IGCSE Biology

Reproduction

Outline
• Asexual reproduction
• Sexual reproduction in plants
• Sexual reproduction in humans
• Sex hormones in humans
• Methods of birth control in humans
• Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
Reproduction

• is the process that produces new organism.

• 2 types of reproduction
• Asexual reproduction
• Asexual means ‘without sex’
• is the process resulting in the production of genetically identical
offspring from one parent.
• Is found in bacteria, protozoa, fungi, plants and animals
• Sexual reproduction
• Need gamete
• Need two parent
 Asexual reproduction
Bacteria and Protozoa

• They reproduce by cell division or fission.

• Cell divide into two and each daughter cell becomes an independent cell.
 Asexual reproduction
Fungi

• They produce single-celled, haploid spores.  Sporulation

• Spores are dispersed, often by air currents and, if they reach a suitable
situation, they grow new hyphae, which develop into a mycelium.

• For example: Penicillium, Mucor and mushroom

 Asexual reproduction
Flowering plants

• Asexual method in plant is called Vegetative propagation

• It is considered as cloning

• There are many asexual method such as

• Natural vegetative propagation

• Stolons and rhizomes

• Bulbs and corms

• Artificial propagation

• Cuttings

• Tissue culture
 Asexual reproduction
Natural vegetative propagation
Stolons and rhizomes
• Stolons: the stems that lie above the ground.

• Rhizomes: underground stems

New plant
New plant
 Asexual reproduction
Natural vegetative propagation
Bulbs and corms
• Bulbs: the leaves which encircle the stem are thick and fleshy with stored food.

• Corms: the stem which swells with stored food. They have a tunic

• Tubers: the stem which swells with stored food.

 Asexual reproduction
Natural vegetative propagation
Left
• Some plants such as Bryophyllum (sprout leaf plant) has buds in the margins
of leaves. If a leaf of this plant falls on a moist soil, each bud can give rise to a
new plant.
 Asexual reproduction
Artificial propagation
Cuttings
• Cuttings: the new plants can be produced by putting the cut end of a shoot into
water or moist earth. Roots grow from the base of the stem into the soil while
the shoot continues to grow and produce leaves.
 Asexual reproduction
Artificial propagation
Tissue culture
• Tissue culture: the small pieces of plant tissue be induced to divide and grow
into complete plants in laboratory conditions.

• This way produces the large numbers of plants from small amounts of tissue
and it has free from fungal or bacterial infections.
Asexual reproduction
Artificial propagation
Tissue culture
 Asexual reproduction
Animals

• Hydra reproduces sexually by releasing its male and female gametes into the
water but it also has an asexual method, it is budding
 The advantages and disadvantages
of Asexual Reproduction

• Advantages
• No need mates
• No need gamete
• All the good characteristics of the parent are passed on to the offspring.
• Offspring will grow in the same favourable environment as the parent
• store large amounts of food that allow rapid growth when conditions are
suitable.
• Disadvantages
• little variation
• less adapted to certain changes in the environment, causing them not to survive
• Lack of dispersal can lead to competition for nutrients, water and light.
 Sexual reproduction

• is a process involving the fusion of two gametes (sex cells) to form a zygote.
The zygote then grows into a new individual

• fusion of gamete nuclei is called fertilisation.

• The production of offspring that are genetically different from each other.

• The process of cell division that produces the gametes is called meiosis.
 The advantages and disadvantages
of Sexual Reproduction
• Advantages

• More variation

• More adapted to certain changes in the environment, causing them can

survive

• In plants, seeds are produced, which allow dispersal away from the parent
plant, reducing competition.

• Disadvantages

• Need mates, but some plants can self-pollinate

• Need gamete

• Growth of a new plant to maturity from a seed is slow.

 Sexual reproduction
Flowering Plant

• Need flowers

• Flower is composed of

• Sepals: They protect the flower when it is in the bud.

• Petals: The colour and scent of the petals attract insects to the flower and
lead to pollination.

• Stamens: male reproductive organs

• Carpels: female reproductive organs

 Sexual reproduction
Flower structure
consists of four pollen sacs
in which the pollen grains
are produced

stalk

In a few cases after fertilisation,

it becomes fleshy and edible
(e.g. apple and pear).
 Sexual reproduction
pollen

• 2 types of flower depending on pollination

• Insect-pollinated flowers

• produce smaller amounts of pollen grains

which are often round and sticky, or
covered in tiny spikes to attach to the furry
bodies of insects.

• Wind-pollinated flowers

• Produce larger amounts of smooth, light

pollen grains which are easily carried by
the wind.
 Sexual reproduction
Pollination

• is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma.

• 2 types of pollination

• Insect pollination: Lupin

• Wind pollination: grass

 Sexual reproduction
Agents of Pollination

• carry or move the pollen grains from the anther to the receptive part of
the female reproductive organ.
Sexual reproduction
Adaptations of insect-pollinated and wind-pollinated flowers
Feature Insect-pollinated Wind-pollinated
petals present – often large, coloured absent, or small, green and
and scented, with guidelines to inconspicuous
guide insects into the flower
nectar produced by nectaries, to attract absent
insects
stamen present inside the flower long filaments, allowing the anthers
to hang freely outside the
flower so the pollen is exposed to
the wind
pollen smaller amounts; grains are often larger amounts of smooth and light
round and sticky or covered pollen grains, which are
in spikes to attach to the furry easily carried by the wind
bodies of insects
stigmas small surface area; inside the large and feathery; hanging outside
flower the flower to catch pollen
carried by the wind
Sexual reproduction
Types of Pollination

• Self-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a

flower to the stigma of the same flower, or a different flower on the
same plant.
• Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a
flower to the stigma of a flower on a different plant of the same
species.
Sexual reproduction
Fertilisation

• In flowering plants, the male gamete is in the pollen grain; the female
gamete, called the egg cell, is in the ovule.
• For fertilisation to occur, the nucleus of the male cell from the pollen
grain has to reach the female nucleus of the egg cell in the ovule, and
fuse with it.
Sexual reproduction
Fertilisation and development
Sexual reproduction
Fruit and seed formation

Sperm nucleus (n) + Egg cell (n) Zygote or Embryo (2n)

Sperm nucleus (n) + Polar nuclei (n+n) Endosperm (3n)
Ovule Seed
Ovary Fruit
Ovary wall Pericarp
Sexual reproduction
Seed and Fruit dispersal

• The flowers produce seeds which can be dispersed by the wind or

other animals, providing a means of colonising new areas.
1. Wind-dispersed seeds
• Fruit have a parachute or a wing to help them be carried away
from the parent plant by the wind.
• Examples: dandelion, sycamore

Maple fruit
 Sexual reproduction
Seed and Fruit dispersal

2. Animal-dispersed seeds
• There are 2 main modification of fruits for animal
dispersal:
 succulent fruits: attract animals because they are
brightly coloured, juicy and nutritious. When
eaten, the seed pass through animal’s faeces,
which may be a long way from the parent plant.
 hooked fruits: catch on to an animal’s fur.
Eventually the seeds drops off. This disperses the
seeds away from the parent plant.
Cockleburs fruits
 Sexual reproduction
Germination

• is the process by which an plant grows from a seed

Sexual reproduction
Agents of germination

• Water is absorbed firstly through the micropyle. It is used to

• activate the enzymes in the seed
• help the conversion of stored starch to sugar, and proteins to amino acids
• transport the sugar in solution from the cotyledons to the growing
regions and salts from the soil to the shoot.
• Oxygen is used in aerobic respiration, which provides the energy for the
many chemical changes for seed growth
• Temperature: a rise in temperature speeds up most chemical reactions.
Germination occurs more rapidly at high temperatures, up to about 40°C.
Above 45°C, the enzymes in the cells are denatured and the seedlings
would be killed.
 Sexual reproduction
Human

• Need sperm and egg cell

Sexual reproduction
Human
The human reproductive system
Female
The human reproductive system
Female
The human reproductive system
Female
The human reproductive system
Male
The human reproductive system
Male

s
The human reproductive system
Male
Production of gametes
Sperm production
Production of gametes
Sperm production

Sperm from testis

Epididymis

sperm out through the urethra by

contraction of the epididymis and
sperm ducts (during copulation)

• Ejaculation (the ejection of

sperm through the penis)
• fluid + sperm = semen
 Production of gametes
Egg cell and Follicle in ovary, and Ovulation

• The egg cells (ova) are present in the ovary from the time of birth.

• They are not active until puberty (10 – 14 years old).

 Production of gametes
Ovulation

• In puberty, some of the egg cells start to mature and are released, one at a time
about every 4 weeks from alternate ovaries. This is called ovulation.
Comparing male and female gametes
 Fertilisation

• Fertilisation is the fusion of the male nucleus of the sperm and the female
nucleus of ovum. It occurs in oviduct
 Fertilisation

• The released ovum is thought to survive for about 24 hours; the sperm might
be able to fertilise an ovum for about 2 or 3 days. So there is about 4 days
each month when fertilization might occur.

• The fertilised egg has 23 chromosomes from the mother and 23 from the
father, bringing its chromosome number to 46. It is called a zygote.

(the same as
human body cells)
 Pregnancy and development

• After fertilisation, zygote divides into many cells by mitosis. This way lead to
solid ball of cells which is an early stage in the development of the embryo.

• This early embryo travels down the oviduct to the uterus. Here it sinks into
the lining of the uterus, a process called implantation
 Pregnancy and development

• After 8 weeks, when all the organs are formed, the embryo is called a fetus.

• One of the first organs to form is the heart, which pumps blood around the
body of the embryo.
 Pregnancy and development

• The embryo becomes enclosed in a fluid-

filled sac called the amnion or water sac,
which protects it from damage and prevents
unequal pressures from acting on it.

• The fluid is called amniotic fluid.

• The oxygen and food needed to keep the

embryo alive and growing are obtained
from the mother’s blood by means of a
structure called the placenta.
 Pregnancy and development

• The placenta becomes closely attached to the lining of the uterus and is
attached to the embryo by a tube called the umbilical cord
 Functions of the placenta and umbilical cord

• The blood vessels in the placenta are very close to the blood vessels in the
uterus so that oxygen, glucose, amino acids and salts can pass from the
mother’s blood to the embryo’s blood and go to embryo by umbilical cord.

• The waste also pass from embryo to mother by this way.

 Functions of the placenta and umbilical cord

• There is no direct communication between the mother’s blood system and

that of the embryo. The exchange of substances takes place across the thin
walls of the blood vessels.
 Antenatal (prenatal) care

• ‘Antenatal’ or ‘prenatal’ refers to the period before birth.

• Antenatal care is the way a woman should look after herself during pregnancy,
so that the birth will be safe and her baby healthy.

• •

• •
•
Labour
(Process of Birth)
Labour
(Process of Birth)
 Feeding and parental care
Breastfeeding
• The breasts are stimulated to release milk by the baby sucking the nipple.

• The continued production of milk is under the control of hormones, but the
amount of milk produced is related to the quantity taken by the child during
suckling.

• Milk contains the proteins, fats, sugar, vitamins and salts that babies need for
their energy requirements and tissue-building, but there is too little iron
present for the manufacture of haemoglobin.
 Feeding and parental care
Colostrum
• The liquid produced in the first few days is called colostrum.

• It is sticky and yellow, and contains more protein than the milk produced later.

• It also contains some of the mother’s antibodies. This provides passive

immunity to infection.
 Feeding and parental care
Bottle-feeding
• The milk for bottle-feeding mostly be made from Cows’ milk

• Cows’ milk is not wholly suitable for human babies.

• It is less easily digested than human milk.

• It lacks human antibodies

Breastfeeding Vs. Bottle-feeding
 Sex hormones in humans

• Sex hormones do not start to be released until the boy and the girl reach the age
of about 10–14 years (puberty stage)
• They bring about the development of secondary sexual characteristics.
• Male sex hormones: testosterone
• increase the size of the testes and penis,
• Deepening of the voice, growth of hair in the pubic region, armpits, chest and,
later on, the face.
• Female sex hormones: oestrogens
• increase the size of the uterus and vagina.
• Increase growth of the breasts, a widening of the hips and the growth of hair in
the pubic region and in the armpits.
Sex hormones in humans
Sex hormones in humans
Sex hormones in humans
The menstrual cycle
 Methods of birth control in humans

• Natural: abstinence, monitoring body temperature and cervical mucus

• Chemical: IUD, IUS, contraceptive pill, implant and injection

• Barrier: condom, femidom, diaphragm

• Surgical: vasectomy and female sterilisation

 Methods of birth control in humans

• Natural: abstinence, monitoring body temperature and cervical mucus

•
 Methods of birth control in humans

• Chemical: IUD, IUS, contraceptive pill, implant and injection

 Methods of birth control in humans

• Barrier: condom, femidom, diaphragm

 Methods of birth control in humans

• Surgical: vasectomy and female sterilisation

 The use of hormones in fertility and
contraception treatments
• Using hormones to improve fertility

• Artificial insemination (AI)

• In vitro fertilization (IVF)

 The use of hormones in fertility and
contraception treatments
• Using hormones to improve fertility

- Administration of the drug is timed to promote ovulation to coincide with

copulation.
 The use of hormones in fertility and
contraception treatments
• Artificial insemination (AI)

- injecting semen through a tube into the top of the uterus.

 The use of hormones in fertility and
contraception treatments
• In vitro fertilization (IVF)

- the fertilisation is allowed to take place in laboratory glassware

 Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)

• It is an infection that is transmitted via body fluids through sexual contact.

• STIs that are caused by a bacterium, such as syphilis and gonorrhoea, can be
treated with antibiotics if the symptoms are recognised early enough.
However, HIV is viral so antibiotics are not effective.
 Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
AIDS

• AIDS is acquired immune deficiency syndrome

• The virus that causes AIDS is the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

• HIV is transmitted by direct infection of the blood

• Babies born to HIV carriers may become infected with HIV

• There is no evidence to suggest that the disease can be passed on by droplets,

by saliva or by normal everyday contact.
 Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
AIDS

• For AIDS therapy, there is a range of drugs that can be given separately or as a
‘cocktail’, which slow the progress of the disease. Research to find a vaccine
and more effective drugs is ongoing.

• To detect HIV, antibodies to the virus are present in the blood. It is called HIV
positive.
The effects of HIV on the immune system

HIV attacks lymphocytes (produce antibodies against infections)

the number of these cells in the body decreases

the body cannot respond to infections through the immune system

As the result, the patient has little or no resistance to a wide range of

diseases such as influenza, pneumonia, blood disorders, skin cancer
The effects of HIV on the immune system
The effects of HIV on the immune system
 Control of the spread of STIs

1. The best way to avoid sexually transmitted infections is to avoid having sexual
intercourse with an infected person. Such persons are:

• prostitutes who offer sexual intercourse for money

• people who are known to have had sexual relationships with many others

• casual acquaintances whose background and past sexual activities are not
known.

2. uses a condom (man) or a femidom (woman). These act as barriers to

bacteria or viruses.