Solid-fuel rocket

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Space Shuttle was launched with the help of two solid-fuel boosters known as SRBs

A solid rocket or a solid-fuel rocket is a rocket with a motor that uses solid propellants (fuel/oxidizer). The
earliest rockets were solid-fuel rockets powered by gunpowder; they were used in warfare by
theChinese, Indians, Mongols and Arabs, as early as the 13th century.[1]
All rockets used some form of solid or powdered propellant up until the 20th century, when liquid
rockets offered more efficient and controllable alternatives. Solid rockets are still used today in model
rockets and on larger applications for their simplicity and reliability.
Since solid-fuel rockets can remain in storage for long periods, and then reliably launch on short notice, they
have been frequently used in military applications such as missiles. The lower performance of solid propellants
(as compared to liquids) does not favor their use as primary propulsion in modern medium-to-large launch
vehicles customarily used to orbit commercial satellites and launch major space probes. Solids are, however,
frequently used as strap-on boosters to increase payload capacity or as spin-stabilized add-on upper stages
when higher-than-normal velocities are required. Solid rockets are used as light launch vehicles for low Earth
orbit (LEO) payloads under 2 tons or escape payloads up to 1100 pounds. [2][3]

Contents
  [hide] 

 1 Basic concepts
 2 Design
 3 Grain geometry
 4 Casing
 5 Nozzle
 6 Performance
 7 Propellant families
o 7.1 Black powder (BP) propellants
o 7.2 Zinc–sulfur (ZS) propellants
o 7.3 "Candy" propellants
o 7.4 Double-base (DB) propellants
o 7.5 Composite propellants
o 7.6 High-energy composite (HEC) propellants
 o 7.7 Composite modified double base propellants
o 7.8 Minimum-signature (smokeless) propellants
 8 Hobby and amateur rocketry
 9 History
 10 Usage
o 10.1 Sounding rockets
o 10.2 Missiles
o 10.3 Orbital rockets
 11 Advanced research
 12 See also
 13 References
 14 External links

Basic concepts[edit]

Solid Rocket Motor.

A simple solid rocket motor consists of a casing, nozzle, grain(propellant charge), and igniter.

The grain behaves like a solid mass, burning in a predictable fashion and producing exhaust gases.
The nozzle dimensions are calculated to maintain a design chamber pressure, while producing thrust from the
exhaust gases.
Once ignited, a simple solid rocket motor cannot be shut off, because it contains all the ingredients necessary
for combustion within the chamber in which they are burned. More advanced solid rocket motors can not only
be throttled but also be extinguished[citation needed] and then re-ignited by controlling the nozzle geometry or through
the use of vent ports. Also, pulsed rocket motors that burn in segments and that can be ignited upon command
are available.
Modern designs may also include a steerable nozzle for guidance, avionics, recovery hardware
(parachutes), self-destructmechanisms, APUs, controllable tactical motors, controllable divert and attitude
control motors, and thermal management materials.

Design[edit]
Design begins with the total impulse required, which determines the fuel/oxidizer mass. Grain geometry and
chemistry are then chosen to satisfy the required motor characteristics.
The following are chosen or solved simultaneously. The results are exact dimensions for grain, nozzle, and
case geometries:
  The grain burns at a predictable rate, given its surface area and chamber
pressure.
 The chamber pressure is determined by the nozzle orifice diameter and grain
burn rate.
 Allowable chamber pressure is a function of casing design.
 The length of burn time is determined by the grain "web thickness".
The grain may or may not be bonded to the casing. Case-bonded motors are more difficult to design, since the
deformation of the case and the grain under flight must be compatible.
Common modes of failure in solid rocket motors include fracture of the grain, failure of case bonding, and air
pockets in the grain. All of these produce an instantaneous increase in burn surface area and a corresponding
increase in exhaust gas[clarification needed] and pressure, which may rupture the casing.
Another failure mode is casing seal design. Seals are required in casings that have to be opened to load the
grain. Once a seal fails, hot gas will erode the escape path and result in failure. This was the cause of
the Space Shuttle Challengerdisaster.

Grain geometry[edit]
Solid rocket fuel deflagrates from the surface of exposed propellant in the combustion chamber. In this fashion,
the geometry of the propellant inside the rocket motor plays an important role in the overall motor performance.
As the surface of the propellant burns, the shape evolves (a subject of study in internal ballistics), most often
changing the propellant surface area exposed to the combustion gases. The mass flow rate (kg/s) [and,
therefore, pressure] of combustion gases generated is a function of the instantaneous surface area  , (m2),
and linear burn rate   (m/s):

Several geometric configurations are often used depending on the application and desired thrust curve:

Circular bore simulation

 

C-slot simulation
 

Moon burner simulation

 
 

5-point finocyl simulation

 Circular bore: if in BATES configuration, produces progressive-regressive

thrust curve.
 End burner: propellant burns from one axial end to other producing steady
long burn, though has thermal difficulties, center of gravity (CG) shift.
 C-slot: propellant with large wedge cut out of side (along axial direction),
producing fairly long regressive thrust, though has thermal difficulties and
asymmetric CG characteristics.
 Moon burner: off-center circular bore produces progressive-regressive long
burn, though has slight asymmetric CG characteristics
 Finocyl: usually a 5- or 6-legged star-like shape that can produce very level
thrust, with a bit quicker burn than circular bore due to increased surface area.

Casing[edit]
The casing may be constructed from a range of materials. Cardboard is used for small black powder model
motors, whereas aluminum is used for larger composite-fuel hobby motors. Steel is used for the space shuttle
boosters. Filament wound graphite epoxy casings are used for high-performance motors.
The casing must be designed to withstand the pressure and resulting stresses of the rocket motor, possibly at
elevated temperature. For design, the casing is considered a pressure vessel.
To protect the casing from corrosive hot gases, a sacrificial thermal liner on the inside of the casing is often
implemented, which ablates to prolong the life of the motor casing.

Nozzle[edit]
Main article: Rocket engine nozzle
A convergent-divergent design accelerates the exhaust gas out of the nozzle to produce thrust. The nozzle
must be constructed from a material that can withstand the heat of the combustion gas flow. Often, heat-
resistant carbon-based materials are used, such as amorphous graphite or carbon-carbon.
Some designs include directional control of the exhaust. This can be accomplished by gimballing the nozzle, as
in the Space Shuttle SRBs, by the use of jet vanes in the exhaust similar to those used in the V-2 rocket, or by
liquid injection thrust vectoring (LITV).
An early Minuteman first stage used a single motor with four gimballed nozzles to provide pitch, yaw, and roll
control.
LITV consists of injecting a liquid into the exhaust stream after the nozzle throat. The liquid then vaporizes, and
in most cases chemically reacts, adding mass flow to one side of the exhaust stream and thus providing a
control moment. For example, the Titan IIIC solid boosters injected nitrogen tetroxide for LITV; the tanks can be
seen on the sides of the rocket between the main center stage and the boosters. [4]

Performance[edit]
An exhaust cloud engulfs Launch Pad 39A atNASA's Kennedy Space Centre in Florida as space shuttle Endeavour lifts off into the

night sky.

A typical, well-designed ammonium perchlorate composite propellant(APCP) first-stage motor may have a

vacuum specific impulse (Isp) as high as 285.6 seconds (Titan IVB SRMU).[5] This compares to 339.3 s for
kerosene/liquid oxygen (RD-180)[6] and 452.3 s for hydrogen/oxygen (Block II SSME) [7] bipropellant engines.
Upper stage specific impulses are somewhat greater: as much as 303.8 s for APCP (Orbus 6E), [8] 359 s for
kerosene/oxygen (RD-0124)[9] and 465.5 s for hydrogen/oxygen (RL10B-2).[10] Propellant fractions are usually
somewhat higher for (non-segmented) solid propellant first stages than for upper stages. The 117,000 pound
Castor 120 first stage has a propellant mass fraction of 92.23% while the 31,000 pound Castor 30 upper stage
recently developed for Orbital Science's Taurus II COTS (International Space Station resupply) launch vehicle
has a 91.3% propellant fraction with 2.9% graphite epoxy motor casing, 2.4% nozzle, igniter and thrust vector
actuator, and 3.4% non-motor hardware including such things as payload mount, interstage adapter, cable
raceway, instrumentation, etc. Castor 120 and Castor 30 are 93 and 92 inches in diameter, respectively, and
serve as stages on the Athena IC and IIC commercial launch vehicles. A four stage Athena II using Castor
120s as both first and second stages became the first commercially developed launch vehicle to launch a lunar
probe (Lunar Prospector) in 1998.
Solid rockets can provide high thrust for relatively low cost. For this reason, solids have been used as initial
stages in rockets (the classic example being the Space Shuttle), while reserving high specific impulse engines,
especially less massive hydrogen-fueled engines for higher stages. In addition, solid rockets have a long
history as the final boost stage for satellites due to their simplicity, reliability, compactness and reasonably
high mass fraction.[11] A spin-stabilized solid rocket motor is sometimes added when extra velocity is required,
such as for a mission to a comet or the outer solar system, because a spinner does not require a guidance
system (on the newly added stage). Thiokol's extensive family of mostly titanium-cased Star space motors has
been widely used, especially on Delta launch vehicles and as spin-stabilized upper stages to launch satellites
from the cargo bay of the Space Shuttle. Star motors have propellant fractions as high as 94.6% but add-on
structures and equipment reduce the operating mass fraction by 2% or more.
Higher performing solid rocket propellants are used in large strategic missiles (as opposed to commercial
launch vehicles).HMX, C4H8N4(NO2)4, a nitramine with greater energy than ammonium perchlorate, was used in
the propellant of the Peacekeeper ICBM and is the main ingredient in NEPE-75 propellant used in the Trident II
D-5 Fleet Ballistic Missile.[12] It is because of explosive hazard that the higher energy military solid propellants
containing HMX are not used in commercial launch vehicles except when the LV is an adapted ballistic missile
already containing HMX propellant (Minotaur IV and V based on the retired Peacekeeper ICBMs). [13] The Naval
Air Weapons Station at China Lake, CA developed a new compound, C 6H6N6(NO2)6, called simply CL-
20 (China Lake compound #20). Compared to HMX, CL-20 has 14% more energy per mass, 20% more energy
per volume, and a higher oxygen-to-fuel ratio. [14] One of the motivations for development of these very high
energy density military solid propellants is to achieve mid-course exo-atmospheric ABM capability from missiles
small enough to fit in existing ship-based below-deck vertical launch tubes and air-mobile truck-mounted launch
tubes. CL-20 propellant compliant with Congress' 2004 insensitive munitions (IM) law has been demonstrated
and may, as its cost comes down, be suitable for use in commercial launch vehicles, with a very significant
increase in performance compared with the currently favored APCP solid propellants. With a specific impulse of
309 s already demonstrated by Peacekeeper's second stage using HMX propellant, the higher energy of CL-20
propellant can be expected to increase specific impulse to around 320 s in similar ICBM or launch vehicle
upper stage applications, without the explosive hazard of HMX. [15]
An attractive attribute for military use is the ability for solid rocket propellant to remain loaded in the rocket for
long durations and then reliably launched at a moment's notice.

Propellant families[edit]
Black powder (BP) propellants[edit]
Composed of charcoal (fuel), potassium nitrate (oxidizer), and sulfur (additive), BP is one of the
oldest pyrotechniccompositions with application to rocketry. In modern times, black powder finds use in low-
power model rockets (such asEstes and Quest rockets), as it is cheap and fairly easy to produce. The fuel
grain is typically a mixture of pressed fine powder (into a solid, hard slug), with a burn rate that is highly
dependent upon exact composition and operating conditions. Due to its sensitivity to fracture (and, therefore,
catastrophic failure upon ignition) and poor performance (specific impulsearound 80 s), BP does not typically
find use in motors above 40 Ns.

Zinc–sulfur (ZS) propellants[edit]

Composed of powdered zinc metal and powdered sulfur (oxidizer), ZS or "micrograin" is another pressed
propellant that does not find any practical application outside specialized amateur rocketry circles due to its
poor performance (as most ZS burns outside the combustion chamber) and incredibly fast linear burn rates on
the order of 2 m/s. ZS is most often employed as a novelty propellant as the rocket accelerates extremely
quickly leaving a spectacular large orange fireball behind it.

"Candy" propellants[edit]
In general, candy propellants are an oxidizer (typically potassium nitrate) and a sugar fuel
(typically dextrose, sorbitol, orsucrose) that are cast into shape by gently melting the propellant constituents
together and pouring or packing theamorphous colloid into a mold. Candy propellants generate a low-medium
specific impulse of roughly 130 s and, thus, are used primarily by amateur and experimental rocketeers.

Double-base (DB) propellants[edit]

DB propellants are composed of two monopropellant fuel components where one typically acts as a high-
energy (yet unstable) monopropellant and the other acts as a lower-energy stabilizing (and gelling)
monopropellant. In typical circumstances, nitroglycerin is dissolved in a nitrocellulose gel and solidified with
additives. DB propellants are implemented in applications where minimal smoke is required yet medium-high
performance (Isp of roughly 235 s) is required. The addition of metal fuels (such as aluminum) can increase the
performance (around 250 s), though metal oxide nucleation in the exhaust can turn the smoke opaque.

Composite propellants[edit]
A powdered oxidizer and powdered metal fuel are intimately mixed and immobilized with a rubbery binder (that
also acts as a fuel). Composite propellants are often either ammonium nitrate-based (ANCP) or ammonium
perchlorate-based (APCP). Ammonium nitrate composite propellant often uses magnesium and/or aluminum
as fuel and delivers medium performance (I sp of about 210 s) whereas Ammonium Perchlorate Composite
Propellant often uses aluminum fuel and delivers high performance (vacuum I sp up to 296 s with a single piece
nozzle or 304 s with a high area ratio telescoping nozzle).[8]Composite propellants are cast, and retain their
shape after the rubber binder, such as Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene(HTPB), cross-links (solidifies) with
the aid of a curative additive. Because of its high performance, moderate ease of manufacturing, and moderate
cost, APCP finds widespread use in space rockets, military rockets, hobby and amateur rockets, whereas
cheaper and less efficient ANCP finds use in amateur rocketry and gas generators. Ammonium dinitramide,
NH4N(NO2)2, is being considered as a 1-to-1 chlorine-free substitute for ammonium perchlorate in composite
propellants. Unlike ammonium nitrate, ADN can be substituted for AP without a loss in motor performance.
In 2009, a group succeeded in creating a propellant of water and nanoaluminum (ALICE).
The Constellation Program uses a mix of aluminum, ammonium perchlorate, a polymer
of polybutadiene and acrylonitrile,epoxy and iron oxide.[16]

High-energy composite (HEC) propellants[edit]

Typical HEC propellants start with a standard composite propellant mixture (such as APCP) and add a high-
energy explosive to the mix. This extra component usually is in the form of small crystals of RDX or HMX, both
of which have higher energy than ammonium perchlorate. Despite a modest increase in specific impulse,
implementation is limited due to the increased hazards of the high-explosive additives.

Composite modified double base propellants[edit]

Composite modified double base propellants start with a nitrocellulose/nitroglycerin double base propellant as a
binder and add solids (typically ammonium perchlorate and powdered aluminum) normally used in composite
propellants. The ammonium perchlorate makes up the oxygen deficit introduced by using nitrocellulose,
improving the overall specific impulse. The aluminum also improves specific impulse as well as combustion
stability. High performing propellants such as NEPE-75 used in Trident II D-5, replace most of the AP with
HMX, further increasing specific impulse. The mixing of composite and double base propellant ingredients has
become so common as to blur the functional definition of double base propellants.

Minimum-signature (smokeless) propellants[edit]

One of the most active areas of solid propellant research is the development of high-energy, minimum-
signature propellant using CL-20 (China Lake compound #20), C6H6N6(NO2)6, which has 14% higher energy per
mass and 20% higher energy density than HMX. The new propellant has been successfully developed and
tested in tactical rocket motors. The propellant is non-polluting: acid free, solid particulates free, and lead free.
It is also smoke free and has only a faint shock diamond pattern that is visible in the otherwise transparent
exhaust. Without the bright flame and dense smoke trail produced by the burning of aluminized propellants,
these smokeless propellants all but eliminate the risk of giving away the positions from which the missiles are
fired. The new CL-20 propellant is shock-insensitive (hazard class 1.3) as opposed to current HMX smokeless
propellants which are highly detonable (hazard class 1.1). CL-20 is considered a major breakthrough in solid
rocket propellant technology but has yet to see widespread use because costs remain high. [14]

Hobby and amateur rocketry[edit]

Solid propellant rocket motors can be bought for use in model rocketry; they are normally small cylinders of
black powder fuel with an integral nozzle and sometimes a small charge that is set off when the propellant is
exhausted after a time delay. This charge can be used to trigger a camera, or deploy a parachute. Without this
charge and delay, the motor may ignite a second stage (black powder only).
In mid- and high-power rocketry, commercially made APCP motors are widely used. They can be designed as
either single-use or reloadables. These motors are available in impulse ranges from "D" to "O", from several
manufacturers. They are manufactured in standardized diameters, and varying lengths depending on required
impulse. Standard motor diameters are 13, 18, 24, 29, 38, 54, 75, 98, and 150 millimeters. Different propellant
formulations are available to produce different thrust profiles, as well as "special effects" such as colored
flames, smoke trails, or large quantities of sparks (produced by adding titanium sponge to the mix).
Designing solid rocket motors is particularly interesting to amateur rocketry enthusiasts. The design of a
successful solid-fuel motor requires application of continuum mechanics, combustion chemistry, materials
science, fluid dynamics (includingcompressible flow), heat transfer, geometry (particle spectrum packing),
and machining. The vast majority of amateur-built rocket motors utilize a composite propellant, most
commonly APCP and candy rocket propellant.[citation needed]

History[edit]
Solid rockets were invented by the Chinese, the earliest versions were recorded in the 13th century. Hyder Ali,
king ofMysore, developed war rockets with an important change: the use of metal cylinders to contain the
combustion powder.
Castable composite solid rocket motors were invented by John Whiteside "Jack" Parsons at Caltech in 1942
when he replaced double base propellant with roofing asphalt and potassium perchlorate. This made possible
slow-burning rocket motors of adequate size and with sufficient shelf-life for jet-assisted take
off applications. Charles Bartley, employed at JPL (Caltech), substituted curable synthetic rubber for the gooey
asphalt, creating a flexible but geometrically stable load-bearing propellant grain that bonded securely to the
motor casing. This made possible much larger solid rocket motors. Atlantic Research Corporation significantly
boosted composite propellant Isp in 1954 by increasing the amount of powdered aluminum in the propellant to
as much as 20%.[17][dead link]
The largest solid rocket motors ever built were Aerojet's three 260 inch monolithic solid motors cast in Florida.
[18]
 Motors 260 SL-1 and SL-2 were 261 inches in diameter, 80 ft 8in long, weighed 1,858,300 pounds and had
a maximum thrust of 3.5M pounds. Burn duration was two minutes. The nozzle throat was large enough to walk
through standing up. The motor was capable of serving as a 1-to-1 replacement for the 8-engine Saturn 1
liquid-propellant first stage but was never used as such. Motor 260 SL-3 was of similar length and weight but
had a maximum 5.4M pounds thrust and a shorter duration.

Usage[edit]
Sounding rockets[edit]
Almost all sounding rockets use solid motors.

 Astrobee
 Black Brant (rocket)
 S-310, S-520
 Terrier-Orion, Terrier-Malemute
 VSB-30
Missiles[edit]
Due to reliability, ease of storage and handling, solid rockets are used on a number of missiles and ICBMs.

 Air-to-air missiles: AIM-9 Sidewinder

 Ballistic missiles: Jericho (missile)
 ICBMs: LGM-30 Minuteman, LGM-118 Peacekeeper, RT-2PM Topol, DF-
41, AGNI-V
Orbital rockets[edit]
Solid rockets are suitable for launching small payloads to orbital velocities, especially if three or more stages
are used. Many of these are based on repurposed ICBMs.

 Scout (rocket family)

 Mu (rocket family)
 Pegasus (rocket)
 Taurus (rocket)
 Minotaur (rocket family)
 Start-1
 PSLV - alternating solid and liquid stages
 Shavit
 Antares (rocket) - solid upper stage
 Vega (rocket)
Larger liquid-fueled orbital rockets often use solid rocket boosters to gain enough initial thrust to launch the fully
fueled rocket.

 Delta II
 Titan IV
 Space Shuttle
 Ariane 5
 Atlas V (optionally 1-5 boosters)
  Delta IV (optionally 2 or 4 boosters)
 H-IIA, H-IIB
 PSLV - optional solid boosters to lift heavier payloads
 GSLV Mk III

Advanced research[edit]
 Environmentally sensitive fuel formulations such as ALICE propellant
 Ramjets with solid fuel
 Variable thrust designs based on variable nozzle geometry
 Hybrid rockets that use solid fuel and throttleable liquid or gaseous oxidizer

See also[edit]
 Fireworks
 Pyrotechnic composition
 Ammonium Perchlorate Composite Propellant
 Intercontinental ballistic missile
 Jetex engine
 Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster
 Crawford burner
 Skyrocket

References[edit]
1. Jump up^ chapters 1–2, Blazing the trail: the early history of spacecraft and
rocketry, Mike Gruntman, AIAA, 2004, ISBN 1-56347-705-X.
2. Jump up^ http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LADEE/main
3. Jump
up^ http://www.space-travel.com/reports/LockMart_And_ATK_Athena_Launc
h_Vehicles_Selected_As_A_NASA_Launch_Services_Provider_999.html
4. Jump up^ Sutton, George P. (2000). Rocket Propulsion Elements; 7 edition.
Wiley-Interscience. ISBN 0-471-32642-9.
5. Jump up^ ATK Space Propulsion Products Catalog, May 2008, p. 30
6. Jump up^ http://www.pw.utc.com/Products/Pratt+
%26+Whitney+Rocketdyne/Propulsion+Solutions/Space
7. Jump up^ http://www.pw.utc.com/Products/Pratt+%26+Whitney+Rocketdyne
8. ^ Jump up
to:a b http://www.spaceandtech.com/spacedata/elvs/titan4b_specs.shtml
9. Jump up^ http://www.russianspaceweb.com/engines/rd0124.htm
10. Jump
up^ http://www.pw.utc.com/StaticFiles/Pratt%20.../Products/.../pwr_rl10b-
2.pdf
11. Jump up^ Solid
12. Jump up^ http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/systems/d-5-features.htm
13. Jump up^ Minotaur IV User's Guide, Release 1.0, Orbital Sciences Corp.,
January 2005,p. 4
14. ^ Jump up to:a b http://www.navair.navy.mil/techTrans/index.cfm?
map=local.ccms.view.aB&doc=crada.13
15. Jump up^ M. D. Black, The Evolution of ROCKET TECHNOLOGY, pp. 92-
94, Native Planter, SLC, 2012, payloadz.com underebook/History
 16. Jump up^ Chang, Kenneth (August 30, 2010). "NASA Tests Engine With an
Uncertain Future". New York Times. Retrieved 2010-08-31.
17. Jump up^ M. D. Black (2012). The Evolution of Rocket Technology. Native
Planter, SLC. p. 39. payloadz.com underebook/History[dead link]
18. Jump up^ "The 260 - The Largest Solid Rocket Motor Ever
Tested". nasa.gov. June 1999. Retrieved July 2014.

External links[edit]
 Robert A. Braeunig rocket propulsion page
 Astronautix Composite Solid Propellants
 Ariane 5 SRB
 Amateur High Power Rocketry Association
 Nakka-Rocketry (Design Calculations and Propellant Formulations)
 5 cent sugar rocket
 Practical Rocketry
 NASA Practical Rocketry

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Spacecraft propulsion
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 Spacecraft propulsion
 Solid-fuel rockets
 Solid fuels

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