𝑆
What mass of CaCO3 is needed to
Mass-Mole Relationship neutralize 1.204 x 1022 molecules HCl?

Atomic wt.: Ca = 40.078 g/mol;

• SAMPLE PROBLEMS C = 12.011 g/mol; O = 15.999 g/mol;
1. Propane, C3H8 is a common fuel used for Cl = 35.453 g/mol
cooking and home heating. What mole of
O2 is consumed in combustion of 2.50g
propane?
 Solution: Solution:
Balanced equation:
Balanced equation: 3𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑜( + 2𝐻( 𝑃𝑜& → 𝐶𝑎( (𝑃𝑂& )$ + 3𝐶𝑂$ + 3𝐻$ 𝑂
65g 45.0 g ? mass
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂5(#) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙("D) → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙6("D) + 𝐶𝑂8(9) + 𝐻6 𝑂(?)
? mass 1.204 x 1022 molecules I. Identify the limiting reactant by
calculating the amount of product
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 = formed from each of the given
1.204 𝑥 1022 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻𝐶𝑙 𝑥
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻𝐶𝑙
𝑥 amounts of reactants
6.02 𝑥 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻𝐶𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑜5
3 !%? T"T<" 344.4>; 9 T"T<"
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑜5 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑎5 (𝑃𝑂8 )6
𝑥 = 1.001 𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂5 = 65.0 𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑜5 𝑥 𝑥
6 !%? UT? 3 !%? T"T<" 100.086 𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑜5 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑜5
= 0.216 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑎5 (𝑃𝑂8 )6
Limiting Reactants 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻5 𝑃𝑜8
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐻5 𝑃𝑜8 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑎5 (𝑃𝑂8 )6
= 45.0 𝑔 𝐻5 𝑃𝑜8 𝑥 𝑥
97.994 𝑔 𝐻5 𝑃𝑜8 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻5 𝑃𝑜8
• LIMITING REACTANT = 0.230 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑎5 (𝑃𝑂8 )6
- Reactant that is completely consumed in
a reaction 65.0 g CaCo3 produces less
- Other reactants are sometimes called Co3(PO4)2 than 45.0 g H3PO4,
excess reactant or excess reagents therefore CaCo3 is the limiting
- When the limiting reactant is used up, reactant.
the reaction will stop
- Excess reagents are reactants present II. Calculate the mass of Co3(PO4)2
in quantities greater than what is needed formed if its molar massis
by the reaction. 310.174 g/mol

• SAMPLE PROBLEMS 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐶𝑎3 (𝑃𝑂4 )2

1. A 6.50 g sample of calcium carbonate is 310.174 𝑔 𝐶𝑎3 (𝑃𝑂4 )2
reacted with 45.0 g of phosphoric acid. = 0.216 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑎3 (𝑃𝑂4 )2 𝑥
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑎3 (𝑃𝑂4 )2
The equation for the reaction is: = 67.0 𝑔 𝐶𝑎3 (𝑃𝑂4 )2

3𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑜( + 2𝐻( 𝑃𝑜& → 𝐶𝑎( (𝑃𝑂& )$ + 3𝐶𝑂$ + 3𝐻$ 𝑂

III. Find the amount of H3PO4 used
Calculate: 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐻3 𝑃𝑜4
a. The number of grams of calcium 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻3 𝑃𝑜4
phosphate that could be formed = .216 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑎3 (𝑃𝑂4 )2 𝑥 𝑥
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑎3 (𝑃𝑂4 )2
b. The number of grams of excess 97.994 𝑔 𝐻5 𝑃𝑜8
reagent that will remain = 42.3 𝑔 𝐻5 𝑃𝑜8
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐻5 𝑃𝑜8

Atomic wt.: C = 40.078 g/mol; 45.0 g – 42.3 g = 2.70 g in excess

C = 12.011 g/mol; O = 15.99 g/mol;
H = 1.008 g/mol; P = 30.974 g/mol 2. Hydrogen Cyanide is produced
industrially from the reaction of gaseous
Given: ammonia (NH3), oxygen (O2), and
Mass of calcium carbonate = 65.0 g methane (CH4)
Mass phosphoric acid = 45.0 g
𝑁𝐻((+) + 3𝑂$(+) + 𝐶𝐻&(+) → 𝐻𝐶𝑁(+) + 𝐻$ 𝑂
Required:
(a) Mass of calcium phosphate
If 2000 g of each of NH3, O2, CH4 are
(b) Mass of excess reactant
reacted, what is the mass of HCN and
 water that will be produced? Determine • The actual yield is the amount of product that
the limiting reactant and excess is actually formed.
reactants. • The actual yield is almost always less than
(and can never be greater than) the
Atomic wt.: N = 14.007 g/mol; theoretical yield.
H = 1.008 g/mol; O = 15.999 g/mol; • Percent yield is the ratio of the actual yien\ld
C = 12.011 g/mol to the theoretical yield
o 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 =
Solution: 06/80. P;4.9
/=4-@4/;60. P;4.9 𝑥 100%
Balanced equation:
2𝑁𝐻5(9) + 3𝑂6(9) + 2𝐶𝐻8(9) → 2𝐻𝐶𝑁(9) + 6𝐻6 𝑂 • Percent yields greater than 100% are
2000g 2000g 2000 g possible if the measured product of the
reaction contains impurities.
I. 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝐶𝑁 =
# ,-.4 LG $ ,-.42 GFL
2000 𝑔 𝑁𝐻( 𝑥 #'.N(# + LG$ 𝑥 $ ,-.42 GFL • SAMPLE PROBLEMS
$ 1. Imagine that you are working on ways to
= 117.4 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻𝐶𝑁 improve the process by which iron ore
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝐶𝑁 = containing Fe2O3 is converted into iron. In
# ,-.4 𝑂 $ ,-.42 GFL
2000𝑔 𝑂2 𝑥 (#.OOO + 𝑂2 𝑥 ( ,-.42 𝑂 your texts you carry out the following
2 2
= 41.67 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻𝐶𝑁 reaction on a small scale:
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝐶𝑁 =
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝐻 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻𝐶𝑁 𝐹𝑒$ 𝑂((2) + 𝐶𝑂(+) → 𝐹𝑒(2) + 𝐶𝑂$
2000𝑔 𝐶𝐻4 𝑥 16.043 𝑔 𝐶𝐻4 𝑥 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐶𝐻
4 4
= 124.7 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻𝐶𝑁 a. If you start with 150 g of Fe2O3 as
the limiting reagent, what is the
The limiting reactant is O2; Excess theoretical yield of Fe?
reactants are NH3 and CH4 b. If the actual yield of Fe in your test
was 87.9 g, what was the percent
$'.N$% + GFL
II. 41. 67 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻𝐶𝑁 𝑥 yield?
# ,-.4 GFL
= 1126 𝑔 𝐻𝐶𝑁
Atomic wt.: Fe = 55.845 g/mol;
O = 15.999 g/mol
III. 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻2 𝑂 =
6 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻2 𝑂
41.67 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻𝐶𝑁 𝑥 𝑥 Solution:
2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻𝐶𝑁
3>.43= 9 U <
3 !%?@ U !< = 2252 𝑔 𝐻6 𝑂 Balanced equation:
!
𝐹𝑒$ 𝑂((2) + 3𝐶𝑂(+) → 2𝐹𝑒(2) + 3𝐶𝑂$
Percent Yields From Chemical Reactions 150 g ?TY
?PY

• The expected amount of product is not I. Determine the theoretical yield

usually obtained. of Fe
• There are usually losses due to an 𝑇𝑌 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑒 =
# ,-.4 C4 H
incomplete reaction, undesirable side 150 𝑔 𝐹𝑒$ 𝑂( 𝑥 #)O.%*' + C4" $H
" $
reactions, etc.
• Chemists need a measurement that $ ,-.4 C4 )).*O) + C4
indicates how successful a reaction has 𝑥 # ,-.4 C4 𝑥
" H$ # ,-.4 C4
been. This measurement is called the = 105 𝑔 𝐹𝑒
percent yield.
• Theoretical yield is the maximum amount of II. Solve for the percent yield of Fe
product that could be produced by the 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝑥 100%
complete reaction of the limiting reactant. 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
 *'.O + Solution:
= #)N + 𝑥 100% = 58.6%
Balanced equation:
𝑊𝑂( + 3𝐻$ → 𝑊 + 3𝐻$ 𝑂
2. If 25.0 g of magnesium oxide (MgO) is 45.5 g AY = 9.60 mL
treated with 32.6 g of phosphoric acid
(H3PO4) and 13.7 g of magnesium I. Calculate the mass of water
phosphate Mg3(PO4)2 is obtained.
Calculate the theoretical yield and 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻$ 𝑂
percent yield. 𝑔
= 1.00 𝑥 9.60 𝑚𝐿 = 9.60 𝑔
𝑚𝐿
Equation:
3𝑀𝑔𝑂 + 2𝐻( 𝑃𝑂& → 𝑀𝑔( (𝑃𝑂& )$ + 3𝐻$ 𝑂 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻$ 𝑂
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑊𝑂(
Atomic wt.: Mg = 24.305 g/mol; = 45.5𝑔 𝑊𝑂( 𝑥 𝑥
231.837 𝑔 𝑊𝑂(
O = 15.999 g/mol; H = 1.008 g/mol; 3 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻$ 𝑂 18.015 𝑔 𝐻$ 𝑂
P = 30.0974 g/mol 𝑥
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑊𝑂( 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐻$ 𝑂
Solution: = 10.6 𝑔 𝐻$ 𝑂

I. 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑔( (𝑃𝑂& )$ = II. 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 =

06/80. P;4.9
# ,-.4 D+H
25.0 𝑔 𝑀𝑔𝑂 𝑥 &N.(N& + D+H 𝑥 /=4-@4/;60. P;4.9 𝑥 100%
# ,-.4 D+$ (QH% )" 9.60 𝑔
= 𝑥 100% = 90.6%
( ,-.42 D+H 10.6 𝑔
= 0.207 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑀𝑔( (𝑃𝑂& )$

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑔( (𝑃𝑂& )$ =

# ,-.4 G QH
32.6 𝑔 𝐻( 𝑃𝑂& 𝑥 O'.OO& + G$ QH% 𝑥
$ %
# ,-.4 D+$ (QH% )"
$ ,-.42 G$ QH%

= 0.166 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑀𝑔( (𝑃𝑂& )$

Limiting reactant: H3PO4

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐻( 𝑃𝑂& =
O'.OO& + G QH
0.166 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑀𝑔( (𝑃𝑂& )$ 𝑥 # D+ (QH$ ) %
$ % "
= 16.3 𝑔 𝐻( 𝑃𝑂&

II. 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 =

06/80. P;4.9
/=4-@4/;60. P;4.9 𝑥 100%
#(.' +
= #%.( + 𝑥 100% = 84%

3. What is the percent yield of a reaction in

which 45.5 g of tungsten (VI) oxide (WO3)
reacts with excess hydrogen gas to
produce metallic tungsten and 9.60 ml of
water? Density of water = 1.00 g/ml
Atomic wt.: W = 183.840 g/mol;
O = 15.999 g/mol
 Gas Laws
• COMMON UNITS FOR PRESSURE pressure can be measured by a device
known as a barometer.
unit Abbreviation Unit = to 1 2. VOLUME (V)
atm - Because a gas completely fills its
atmosphere atm 1 atm container, the volume of the gas is equal
Millimeters of mmHg 760 mmHg to the volume of its container.
Hg - The volume of a gas in a small vial when
Torricelli Torr 760 torr transferred to a larger container
Inches of Hg inHg 29.9 inHg assumes the volume of that container.
Pounds per lb/in2 (psi) 14.7 psi 3. TEMPERATURE (T)
square inch - Calculations with gases use the Kelvin
Pascal Pa 101.325 Pa temperature scale. Any value given in a
different temperature scale has to be
converted to Kelvin before it can be used
• KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF
for calculations.
GASES
- At 0 K which is absolute zero, gas
1. The gas consists of minute particles
particles have no energy and therefore
(atoms or molecules). These particles
are not in motion
are so small that the volume they occupy
4. NUMBER OF MOLES (n)
is negligible compared to the volume of
- This is the quantity of the gas which is
the container or the distance between
expressed in moles.
them.
2. The gas particles are constantly moving
at a rapid and random motion such that Boyle’s Law
they collide with each other and against
the walls of the container.
3. The gas particles are considered as hard
spheres such that their collisions are
Perfectly elastic. This means that no
energy is lost during collision.
4. The interaction among particles
(intermolecular forces of attraction) ,
either attractive or repulsive, is negligible.
5. The average kinetic energy of a gas is
directly proportional to its absolute • Boyle’s Law states that the pressure exerted
temperature expressed in Kelvin. by a certain amount of gas is inversely
proportional to its volume at constant
• PROPERTIES OF GASES temperature. Inverse proportionality means
1. PRESSURE (P) that for every change caused, there is a
- The pressure of a gas is the result of a corresponding change in the opposite
force that is created when gas particles direction.
hit the walls of a container. • So in case of Boyle’s Law it would simply
- The gases of the atmosphere also exert read: increase in pressure will decrease
pressure on everything they are in volume; decrease in pressure will increase
contact with. This is called atmospheric volume.
pressure.
• P1V1 = P2V2
- atmospheric pressure is a result of the
o P1 is the initial pressure exerted by
attraction of the gas particles by the
earth’s gravity. This atmospheric the gas
o V1 is the initial volume occupied by
the gas
 o P2 is the final pressure exerted Charle’s Law
by the gas
o V2 is the final volume occupied
by the gas

• SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. A sample of a gas occupies 360 mL under
a pressure of 0.750 atm. If the
temperature is held constant, what
volume will the sample occupy under a
pressure of 1.00 atm?
• An increase in temperature would cause the
gas molecules to move faster, collide harder
Given:
and push each other farther apart resulting
V1 =360mL
in them occupying a greater volume. On the
P1 =0.750atm
other hand, a drop in temperature would
P2 =1.00atm
decrease the space between the particles
Find: V2
resulting in a decrease in volume.
Change: P increases; therefore, V must
• V1T2 = V2T1
decrease
o T1 is the initial absolute temperature
Solution: (Kelvin) of the gas
𝑃# 𝑉# 𝑃$ 𝑉$ o V1 is the initial volume occupied by
= the gas
𝑃$ 𝑃$
𝑃# 𝑉# (𝑂. 760 𝑎𝑡𝑚)(360 𝑚𝑙) o T2 is the final absolute temperature
𝑉$ = = (Kelvin)of the gas
𝑃$ 1.00 𝑎𝑡𝑚
o V2 is the final volume occupied by the
= 270 𝑚𝑙
gas
2. At 0oC and 5.00 atm, a given sample of • Charles’ Law states that at a fixed pressure,
gas occupies 75000 mL. The gas is the volume of a gas is directly proportional to
compressed to a final volume of 30.0 liters the temperature of the gas.
at 0oC. What is the final pressure?
• SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
Given: 1. A sample of a gas has a volume of 79.5
P1 =5.00atm mL at 45oC. What volume will the sample
#R occupy at 0oC when the pressure is held
V1 =75000 mL x '),R =1000 mL
constant?
V2 = 30.0 liters
Find: P2 Given:
Change: V decreases; therefore P must V1 =79.5mL
increase T1 = 45oC
T2 = 0oC
Solution: Find: V2
𝑃# 𝑉# 𝑃$ 𝑉$ Change: T decreases; therefore V must
=
𝑉$ 𝑉$ also decrease
𝑃# 𝑉# (5.00 𝑎𝑡𝑚)(75 𝐿)
𝑃$ = =
𝑣$ 30.0 𝐿 Solution:
= 12.5 𝑎𝑡𝑚 Convert Temperature: oC to K
T1 = 45+273=318K
T2 =0+273 = 273K
 • Increasing the temperature of a gas will
𝑉# 𝑇$ 𝑉$ 𝑇# increase its average kinetic energy, causing
=
𝑇# 𝑇# the particles to move faster. This increases
𝑉# 𝑇$ (79.5 𝑚𝑙)(273 𝐾) the number of collisions between the gas
𝑉$ = = = 68.3 𝑚𝑙 particles, and therefore increases the
𝑇# 318 𝐾
pressure of the gas.
• P1T2 = P2T1
2. With the pressure remaining constant o T1 is the initial absolute temperature
30.0 liters of gas whose initial (Kelvin) of the gas
temperature is 25oC is heated until it o P1 the initial pressure exerted by the
expanded to 15.0 liters. Find the final gas
temperature in oC. o P2 is the final pressure exerted by the
gas
Given: o T2 is the final absolute temperature
V1 =30L (Kelvin) of the gas
V2 =15L • Gay-Lussac's law / Amonton’s law states
T1 = 25oC that the pressure of a given mass of gas
Find: T2 in OC varies directly with the absolute temperature
Change: V decreases; therefore T must of the gas, when the volume is kept constant.
also decrease
• SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Solution: 1. A 10.0 liter container is filled with a gas to
Convert Temperature: oC to K a pressure of 2.00 atm at 0oC. At what
T1 = 25+273=298K temperature will the pressure inside the
container be 2.50 atm?

𝑉# 𝑇$ 𝑉$ 𝑇# Given:
= Volume = 10.0 L (constant)
𝑉# 𝑉#
𝑉# 𝑇$ (15.0𝐿)(298 𝐾) P1 = 1520 mmHg
𝑇$ = = = 149 𝐾 T1 = 0oC
𝑉# 30.0 𝐿
P2 =2.50atm
Convert : T: Find: T2
T2 = 149 -273 = -124oC Change: P increases; therefore, T must
also increase
Gay Lussac’s Law
Solution:
Convert pressure: mmHg to atm
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚
𝑃# = 1520 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔 𝑥
760 𝑚𝑚𝐻𝑔
= 2.000 𝑎𝑡𝑚

Convert Temperature: oC to K
T1 = 0+273=273K

𝑃# 𝑇$ 𝑃$ 𝑇#
=
𝑃# 𝑃#
𝑃# 𝑇$ (2.50 𝑎𝑡𝑚)(273 𝐾)
𝑇$ = = = 342 𝐾
𝑃# 2.000 𝑎𝑡𝑚
 2. An aerosol container has a pressure of Solution:
3.0 atm at 30oC. What is the new
pressure in the aerosol container if it is Convert Pressure: torr to atm
thrown into a fire with a temperature of # 0/,
P1 = 300.0 torr x '%N /-@@ = 0.3947 atm
550oC? The aerosol can may explode if
the pressure inside exceeds 7.0 atm.
Convert Temperature: oC to K
Would you expect the can to explode?
T1 = -23.00oC + 273 = 250.00 K
T2 = 27.00oC + 273 = 300.00 K
Given:
P1 = 3.0 atm 𝑃# 𝑉# 𝑇$ 𝑃$ 𝑉$ 𝑇#
T2 = 550oC =
T1 = 30oC 𝑃# 𝑇# 𝑃# 𝑇#
Find: P2
𝑃# 𝑉# 𝑇$
Change: T increases, thus P must also 𝑉$ =
increase 𝑃# 𝑇#
(0.3947 𝑎𝑡𝑚)(800.0 𝑚𝑙)(300.0 𝐾)
=
Solution: (0.7981 𝑎𝑡𝑚)(250.000 𝐾)
Convert Temperature: oC to K = 480.2 𝑚𝐿
T1 = 30+273=303K
T2 = 550+273=823K Avogadro’s Law

𝑃# 𝑇$ 𝑃$ 𝑇# • V1n2 = V2n1
=
𝑃# 𝑃#
𝑃# 𝑇$ (2.50 𝑎𝑡𝑚)(273 𝐾) • SAMPLE PROBLEM
𝑇$ = = = 342 𝐾 If 0.350 mol of argon gas occupies a
𝑃# 2.000 𝑎𝑡𝑚
volume of 68.5 mL at a particular
temperature and pressure , what volume
would 0.580 mole of argon have the same
Combined Gas law conditions?

Q& S& Q" S" Given:

• =
T& T" n1 = 0.350 mole
V1 =68.5mL
• SAMPLE PROBLEM n2 = 0.580 mole
A given mass of gas has a volume of 800.0 Find V2
mL at -23.00oC and 300.0 torr. What would Change: n increases, thus V must also
be the volume of the gas be at 27.00oC and increase
0.7891 atm of pressure? The amount of gas
is constant. Solution:

Given: 𝑉# 𝑛$ 𝑉$ 𝑛#
V1 = 800.0mL =
𝑛# 𝑛#
T1 = -23.000oC 𝑉# 𝑛$ (68.5 𝑚𝑙)(0.580 𝑚𝑜𝑙)
P1 = 300.0 torr 𝑉$ = =
𝑛# 0.350 𝑚𝑜𝑙
T2 = 27.00oC = 114 𝑚𝑙
P2 = 0.7891 atm
Find: V2
 Ideal Gas Law Molar mass of CO2 = 44.009g/mole

Molar mass divided by molar volume

• PV = nRT yields the gas density at STP.
• R is a gas constant, it does not change its &&.NNO + FH$ #,-.4FH$
Density of CO2 = #,-.4 FH$ 𝑥 $$.&R FH$
numerical value at any condition of P, V,T
and n. The constant R is known as the gas = 1.96 g/L
constant and can be computed from the
ideal gas equation. 3. Calculate the density of O2 at 25oCand a
pressure of 845 torr?
• Let us consider 1.0 mole of an ideal gas at
STP. One mole of an ideal gas at STP
Given:
occupies a volume of 22.4 L.
𝑃𝑉 (1 𝑎𝑡𝑚)(22.4 𝐿) T = 25 oC
𝑅 = = P = 845 torr
𝑛𝑇 (1.0 𝑚𝑜𝑙)(273 𝐾) Find: density of O2
𝐿 − 𝑎𝑡𝑚
= 0.0821
𝑚𝑜𝑙 − 𝐾 Solution:
Convert Temperature: oC to K
• SAMPLE PROBLEMS: T = 25 +273 = 298 K
1. If 1.2 moles of a gas are confined in a
10.0 L cylinder at a temperature of Convert Pressure: torr to atm
100oC, calculate the pressure in atm? #0/,
P=845torr 𝑥 '%N /-@@ = 1.11atm
Given:
n = 1.2 moles Molar mass of O2 =
V = 10.0 L 2 x 15.999 g/mole = 31.998 g/mole
T= 100oC
Find: P Equation for Ideal Gas Law: PV = nRT
,022 ,
Solution: Equation for density : 𝜌 = ,-.4 (5) or 𝜌 = 5
Convert Temperature: oC to K 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
T = 100 + 273 = 373 K 𝑚
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇
𝑀𝑀
𝑛𝑅𝑇 (𝑃)(𝑉)(𝑀𝑀) (𝑚)(𝑅)(𝑇)
𝑃 = =
𝑉 𝑉 𝑉
𝐿 − 𝑎𝑡𝑚 (𝑚)(𝑅)(𝑇)
(1.2 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠) V0.0821 ( )
= 𝑚𝑜𝑙 − 𝐾 X 373 𝐾 (𝑃)(𝑀𝑀) =
10.0 𝐿 𝑉
(ρ)(𝑅)(𝑇)
= 3.7 𝑎𝑡𝑚 (𝑃)(𝑀𝑀) =
(𝑅)(𝑇)
2. Calculate the density of CO2 at STP. A (𝑃)(𝑀𝑀) (ρ)(𝑅)(𝑇)
=
gas with a small molar mass will have a (𝑅)(𝑇) (𝑅)(𝑇)
lower density than a gas with a large 𝑔
(𝑃)(𝑀𝑀) (1.11 𝑎𝑡𝑚)(31.99 𝑚𝑜𝑙 )
molar mass. Thus, gas densities are ρ = =
(𝑅)(𝑇) 𝐿 − 𝑎𝑡𝑚
typically reported in g/L Gas density can 0.0821 (298𝐾)
𝑚𝑜𝑙 − 𝐾
be calculated from molar mass and molar = 1.45 𝑔/𝐿
volume.
4. A 1.40 L volume of a gas measured at a
Atomic weight: C = 12.011 g/mole; temperature of 27 oC and a pressure of
O = 15.999 g/mol 890 mmHg was found to weigh 2.273 g.
Calculate the molecular weight of the
Solution: gas.
Volume of gas at STP = 22.4 L/mole
 Given: • SAMPLE PROBLEMS
V = 1.40 L
T = 27oC 1. A container holds three gases: oxygen,
Wt. of gas = 2.273g carbon dioxide, and helium. The partial
pressures of the three gases are 2.50
Solution: atm, 5.60 atm and 7.00 atm, respectively.
What is the total pressure inside
Convert Temperature: oC to K container?
T=27+273 =300K
Solution:
Convert Pressure: mmHg to atm PT = 2.5atm +5.6 atm +7.0 atm = 15.1atm
#0/,
P=890mmHg x '%N ,,G+ = 1.17atm
2. What is the total pressure exerted by a
mixture of 2.00g of H2 and 8.00g of N2 at
𝑃𝑉 (1.17 𝑎𝑡𝑚)(1.40𝐿)
𝑛 = = 273 K in a 10.0-L vessel?
𝑅𝑇 𝐿 − 𝑎𝑡𝑚
V0.0821 𝑚𝑜𝑙 − 𝐾X (300𝐾)
= 0.0665 𝑚𝑜𝑙 Atomic wt.: H = 1.008 g/mol;
𝑚 2.273 𝑔 N = 14.007 g/mol
𝑀𝑀 = = = 34.2 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑛 0.0665 𝑚𝑜𝑙
Given:
Mass of H2 = 2.00 g
Mass of N2 = 8.00 g
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
T = 273 K
Find: PT of mixture

Solution:
𝑅𝑇
𝑃T = 𝑛 T
𝑉
𝑛 T = 𝑛𝐻$ + 𝑛𝑁$

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐻$ 2.00 𝑔
𝑛𝐻$ = = 𝑔
𝑀𝑀 𝐻$ 1.008 𝑚𝑜𝑙
= 0.992 𝑚𝑜𝑙
• Dalton’s Law states that in a mixture of non- 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑁$ 8.00 𝑔
reacting gases, the total pressure exerted is 𝑛𝑁$ = =
𝑀𝑀 𝑁$ 14.007 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙
equal to the sum of the partial pressures of = 0.286 𝑚𝑜𝑙
the individual gases. This law is expressed
in an equation as 𝑛 T = 0.992 𝑚𝑜𝑙 + 0.286 𝑚𝑜𝑙
PT =p1 +p2 +p3+...
= 1.278 𝑚𝑜𝑙
o PT is the total pressure exerted by the
mixture of gases 𝐿 − 𝑎𝑡𝑚
o p1, p2, p3... are the partial pressures V0.0821 𝑚𝑜𝑙 − 𝐾X (273 𝐾)
of the gases 1, 2, 3... 𝑃T = (1.278 𝑚𝑜𝑙)
10.0 𝐿
• Partial pressure refers to the pressure that = 2.86 𝑎𝑡𝑚
would be exerted by a gas in the mixture if it
was the only gas present in the container.
 Partial Pressures in Terms of Mole Solution:
I. Calculate the total moles of a gas
Fraction
mixture
nT = nHe + nH2O + nCO2
• Mole fraction (X): a dimensionless number nT = 5.0 mol + 3.0 mol + nCO2
that expresses the ratio of the number of
moles of one component compared to the II. Solve for the mole fraction of each
total number of moles in a mixture component of a gas mixture
5
o 𝑋! = ' ).N ,-.
5(
XHe = = 0.25
• The mole fraction is a dimensionless $N ,-.
(.N ,-.
quantity between 0 and 1. If XA=1.0, then the XH2O = $N ,-.
= 0.15
sample is pure A, not a mixture. If XA=0, then #$.N ,-.
XCO2 = $N ,-. = 0.60
no A is present in the mixture. The sum of
the mole fractions of all the components XT = 0.25 + 0.15 + 0.60 = 1
present must equal 1.
)' *( 2. From data gathered by Voyager I,
Q' 5
o Q(
= +
)' *( = 5' = 𝑋! scientists have estimated the
(
Q'
+ composition of the atmosphere of Titan,
o Q(
= 𝑋! Saturn’s largest moon. The total pressure
o 𝑃! = 𝑋! 𝑃T on the surface of Titan is 1220 torr. The
atmosphere consists of 82 mol percent
§ PA = partial pressure of gas A N2, 12 mol percent Ar, and 6.0 mol
§ XA = mole fraction gas A percent CH4. Calculate the partial
§ PT = total pressure of the pressure of each of these gases in Titan’s
mixture atmosphere.
• For gas B:
), *( Given:
Q, 5
o Q(
= +
), *( = 5, = 𝑋U PT = 1220 torr
(
+ Mole percent N2 = 82%
Q,
o Q(
= 𝑋U Mole percent Ar = 12%
o 𝑃U = 𝑋U 𝑃T Mole percent CH4 = 6.0%
Find: a. pN2; b. pAr; c. pCH4
§ PB = partial pressure of gas A
§ XB = mole fraction gas A Solution:
§ PT = total pressure of the I. Convert mole percent to mole
mixture fraction:
*$
XN2 = #NN = 0.82
• SAMPLE PROBLEMS: XAr =
(.N ,-.
= 0.12
1. If a gas mixture contains 5.0 mol He (g), $N ,-.
#$.N ,-.
3.0 mol H2O (g), and 12.0 mol CO2 (g), XCH4= $N ,-. = 0.060
calculate the mole fraction of each gas. II. Calculate the partial pressure of
each gas
Given: a. pN2 = XN2PT
n(mol)He = 5.0 mol = 0.82 x 1220 torr
nH2O = 3.0 mol = 1.0 x 103 torr
nCO2 = 12.0 mol b. pAr = XArPT
= 0.12 x 1220 torr
= 1.5 x 102 torr
c. pCH4 = X CH4PT
= 0.060 x 1220 torr
= 73 torr
3. A mixture of gases contains 3.50 g PT = 0.290 + 1.50 + 0.715
N2,1.30 g of H2, and 5.27 g of NH3.If the = 2.505 atm
total pressure of the mixture is 2.50 atm,
what is partial pressure of each Collecting Gases over Water
component?

Atomic wt. N = 14.007 g/mol; • Because the gas is collected over water, it is
H = 1.008 g/mol not pure but is mixed with vapor from the
evaporation of the water. Dalton’s law can be
Given: used to calculate the amount of the desired
Mass N2 = 3.50 g gas by subtracting the contribution of the
Mass H2 = 1.30 g water vapor.
Mass NH3 = 5.27 g o Ptotal = Pg + PH2O
PT = 2.50 atm o Pg = Ptotal - PH2O
§ Pg is the pressure of the
Find: a. pN2; b. pH2; c. pNH3 desired gas

Solution: • SAMPLE PROBLEM

I. Calculate the number of mol (n) in A sample of KClO3 is partially decomposed
each gas producing O2 that is collected over water as
𝑚 in the as in the above figure. The volume of
𝑛 =
𝑀𝑀 gas collected is 0.250 L at 26oC and 765 torr
3.50 𝑔 total pressure. (a) How moles of oxygen (O2)
𝑛𝑁$ = 𝑔 = 0.125 𝑚𝑜𝑙
28.014 𝑚𝑜𝑙 are collected? (b) How many grams of KClO3
were decomposed? (c)When dry, what
1.30 𝑔
𝑛𝐻$ = 𝑔 = 0.645 𝑚𝑜𝑙 volume would the O2 gas collected at the
2.016 𝑚𝑜𝑙 same temperature and pressure? The vapor
5.27 𝑔 pressure of water at 26oC is 25 torr.
𝑛𝑁𝐻( = 𝑔 = 0.309 𝑚𝑜𝑙
17.031 𝑚𝑜𝑙 Equation:
nT = 0.125 +0.645 +0.309 mol 2𝐾𝐶𝑙𝑂((2) → 2𝐾𝐶𝑙(2) + 3𝑂$(+)
= 1.079 mol
Atomic wt.: K = 39.098g/mol;
II. Calculate the mole fraction of Cl = 35.453 g/mol; O = 15.999 g/mol
each gas
N.#$) ,-.
XN2 = #.N'O ,-. = 0.116 Given:
N.%&) ,-. V = 0.250 L
XH2 = #.N'O ,-. = 0.598
N.(NO ,-.
PT = 765 torr
XCH3 = #.N'O ,-. = 0.286 PH2O vapor at 26oC = 25 torr

III. Solve for the partial pressure of Find: a. n (mol) O2 collected; b. mass
each gas (grams) KClO3 used; c. volume dry O2
a. pN2 = XN2PT
= 0.116 x 2.50 atm Solution:
= 0.290 atm Convert Temperature: 26 + 273 = 299 K
b. pH2 = XH2PT
= 0.598 x 2.50 atm I. Calculate the partial pressure of O2
= 1.50 atm PO2 = PT - PH2O vapor at 26oC
c. pCH3 = X CH3PT PO2 = 765 torr – 25 torr = 740 torr
= 0.286 x 2.50 atm
= 0.715 atm
 II. Use ideal-gas equation to solve for • The density (𝜌) of the gas can also be
the number of moles O2, which gives determined by rearranging the equation
QS
a. 𝑛𝑂$ = VT above.
, QDD
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 o ρ = S = VT
(740 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟 𝑥 760 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟)(0.250𝐿) QDD
= o ρ =
𝐿 − 𝑎𝑡𝑚 VT
V0.0821 𝑚𝑜𝑙 − 𝐾X (299 𝐾)
= 9.92 𝑥 10W( 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂$ • SAMPLE PROBLEMS
b. Calculate the mass of KClO3 1. Acetylene gas can be produced by slowly
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐾𝐶𝑙𝑂( = reacting calcium carbide with water.
$ ,-. XF.H
9.92 𝑥 10W( 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑂$ 𝑥 ( ,-. H $
#$$.)&* + XF.H$
"
𝐶𝑎𝐶$(2) + 𝐻$ 𝑂(.) → 𝐶$ 𝐻$(+) + 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻)$
𝑥 # ,-.4 XF.H$
= 0.810 𝑔 𝐾𝐶𝑙𝑂(
c. The original gas mixture contained If 35.0 g of calcium carbide is allowed to
O2, at a partial pressure of 740 torr react with an excess amount of water,
and water vapour, with a partial what will be the volume (in mL) of the
pressure of 25 torr. We are going acetylene gas produced under 1.00 atm
to remove the water vapor, leaving and 298 K.
dry O2. The dry O2 will have a
pressure of 760 torr at the same Atomic wt.: Ca = 40.078 g/mol;
temperature as before. The C = 12.011 g/mol; H = 1.008 g/mol
volume it will occupy follows from
Boyle’s Law: Given:
𝑃# 𝑉# = 𝑃$ 𝑉$ Mass of CaC2 = 35.0 g
P = 1 atm
𝑃# 𝑉# 740 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟 𝑥 0.250 𝐿 T = 298 K
𝑉$ = = Find: V of acetylene
𝑃$ 760 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟
= 0.242 𝐿
Solution
Gas Stoichiometry 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑎𝐶$
𝑚𝐶$ 𝐻$ = 35.0 𝑔 𝐶𝑎𝐶$ 𝑥
64.100 𝑔 𝐶$ 𝐻$
26.038 𝑔 𝐶$ 𝐻$
• Whenever gases take part in a chemical 𝑥 = 14.2 𝑔 𝐶$ 𝐻$
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝐶$ 𝐻$
reaction, either as reactants or products, 𝑚 𝑅𝑇
they do so simple proportions by volumes. 𝑉=V X[ \
𝑀𝑀 𝑃
Provided the volumes of gases are
measured at the same temperature and #&.$ + ZN.N*$#
-./01
[($O* X)
123.4
pressure. 𝑉 = V$%.N(* +/,-.X q #.NN 0/,
r
• If the number of moles (m) of a gaseous
= 13.3 L
reactant or product is known, the volume of
the gas is calculated directly using the ideal
2. What volume of NH3 will be formed from
gas equation
12.0 L of H2 if the volumes of the gases
o 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
5VT are measured under identical conditions
o 𝑉= Q of T and P? Assume that volume of N2
• The mass (m) of the gas can be obtained if supplied is in excess of that necessary to
its molar mass (MM) is known. completely react all available H2(g) and
,
o 𝑛 = DD that the reaction goes to completion.
o 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
, Equation:
o 𝑃𝑉 = DD 𝑛𝑅𝑇 𝑁$(+) + 𝐻$(+) → 𝑁𝐻((+)
QSDD
o 𝑚= VT
 Solution: • SAMPLE PROBLEMS:
Balanced equation: 1. A sample of N2 effuses through a tiny
𝑁$(+) + 3𝐻$(+) → 2𝑁𝐻((+) hole in 38 s. What must be the molar
mass of a gas That requires 64 s to
Solve the volume (L) of NH3 by Ratio and effuse under identical conditions?
Proportion
Given:
3 𝐿 𝐻$ 12.0 𝐿 𝐻$ 𝑡𝑁2 =38s
= 𝑡𝑋 = 64s
2 𝐿 𝑁𝐻( 𝑉𝑁𝐻(
2 𝐿 𝑁𝐻( 𝑥 12.0 𝐿 𝐻$
𝑉𝑁𝐻( = = 8.0 𝐿 𝐻𝑁( Find: Molar mass of gas X
3 𝐿 𝐻$
Let the unknown gas X be gas 1 and N2
be gas 2. Solution:
Graham’s Law
Solution:

• Diffusion is the tendency of molecules or √𝑀𝑀𝐵 𝑡𝐵

ions to move throughout a space of =
√𝑀𝑀𝐴 𝑡𝐴
throughout another substance. When gases 𝑡𝑁$
u𝑀𝑀𝑁$
are allowed to mix into one another, the =
lighter molecules diffuse faster than the √𝑀𝑀𝑋 𝑡𝑋
heavier molecules because they move (u𝑀𝑀𝑁$ )(𝑡𝑋) (√𝑀𝑀𝑋)(𝑡𝑁$ )
=
faster. 𝑡𝑁$ 𝑡𝑁$
• Effusion is the process in which a gas $ (u𝑀𝑀𝑁$ )(𝑡𝑋)
$

escapes through a pinhole. The rate of v(√𝑀𝑀𝑋)w = x y

effusion of different gases at the same 𝑡𝑁$
temperature and pressure with identical (𝑀𝑀𝑁$ )(𝑡𝑋)$
𝑀𝑀𝑋 =
pinholes were studied by Thomas Grahams, (𝑡𝑁$ )$
a Scottish chemist. From his observations, (28.014 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙)(64𝑠)$ 𝑔
he proposed that the rates of effusion of two 𝑀𝑀𝑋 = $
= 79
(38𝑠) 𝑚𝑜𝑙
gases are inversely proportional to the
square root of their molar masses. This 2. If a gas diffuses at a rate of ½ as fast as
relationship is also true for the diffusion of O2 what is the molecular weight of the
gases. The rates of diffusion of two gases gas?
are Inversely proportional to the square root
of their molar masses (or densities). Solution:
@0/4 ! √DDU /U ]^_ $
o @0/4 U
= = /! = 𝑅1 $ √𝑀𝑀2
√DD! ]^`
[ \ =q r
§ Rate A = rate of diffusion or 𝑅2 √𝑀𝑀1
effusion of gas A 𝑅2 $
§ Rate B = rate of diffusion or 𝑀𝑀1 = 𝑀𝑀2 𝑥 [ \
𝑅1
effusion of gas B 𝑅𝑂$ $
§ MMA =Molar mass of A 𝑀𝑀𝑋 = 𝑀𝑀𝑂$ 𝑥 [ \
𝑅𝑋
§ MMB =Molar mass of B
𝑔 2 $
§ tA= time of diffusion of effusion 𝑀𝑀𝑋 = 31.998 𝑥 [ \
of gas A 𝑚𝑜𝑙 1
𝑔 𝑔
§ tB = time of effusion or = 127.992 = 128
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙
diffusion of gas B
§ 𝜌𝐴 = density of gas A
§ 𝜌𝐵 = density of gas B
 Organic Chemistry
Orbital Hybridization • HYBRIDIZATION
- mixing two or more atomic orbitals
shapes in the bonded atom
• VALENCE BOND THEORY - introduced by Linus Pauling
- a covalent bond forms when orbitals of - There is formation of new orbitals of
two atoms overlap and a pair of different shapes and orientation called
electrons occupy the overlapping region hybrid orbitals
- VB theory explains that the building up
of electron density between two nuclei is • TYPES OF ORBITALS
visualized as occurring when a valence 1. sp3
atomic orbital of one atom merges with - s orbital mixing with 3 p orbitals in
that of another atom the same subshell
- Merging of orbitals are called molecular - central atom forms 4 equivalent
orbitals bonds with terminal atoms
- Bonding molecular orbital: electrons are - characteristic of single bonds;
strongly attracted to both nuclei tetrahedrally shaped
- Anti-bonding molecular orbital: results 2. sp2
when there is greater repulsion between - mixing one s orbital with two p
nuclei and in order for attraction to occur, orbitals
higher energy is required - characteristic of double bonds;
- Orbitals that overlap must be half-filled trigonally shaped
or with one electron and orbitals lie 3. sp
symmetrically - mixing of one s- orbital with 1 p-
- Molecular orbitals can form from various orbital
combinations of half-filled s and p - characteristic of triple bonds; linearly
orbitals shaped
• TYPES OF MOLECULAR ORBITALS
1. SIGMA MOLECULAR ORBITAL
- head to head overlap
- Between s-orbital and any p-orbital:
s-px; s-py; s-pz
- Between 2 px orbitals: Px – Px

• The study of organic compounds is called

organic chemistry. Organic chemistry is
better defined as the study of carbon-
containing compounds (except carbonates,
cyanides, CO2, CO and other ionic
compounds to which carbon is part of) in
which carbon atoms are bonded to one
2. PI MOLECULAR ORBITAL another ( C – C), to hydrogen (C – H) as well
- side-to-side overlap of two p-orbitals as to other non-metal atoms such as oxygen
- Are generally weaker than sigma ( C – O ) and nitrogen (C - N).
bonds • Carbon has a total of four bonds, in contrast
to hydrogen and fluorine that typically forms
one bond, oxygen forming two bonds, and
 nitrogen forming three bonds. Due to the iii. with triple bond
greater number of bonds found in carbon, it
gives more possibilities for forming a diverse
set of compounds.
• A carbon compound that contains only
carbon and hydrogen is called a
hydrocarbon. In hydrocarbons, carbon has
the ability to bond to other carbon atoms to
form long chains or rings of carbon atoms 4. ZIGZAG LINE STRUCTURE
with hydrogen atoms attached.

• REPRESENTING STRUCTURE OF
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

1. BALL AND STICK

5. CYCLIC STRUCTURE

2. STRUCTURAL FORMULA
i. Expanded structural formula
ii. Condensed formula
Isomers

• Constitutional or structural isomers -

same elements and number of atoms or
compounds with the same molecular formula
but it shows the different arrangement of
atom and bonds
3. LINE STRUCTURE • Stereoisomers - molecules with the same
i. With single bonds (expanded arrangement of atoms but different
structural formula) orientations of groups in space.

• TYPES OF STEREOISOMERS

a. OPTICAL ISOMERS
- two objects are mirror images of each
other but are not superimposable
ii. with double bonds (partial - An example: left and right hand seen
condensed structural formula) on a mirror can be superimposed or if
placed palm-to-palm are imposable.
What is non-superimposable is when
stretching out your right hand and
putting your left hand with the palm of
your left hand at the back of your right
hand.
- Organic compounds that are non- b. GEOMETRIC ISOMERS
superimposable are also called - also called cis- and trans- isomers;
asymmetric molecules, i.e., they cause by rotational restriction
possess a chiral center – if it is between C=C in Ethene and ethyne
carbon-called chiral carbon or unlike in ethane where all the
asymmetric carbon; it is the carbon hydrogens can rotate around carbon.
that is bonded to 4 different groups.

- In ethene, only the two hydrogens in

- Classes of optical isomers are each carbon can rotate only around
determined using a polarimeter; they the carbon to which they are attached.
can rotate the plane of polarized light So if in a -C=C- have different atoms
either to the left -are called bonded aside from hydrogen, the
levorotatory or if they rotate the plane location of these other atoms
of light to the right - are called constitute a geometric isomer
dextrorotatory.
o d-glucose; l-glucose; d-
alanine; l-alanine
- Optical isomers have biological
properties as they differ in usability by
an organism
o An example: nearly all
carbohydrates and amino acid - For cis isomer -CHBr2 and CH3
are optically active but only bonded to – C=C- are on the same
one of the isomers is side
biologically usable. - For trans isomer -CHBr2 and CH3
o You can metabolize d-glucose bonded to -C=C-are on opposite side
for energy but excrete l-
glucose unused Classification of Organic Reactions
o l-alanine (an amino acid) is
incorporated naturally into your
protein, but d-alanine is not. 1. ADDITION REACTION
o An organism can utilize only - Addition reactions occur when two
one of a pair of optical isomers reactants combine to give a single
because of its enzymes. A product
specific organic compound can
only be catalyzed by a specific
enzyme -class of proteins; are
biological catalysts that speed
up virtually every reaction in a
cell
o Many drugs are chiral
molecules; one optical isomer
has a certain biological activity,
and the other has either a
different type of activity or none
at all
2. CONDENSATION REACTION 5. SAPONIFICATION REACTION
- Two molecules combine to produce a
larger organic molecule and a much
smaller molecule
- Water is often the smaller molecule
formed
- Large biomolecules (DNA, fats,
carbohydrates, protein are formed
through this type of reaction.

3. SUBSTITUTION REACTION
- a replacement of one atom or group
of atoms by a second atom or group
of atoms

Polymers

4. COMBUSTION REACTION
- Combustion products of organic
compounds in excess or enough
oxygen will always produce carbon
dioxide and water
• A polymer - is an extremely large
molecule or macromolecule consisting of
covalently linked chain of smaller
molecules- called monomers.
• A monomer is the repeating unit of the
polymer
• A typical polymer may have from
hundreds to hundreds of thousands of
repeating units.
• There are many types of monomers and
their chemical structure are brought
about by different kinds of intermolecular
forces that stabilizes it.

• SYNTHETIC POLYMERS

- are created by chemical reactions in

the laboratory • NATURAL POLYMERS
- Also known as synthetic - are created by chemical reactions
macromolecules within the organism- ex.
biomolecules- chemical compounds
• NAMING POLYMERS that sustain life
- add the prefix poly- to the monomer - The stuff of life
name - Structures that make wood strong
(cellulose); fingernails hard, wood
• ADDITION POLYMERS flexible
- Undergoes addition reaction with one - Speeds up reactions in every cell or
another defends the body against infection
- Also called chain reaction polymers - Possess the genetic information
organisms need to bring other
biomolecules together

• CARBOHYDRATES
- Monosaccharides and
polysaccharides
- Simple sugars and more complex
sugars
- Monosaccharides: glucose, fructose
• CONDENSATION POLYMERS - Disaccharide: sucrose (table sugar-
- Monomers of condensation polymers glucose + fructose); lactose (milk
must have two functional groups sugar)
- Are also called copolymers- - Polysaccharides: starch; cellulose
consisting of two or more different
repeating unit
• PROTEINS - Unbranched polymers consisting of
- Polyamides of nature; unbranched linked monomers called
polymers formed from two monomers mononucleotides
(amino acid) which has both a - An organism’s nucleic acids construct
carboxyl group – COOH and an its proteins
amine group – NH2 attached to a - A nucleotide consists of: a nitrogen-
central carbon atom (alpha carbon) containing base- purine or pyrimidine;
- Consists of many peptide chains a sugar; and a phosphate group
(polypeptide)
- Made up of about 20 amino acids • TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACIDS
each with its own side chain that o RNA
identifies the specific amino acid - Consists of ribose (sugar)
- Each type of protein has its own o DNA
amino acid composition, specific - Consists of deoxyribose
numbers and proportions of amino (ribose structure where one -
acids OH in the second carbon of
- It is not the composition that defines ribose is replaced by
the protein’s role in the cell but the hydrogen)
sequence of amino acids will
determine the protein’s shape and • LIPIDS
function - Also known as fats provide a major
- Proteins range from about 50 to way of storing chemical energy and
several thousand amino acids carbon atoms in the body.
- Even a small protein molecule of 100 - Fats surround and insulate vital
amino acids has a virtually limitless organs
number of possible sequence of the - Provides protection from mechanical
20 types of amino acids shock
- An organism as complex as a human - Prevents excessive loss of heat
being have about 105 different types energy
of protein - Basic components of cell
membranes: phospholipids,
glycolipids and cholesterol
- Several cholesterol derivatives
function as chemical messengers
(hormones) within the body
- A lipid is an organic compound found
in living organisms that is insoluble (or
only sparingly soluble) in water but
soluble in non-polar organic solvents.
When a biochemical material (human,
animal or plant tissue) is
homogenized in a blender and mixed
with a non-polar organic solvent, the
substances that dissolve in the
solvent are lipids.
- Lipids are structurally diverse- some
are: Esters, amides, alcohols, cyclic,
• NUCLEIC ACIDS acyclic, polycyclic
- Made up of nucleotides; are - From its varied diverse composition
polynucleotides and classes, solubility rather than
 structure is common to them: they are
all insoluble in water
- Saturated fats have all its carbon
single bonded; unsaturated fats have
one or more double bonds
- Lipids contain long chains of fatty
acids (saturated or unsaturated)
connected to glycerol
- Hydrogenation of fats- conversion of
unsaturated fats to saturated fats-a
more solid state- by adding hydrogen.
Example: soybean or cottonseed oil
can be made into margarine or other
shortenings used in baking.