LOGESHWARI R - 180401016

OE18101 & Fundamentals of Automobile Engineering Logeshwari R

Assignment 3 Civil Department

1. Investigate about the various types of Steering wheel geometry and their effect with neat sketches.
The term "steering geometry" (also known as "front-end geometry") refers to the angular
Relationship between suspension and steering parts, front wheels, and the road surface. Because
alignment deals with angles and affects steering, the method of describing alignment measurements
is called steering geometry.
VARIOUS TYPES OF STEERING WHEEL GEOMETRY
1. Camber (Wheel rake or Camber angle).
2. Caster.
3. King Pin inclination.
4. Toe-in.
5. Toe-out
CAMBER (WHEEL RAKE)

 The angle between the centre line of the tyre and the vertical line when viewed from the front
of the vehicle (i.e., longitudinal vertical plane) is known as Camber.
• When the angle is outward, so that the wheels are farther apart at the top than at the bottom, the
camber is positive.
• When the angle is inward, so that the wheels are closer together at the top than at the bottom, the
camber is negative
EFFECTS
POSITIVE CAMBER
• Helps to achieve a lower steering effort (Off-Road Vehicles)
• Outer tread of the tire wear more than the inner tread.
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• When the wheel returns to straight ahead, the vehicle’s weight presses down on the steering axis
and helps straighten the wheel
NEGATIVE CAMBER
• Improves grip when cornering.
• Inner tread of the tire wear more than the outer tread.
• Resists the tendency of the tire to slip sideways during cornering.
• It also can increase steering effort.
• Slightly negative camber to increase the vehicle handling

CASTER
• If the king pin center line meets the ground at a point in front of the wheel center line, it is called
positive caster.
• behind the wheel center line, it is called negative caster.
• affects straight-line stability and steering wheel return.
• Range 3°
• Caster is not measured for rear wheels
EFFECTS
POSITIVE CASTER
• High positive caster makes the front wheels want to go straight ahead.
• Road shock will be transmitted to the steering column.
• Too much positive caster result in a front wheel shimmy.
NEGATIVE CASTER
• Easier to steer the vehicle.
• Extreme negative caster also causes for wheel shimmy
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• wheel shimmy
KING PIN INCLINATION
• It is the angle between king pin centre line and
vertical line when seen from the front of the vehicle.
• It is also called steering axle inclination.
Effects:
• King pin inclination and caster are used to improve
directional stability in cars.
• This is also used to reduce steering effort when
steering a stationary
• It reduces tyre wear amount.
• The king pin inclination in vehicles ranges from
6°to 8°. It must be equal to both sides.
• This inclination also varies from 4 to 8 degree in
modern cars.

TOE IN & OUT

• Toe is how the wheels are aimed, as viewed from above.
• A pair of front or rear wheels aimed inward at the forward edges has toe-in; wheels aimed outward
have toe-out.
• The toe angle for front or rear wheels is measured in fractions of an inch, millimetres or fractions
of a degree.
• Zero toe—wheels aimed straight ahead—causes the least tire wear.
• Extreme toe-in or toe-out causes featheredged wear across the tire tread.
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• Too much toe-in wears the outside tread edges, with feathered edges on the inside of each tread
row.
• Too much toe out has the opposite effect.
• Rear wheel drive vehicle - toe in because rear axle is pushing (suspension arms rear movement)
• Front wheel drive (opposite)
• When the vehicle is moving, toe decreases (or disappears) because the wheels straighten out under
acceleration and the steering linkage flexes slightly.
• Range - maximum 3mm.
• Toe change, or bump steer, occurs when a steering tie rod is the wrong length or is installed at the
wrong angle.
• The outer tie-rod end moves up and down as the suspension compresses and extends.
• If tie-rod length or angle is incorrect, it pulls or pushes the steering arm and aims the wheel in a
new direction.
• The driver feels this when the steering wheel jerks to one side as the car goes over a bump or dip

ACKERMANN STEERING GEOMETRY

• Ackermann steering geometry is a geometric arrangement of linkages in the steering of a car or
other vehicle designed to solve the problem of wheels on the inside and outside of a turn needing
to trace out circles of different radii.
• Modern cars do not use pure Ackermann steering partly because it ignores important dynamic and
compliant effects.
• The use of such geometry helps reduce tyre temperatures during high-speed cornering but
compromises performance in low speed manoeuvres.
• The intention of Ackermann geometry is to avoid the need for tyre to slip sideways when following
the path around a curve.
• As the rear wheels are fixed, this centre point must be on a line extended from the rear axle.
• Intersecting the axes of the front wheels on this line as well requires that the inside front wheel is
turned, when steering, through a greater angle than the outside wheel.
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Requirements of a good steering system

1. The steering mechanism should be accurate and easy to handle
2. The effort required to steer should be minimal and must not be tiresome to the driver Steering
mechanism
• For perfect steering we must always have an instantaneous centre about which all wheels must
rotate.
• For this purpose, the inner wheel has to turn more than the outer wheels. To achieve this condition,
two types of mechanism have been devised. viz., the Ackermann and the Davis steering
mechanisms.
• Out of these Ackermann mechanisms is almost universally adopted because of its simplicity.
Steering mechanism
• For perfect steering we must always have an instantaneous centre about which all the wheels must
rotate.
• For this purpose, inner wheel has to turn more than the outer wheel.
• To achieve this condition, two types of mechanisms have been devised, viz., – the Ackermann
and – the Davis steering mechanisms.
• Out of these, Ackermann mechanisms is almost universally adopted because of its simplicity
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2. Illustrate the different types of wheels with respect to construction, advantages and
disadvantages. Enumerate its features and submit a report with full specification on at least
2 different vehicles available in India from different manufactures.

THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF WHEELS

1. Pressed Steel Disc Wheel

2. Wire Wheel
3. Light Alloy Casting Wheel
4. Divided Rims Wheel
5. Split Rims
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PRESSED STEEL DISC WHEELS

• This type is fabricated from a dished and flanged
disc pressed into a rolled section rim and retained by
a spot welding, a process that has superseded riveting
to provide more reliable air sealing for tubeless tyres.
• The joint between the disc and its rim is not
continuous, but interrupted by a series of equally
spaced ventilation, slots derived the original
polygon-shaped disc blank.
• These may be supplemented by swaged ventilation
holes in the dishes portion of the disc, so that in
combination they not only induce a flow of cooling
air over the brake assembly, but also minimize heat
transfer from the latter to the tyre. The wheel fixing
holes are formed In the central portion of the disc.
• A one-piece construction is used for the well-base rim, so called because a well is formed around
the middle of its base to facilitate removal and refitting of the tyre.
• The tyres are provided with taper seating, and in the case of pressed steel wheels for cars a 5˚ angle
of taper is used
•A wheel may be inset, zero set or outset, depending upon the position of the rim in relation to
attachment face of the disc.
• In the inset wheel the centre line of the rim is located inboard of the attachment face of the disc.
‘Inset’ is the distance from the attachment face of the disc to the centre line of the rim.
• A zero-set wheel is the one in which the rim centre line coincides with the attachment face of the
disc. In the outset wheel the centre line of the rim is located outboard of the attachment face of the
disc
Advantages of Pressed Steel Disc Wheel:

This type of wheel has following benefits

 Robust construction
 Simplicity
 Ease of cleaning
 Lower cost of manufacturing
 Less maintenance
 High production
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Applications of Pressed Steel Disc Wheel: These wheels are used in heavy motors like buses and
trucks.
WIRE WHEEL
• The wire wheel has a separate hub, which is
attached to the rim through a number of wire
spokes.
• The spokes carry the weight, transmit the driving
and braking torques and withstand the side forces
while cornering, in tension.
• Spokes are long, thin wires and as such these
cannot take any compressive or bending stresses.
All types of loads are sustained by these spokes in
tension.
• The spokes are mounted in a complicated criss-cross fashion in all the three planes.
• The component of vehicle weight in the direction of spokes above the hub is sustained by these
spokes in tension.
• The initial tension of the spokes can be adjusted by means of screw nipples which also serve to
secure the spokes to the rim.
• The hub is provided with internal splines to correspond to the splines provided on the axle shaft
Parts of Wire Wheel:
The wire wheel consists of the following parts:
• Steel Rim
• Spokes
• Hub
Steel Rim:
This type of wheel is generally used to receive the tyre.
Hub:
The wire wheel has a separate hub which is attached to the rim and a number of wire spokes are
attached to it within the disc.
Spokes:
• Each spoke is fitted at one end of the hub while the other end is pushed through a hole in the wheel
rim.
• A tapered nut called nipple, is screwed down pulling the spoke tightly.
• Make sure that spoke should not be too loose or too tight, else the rim would distort.
• The spokes carry the weight of the vehicle and can transmit the driving torque and the breaking
torque and also withstand the side forces while moving on corners under tension.
• The spokes are mounted in a Criss-cross fashion which are long and thin wires doesn't carry any
compressive or bending stress but they are always sustained under tension
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Advantages of Wire Wheel:

 This type of wheels can be used for tubed tyres only.

 Heat dissipation takes place to the surroundings by means of spokes fitted in the rim.

Disadvantages of Wire Wheel:

 The tubeless tyres cannot be fitted over wire wheels.

 These wire wheels are difficult to clean.

Applications of Wire Wheel:

 This type of wheel was used in earlier days but it's use is limited for racing cars and vintage cars.
 Before 5 yrs from today, the wire wheel will be used in bikes also.
 Traditionally, it is much used in bicycles also

Light Allo0000y Cast Wheel or Forged Wheel:

These wheels are produced as a single-piece rim and disc.

• Car wheels are generally shaped by casting or

extrusion, but forging is preferred for truck wheels.
• The major advantage of light-alloy wheels is their
reduced weight. Magnesium and aluminium alloys
are the two most commonly used
• Magnesium alloy has a weight saving of 30% over
aluminium alloy and 50% over steel for structures of
similar strengths.
• Magnesium alloys have very good fatigue properties
and excellent resilience, so they resist vibrational and
shock loading better than either aluminium alloy or
steel.
• But, they are highly susceptible to corrosion and must
be given a protective surface coating which must not
be damaged.
• Aluminium alloys do not have such good fatigue
properties but they corrode less readily. They are
easier to cast or forge.
• Most light alloys tend to be better conductors of heat
than steel.
• So, any heat generated by the tyre or brake is more readily transferred to the wheel disc where it
is dissipated by the air stream.
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Advantages of Light alloy Wheels:

 The main advantage of light alloy wheels is, it

weighs about 50% of Steel wheel and 70% of
Aluminium alloy wheel for similar strength.
 Wider rims are possible in this case of light alloy
wheels in order to improve the stability on
cornering.
 Magnesium alloys have the properties of high
impact and fatigue strength so that they can
withstand the vibrations and the shocks during
loading.

Disadvantages of Light alloy Wheels:

 Magnesium alloys are prone to corrosion and therefore some protective coating has to be given
to it.
 Higher cost is the biggest disadvantage of light alloy wheels compared to other wheels
mentioned above.

Applications of light alloy wheels:

Aluminium alloys are used for the wheels of cars and commercial vehicles whereas the magnesium
alloy wheels are used for sports and racing cars.

4. Divided Rims Wheel:

 As the name itself indicates that the wheels are divided into two halves and are joined together
by means of bolts.
 While the tyre is inflated where the rims must not be seperated. The only advantage of the
divided rims wheel is that they are assembled and disassembled very easily.

5. Split Rims:

 Split rims are used in larger vehicles like trucks, buses, forklifts etc. but not in cars or light
vehicles.
 They are generally multi-piece wheels, where by the help of locking ring the tyre is adjusted in a
place.
 This is a detailed explanation of various types of wheels. Now, let's discuss tyres and their
properties, functions, etc.

Wheel Specification on Vehicles

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1. Tata Indica 2018 (1.4 BS4)

S.NO Specification
1 Generation V2 Facelift
2 Market SAM
3 Power 48hp
4 Engine 4 Diesel
5 Center Bore 65.1mm
6 PCD 4x108(4x4.25)
7 Wheel Fasteners Lug nuts
8 Thread size M12x1.5
9 Tire 155/80R13
10 Rim (width in X diameter in) 4.5Jx13 ET43
11 Size 14”
12 Width 6”
13 Holes 4
14 Offset 38
2. Mitsubishi Delica D:5 2021 2.3D (3DA-CV1W)
S.NO Specification
1 Generation CV Faceli
2 Power 143 hp | 107 kW | 145 PS
4 Engine 2.3L, 4N14, I4, Diesel
5 Center Bore 67.1 mm
6 PCD 5x114.3 (5x4.5)
7 Wheel Fasteners Lug nuts
8 Thread size M12x1.5
9 Wheel Tightening Torque 88 - 108 Nm
10 Tire 215/70R16
10 Rim (width in X diameter in) 6.5Jx16 ET38
11 Size 16”
12 Width 7”
13 Holes 5
14 Offset
3. Opel Corsa 2021 1.2i
S.NO Specification
1 Generation F [2019 .. 2022]
2 Power 99 hp | 74 kW | 101 PS
3 Engine 4 Diesel
4 Center Bore 65.1 mm
5 PCD 4x108(4x4.25)
6 Wheel Fasteners Lug nuts
7 Wheel Tightening Torque 130 Nm
8 Thread size M12x1.5
9 Tire
185/65R15 88T
10 Rim (width in X diameter in) 6Jx15 ET32
11 Size 13”
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12 Width 5.5”
13 Holes 4
14 Offset 38
4. Suzuki SX4 2021 1.6i
S.NO Specification
1 Generation II (JY) Facelift
2 Power 115 hp | 86 kW | 117 PS
3 Engine 4 Diesel
4 Center Bore 60.1 mm
5 PCD 5x114.3 (5x4.5)
6 Wheel Fasteners Lug bolts
7 Wheel Tightening Torque 85 Nm
8 Thread size M12x1.5
9 Tire
215/60R16 95H
10 Rim (width in X diameter in) 6.5Jx16 ET50
11 Size 15”
12 Width 114.3”
13 Holes 5
14 Offset 35
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3. Explain the construction and working of Anti-lock braking system with a neat sketch. And
also submit the report on passenger car using this type of braking system.

ANTI LOCK BRAKING SYSTEM

• Wheel lockup during braking causes skidding which in turn cause a loss of traction and vehicle
control
• This reduces the steering ability to change direction. So the car slides out of control
• With ABS system, the driver can brake hard, take the evasive action and still be in control of the
vehicle in any road condition at any speed and under any load

CONCEPT OF ABS
• A skidding wheel (where the tire contact patch is sliding relative to the road) has less traction than
a non-skidding wheel

PRINCIPLES OF ABS
• The skidding and lack of control was caused by the locking of wheels.
• The release and reapply of the brake pedal will avoid the locking of the wheels which in turn avoid
the skidding.
• This is exactly what an antilock braking system does.
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ABS components Hydraulic components

1. Accumulator - An accumulator is used to store hydraulic fluid to maintain high pressure in the
brake system and provide the residual pressure for power assisted braking
2. Antilock hydraulic control valve assembly - This assembly controls the release and application
of the brake system pressure to the wheel brake assemblies. It may be of integral type and non-integral
type
3. Booster pump - The booster pump is an assembly of an electric motor and pump. The booster
pump is used to provide pressurized hydraulic fluid ABS
4. Booster/Master cylinder assembly It is referred as the hydraulic unit, contains the valves and
pistons needed to modulate hydraulic pressure in the wheel circuit during the ABS operations
5. Fluid accumulator -This accumulator temporarily stored brake fluid that is removed from the
wheel brake unit during ABS cycle. This fluid is then used by pump to build pressure for the brake
hydraulic system.
6. Hydraulic control unit - This assembly contains solenoid valve, fluid accumulator, pump and
electric motor. The unit may have one pump and one motor or it have one motor and two pumps.
7. Main Valve - This is a two-position valve and is also controlled by ABS control module and is
open only in the ABS mode.
8. Modulator unit - The modulator unit controls the flow of pressurized brake fluid to the individual
wheel circuits. Normally the modulator is made up of solenoid that open and close valves
9. Solenoid valves -The solenoid valves are located in the modulator unit and are electrically operated
by signals from the control module

Electrical\ electronic components

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1. ABS control module - This small computer is normally mounted inside the trunk on the wheel
housing, mounted to the master cylinder or is part of the hydraulic control unit. It monitors system
operation and controls antilock function when needed
2. Brake pedal sensor -The antilock brake pedal sensor switch is normally closed. when the brake
pedal exceeds the antilock brake pedal sensor switch setting during an antilock stop, the antilock brake
control module senses that the antilock brake pedal sensor switch is open
3. Wheel speed sensor - It is mounted near the different toothed ring. as the ring’s teeth rotate past
the sensor an ac voltage is generated

Working of Anti-lock Braking System (ABS)

 The controller (ECU-Electronic Control Unit) reads the signal from each of the speed sensors of
the wheel.
 As the brakes are suddenly applied by the driver, this makes the wheel to decelerate at faster rate
and may cause the wheel to Lock.
 As the ECU reads the signal which indicates the rapid decrease in the speed of the wheel, it sends
signal to the valve which makes the valve close and the pressure to the brake pad reduces and
prevents the wheel from locking.
 The wheel again starts to accelerate, again the signal sends to the controller, this time it opens the
valve, increasing the pressure to the brake pad and brakes are applied, this again reduces the speed
of the wheel and tries to make it stop.
 This process of applying brakes and releasing it happens 15 times in a second when a driver
suddenly applies the brake harder.
 Due to this the locking of the wheel is prevented and the skidding of the vehicle eliminated.
 During braking with ABS system, the driver can steer the vehicle and reduces the risk of vehicle
collision
ANTI-LOCK BRAKES
The reason for the development of anti-lock brakes (ABS) is very simple. Under braking conditions,
if one or more of the vehicle wheels locks (begins to skid), there are a number of consequences.
• Braking distance increases.
• Steering control is lost.
• Abnormal tyre wear.
• During braking, wheels lock if the brake force applied is more than the traction available between
the road and the tyre.
• This often happens in a panic braking situation, especially on slippery roads.
• When the front wheels lock, the vehicle loses steerability and slides in the direction of motion. It is
impossible to steer around an obstacle in such a situation.
• When the rear wheel lock, the vehicle loses stability and tends to suddenly swing around.
• Locked wheels can thus result in serious accidents.
• Skidding also results in tyre flat spots, thus reducing tyre life.
• Wheel slip is the difference between the wheel speed and the vehicle speed.
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• The amount of slip (S) determines the braking force and lateral force.
• The slip, as a percentage of car speed, is given by
S = (U – wR ) 100 % U where,
• U - vehicle speed
• w -angular speed of the wheel
• R - tyre radius
• A rolling tyre has slip S = 0 and a fully locked tyre has S = 100 %
Advantages

1. It prevents the locking of the wheel and thus eliminates the chance of skidding.
2. The skidding of the vehicle is completely removed, which results in excellent control during
braking?
3. A better steering control is obtained with the ABS system.
4. It reduces the chance of collision by 30 %.
Disadvantages

• A vehicle equipped with ABS (Anti-lock Braking System) is costlier as compared with a vehicle
without ABS.
• Maintenance is more.
Types of antilock brake systems
1. Four channel, four sensor ABS This is the best scheme. there is speed sensor on all four
wheels and a separate valve for all the four wheels.
2. Three channel, three sensor ABS This scheme is commonly found on pickup trucks with four
wheels ABS, has a speed sensor and a valve for each of the front wheels, with one valve and
one sensor for both rear wheels.
3. One channel, one sensor ABS it has one valve, which controls both rear wheels, and one speed
sensor, located in the rear axle
PASSENGER CARS WITH ABS:
1. Maruti Suzuki Celerio
S.NO
1 Engine 998 cc, 3 Cylinders Inline, 4
Valves/Cylinder, DOHC
2 Max Power (bhp@rpm) 66 bhp @ 5500 rpm
3 Max Torque (Nm@rpm) 89 Nm @ 3500 rpm
4 Mileage (ARAI) 25.24 kmpl
5 Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS) Yes
6 Driving Range 808 Km
7 Transmission Manual - 5 Gears
8 Emission Standard BS 6
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Maruti Suzuki Celerio and Ford Figo

2. Ford Figo
S.NO Specifications
1 Fuel type Diesel
2 Max Power (bhp@rpm) 98.96bhp@3750rpm
3 Max Torque (Nm@rpm) 215Nm@1750-2500rpm
4 Mileage (ARAI) 24.4 kmpl
5 Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS) Yes
6 Driving Range 808 Km
7 Transmission Manual - 5 Gears
8 Emission Standard BS 6

3. Mahindra XUV700

S.NO Specifications
1 Fuel type Diesel
2 Max Power (bhp@rpm) 182.38bhp@3500rpm
3 Max Torque (Nm@rpm) 450Nm@1750-2800rpm
4 Fuel Supply System CRDI
5 Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS) Yes
7 Transmission Automatic (6 speed)
8 Emission Standard BS 6
9. Fuel Tank Capacity 60. litres
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4.Toyota Fortuner

S.NO Specifications
1 Fuel type 2.8 L Diesel engine
2 Max Power (bhp@rpm) 201.15bhp@3000-3400rpm
3 Max Torque (Nm@rpm) 500Nm@1600-2800rpm
4 Anti-Lock Braking System (ABS) Yes
5 Transmission Automatic (6 speed)
6 Emission Standard BS 6
7 Fuel Tank Capacity 80. litres

Toyota Fortuner Mahindra XUV700

Nissan Micra Active