POPULAR PUBLICATIONS

uppose the left side of the element in the figure below is the reference element
Towards Observation Point

Bd cos p

4 50 (N-1)8
20 36

Fig: Uniform Linear Array

So, from the left side-

element have phase shift = 0°

ð
element have phase shift=
3 element have phase shift= 25
Similarly K" element have phase shift = (k-1)6

Total phase shift between two adjacent element will be =Bd cosd+6
Where pd coso' phase shift due to space
= Angle between the array like to the observation point

p- 1 = wave length

So, electric Field component of the element

E E, <0 E, e0
= =

E =
E, <(Bdcoso +8) E,eiMcong-)
=

pd cosg+6)
e
E =
E, 2(Bdcosd+ 8)
BE(k-1(Bdcoso +8)= E,ek-iXBdcosg+8)
Total Electric Field
E= E + E, +E, t .+Ey
... +e/W-1)v
= Ee°+ Ee' + Ee'" +. ********

N-1)v
= E 1+e" +e2 e

= E,e
N-1)
2
sin(N
sint
So, for normalized Radiation Pattern.

AT&P-EC-76
 ANTENNA THEORY&PROPAGATION

sin(N
sin

AK E =
NE% trom the basic electric
As.

component summation
So.
we vill get max
radiation when = 0
pdcos +8 =0
Bd cos Pma

ma = cos| Bdcos
2rd

or.-pd cospma
As. = Bdcos +S

. Bd cos o-Bd cosma

2)
We can use both the
equation for the maximum radiation pattern.
Now there is two
special cases for the Antenna array,
)End- fire-Array:
When max =0 or T

8=-ßdcos Pmax Bd for Pmax=0

8-Bd cos omax +Bd for omax 7
y= (Bdcos+8)
=
Bd(cosd +1)
(i) Broad Side Array:

Pmax

S= Bd cos max
=0 For max
y = ßd cos

Direction of Nulls:

sin(N
E=
sinsin
When numerator term is 0, E = 0
So, For direction of Nulls

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Sin y
0
2
Ny tm r
m= 0,1,2,3,.
V =Bdicoso- cosn 2m
N

coso=cosoat 2m = COS Pmax

ma
NBd Nd
For End-Fire Array ( =0 or
r)
cos = +l+ A
Nd
And For Broad
Side Array (6ma
cos =mA
Na

4. Write short note on Phased Array antenna.

Answer: WBUT 2015, 201
The progressive phase shifts between elements is
methods; a phenomena controlled by applying electroni-
called electronic
Arrays (ESA) or Planar Phased scanning. Hence the Electronically Scannen
for scanning Arrays came into existence for their
purposes. The progressive phase shift is ability to be usea
ferrite phase shifters or diode done by the use of
electronicall
the ferrite controls the phase shifters in each feed line. The
phase shift thereby controlling the magnetic field withi
the wires. Very rapid amount of current flow
scanning of the direction of beam in throug
incremental phase change is
space achieved by
maximum radiation in any desiredelectronicaBli through phase shifters. Thus producina
direction can be controlled. direction
Large phased arrays are used mostly in
while the smaller ones are used as advanced radar
systems and in radio
communication system.
feed system
to
illuminate astronom
a reflector in satellit=

AT&P-EC-78
 ANINNA UILORY A I'ROPAGA JOL

APERATURE ANTENNAS
Multiple Choice Type Questions
JT is used for triggering an
an SCR, the ave shape of the voltage
When a UJT
ng SCR
1. from UJT circuit is a
wBUT 2007]
obtained
o b t a i n e d

a) Sine wave
b) saw tooth wave

c)Trapezoidalwave d) square wave

Answer: (b). but more accurate answer is timing spikes.

[WBUT 2015]
2. In C a s s e G r feed the sub reflector is
d) spherical
a) paraboloid b) hyperboloid c) ellipsoid
Answer:(b)

[WBUT 2015]
distribution of Tschebyshev array is
The current amplitude c) inverse tapered d) n o n e of these
a) u n i f o r m b) symmetric
Answer: (c)
WBUT 2171
. . .
antenna array has no side lobe.
4. b) Back-fire array
a) End-fire array
d) Binomial arraY
c) Broadside array

Answer: (d)
WBUT 2017]
statement:
Identify the incorrect two conductor
5.
are balanced antennas if fed by
antennas
a) Dipole
transmission line two conductor
unbalanced antennas if fed by
antennas are
b) Dipole
transmission line
antenna
n a r r o w e s t bandwidth
antennas are
c) Dipole directivity as that of small loop
the same
d) Short dipole has
Answer: (b)
WBUT 2018]
6. A Balun is transfer
b) an impedance
a) a resistor d) f r e q u e n c y c o n v e r t e r

c) an antenna
Answer: (b)
Questions
Short Answer Type
of d i a m e t e r 3 meters at a
circular aperture
antenna with a
WBUT 2014]
Find the gain of a n
frequency of 5 GHz.
Answer:
Given D, = 3m
f= 5GHz
AT&P-EC-79
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10
0,06 m
510
For a parabolic dish, the power gan 1S

6000
6.A0.06
64

i n dl3 log(lo000) 42.04 dB

Long Answer Type Questions

. Explain special features of parabolic reflector antenna and discuss on differe

types of feed used with neat diagram. weUT 2013, 20

Answer:
Parabolic Reflector
he parabolic reflector, so called owing to its shape resembling that of a parabola
1). H
Dasieally d iulector antenna employing the properties ofa parabola (Refer figure
a plane vave front over a large aperture is produced from a point source through a sha
reilector. For materializing this, the necessary condition is that the distance from
souree to the plane wave front via two paths 1 and 2 must be equal, 1.e.
2L =
R+ R cos 0 =
R(1 +cos6)
2L
or, R=- (1)
1+cos6
Eqn. (1) is the equation ofa parabola with focus at F and is the necessary equation for
required surface contour.
parabola

Vertex ANIS
F
2 Focus

-Planc wavelrot

Sheet
reflector
1) Direetix

ATP-TC-80
 ANTENNA T11EORY& PROPAGATION

ANIS

A Radiation pattern
B
(c) Aperture plane (d)

Fig: 1. Parabolie Reflectors and its radiation pattern

parabola around its axis, the surface generated is called

a paraboloid
On revolution of a
curve is
or a parabola of revolution. With reference to Figure 1(b), the paraboloid
curve to a fixea
defined in a manner that the distance from any point P on a parabolic
1.e..
F (Focus) is equal to the perpendicular distance to a fixed line (Directrix).
point
PF PO. then
directrix.
If AA be a line normal to the axis at an arbitrary distance QS from the
with reference to Figure 1(c).
PS QS- PQ and PF =PQ.
S is, PF + PS PF + QS PQ =QS. =

of focus to
-

. Distance
source at
which originates from an isotropic
Hence all w a v e s reflected from the parabola
at the line AA'. The aperture plane
is defined as
F, are seen to arrive with equal phase
cut-off.
the plane BB at which a reflector is
s o u r c e at the parabola
focus F. The shaded portion of the
Now let us place an isotropic wave of circular
source radiation intercepted by
the paraboloid is reflected as a plane
reflector surface from a true
that the deviation of the
cross-section with the assumption

parabolic surface small fraction of wavelength.

3, 5,......, i.e. an e v e n
L (n + 1)2/4 n =odd integer =1,
Ifthe focus-vertex distance.
=

the axial direction from the source will be in

direct radiation in
multiple of 2/4, then the of the retlected wave. However, it
cancel the central region
opposite phase and tends 1o

A/4.then the direct radiation is in

same phase in the
L=na/4. i.c., an old multiple of
and tends to reintorce in the
central region of reflected
axial direction from the source

wave [Rcfer figure 2 (a)]. Now hy

convcrt a spherical wave into a plane wave.
action is to
The primary parabola on the reflector are
reflected back thereh
all w a v e s incident
at F,
placing a feed no matter from vhich point o n th
antenna
waves.
front. The reflected
ominga plane w a v e
the directrix is in
the s a m e phase, thereby producino
parabola they are reflected, reaching

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The waves in other directione
concentrating along the parabola axis.
and
are cancelled

Secondary
patlern
Secondary pattern

Axis
D

Primary pattern
Isotropic source

pattern/Primary pattern

Horn
nA

(a)
(b)
Fig: 2
For the isotropic primary/feed antenna (considering ideal illumination)

HPBW=: D, = mouth diameter(m)

D
1402
FNBW
D
.. (2)
D 9.87
For large, uniform rectangular aperture (considering ideal illumination).

HPBW=37.52

FNBW=DA

L
D A7A .. (3)

For lossless antenna (with tapered illumination):

Power gan, g» 47TA . (4)
=2
For circular aperture paraboloid with dipole feed:

Power gain, g,
=
6.4 (5)

to use an offset feed. The reasons for it are that the

Sometimes it becomes necessary
narabola reflected waves at the primary antenna produces interference and mismatch and
mareover the primary antenna obstructs and blocks out the central portion of the aperture
resulting in increase in the minor lobes. 1hus to avoid these hurdles, the primary antenna

AT&P-EC-82
 ANTENNATHEORY& PROPAGATION

: ehtly displacedand a portion of

the as
offset feed, is depicted in figure 2 (b). paraboloid is used. This arrangemen, **

naraboloid of revolution the ratio of power density is given by

For a p a r a b o

1+cos 0)* where

cos): S, Sola0 =

4 (6)
tfield
and the
relative
intensity ratio in the aperture plane is Kpressed as

Be+Cos

... (7)
2
Eo
re same parameters for a cylindrical parabola are
S +Cos
. . (8)
2

1+cos6
and = (9)
2
at
The parabolic reflector produces narrow beam width and very large gain. It is not used
LF range owing to their large size. Its mouth diameter is kept at least 102 for better
lt
usefulness' and effectiveness (required mouth diameter is 48m at 63 MHz TV band).
finds great applications in fields and radars. Often mesh surtaces
of communication
employed to minimize the wind effect on the antenna and extra strain on the supports.

Feed systems for Parabolic Reflectors

The parabolic reflector can be feed by several methods as follows:

. Half-wave dipole feed

The simplest feed is a dipole with plane sheet reflector at the focus of the parabolic
characteristics and this
reflector as shown in figure 1(a). This has bidirectional radiation
of some part of the energy from
method suffers from spillover loss owing to escape
at the edges leading to
reflector. Moreover there is scattering of energy due to diffraction
however be overcome by the use of aa
formation of side lobes. The above problems may
the parabolic reflector as shown in figure
dipole with spherical reflector at the focus of
16).

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Edge Spillover
diffraction

-Dipole -Dipole
Feed
Feed
Sheet Spherical
Reflector Reflector

(a)Dipole with sheet Reflector (b)Dipole with spherical Reflector

Fig: 1 Dipole feeding system

2. Array of collinear dipoles feed

his is another possible primary feed antenna but this feed involves changing from
unbalanced system to a balanced one.
3. Yagi-Uda antenna feed
This produces a uni-directional pattern, but the antenna size remains a big problem. It
also blocks the reflected rays. The Yagi-Uda antenna feed is depicted in figure 2.

Radiating Antenna

iReflector
Director

Fig: 2 Parabola with Yagi antenna

4. Centre fed with spherical reflector

Here the primary antenna is placed at the focus of the paraboloid for better reception or
transmission as depicted in figure 3. The small spherical reflector prevents direct
radiation from the feed as it redirects direct radiations back to the paraboloid. Even if the
spherical shell obstructs the reflected rays, the obstruction is not much.

Spherical
reflector

-
Primary antenna
at the focus

Paraboloid reflec.or
Fig: 3 Center fed with spherical reflector

AT&P-EC-84
 PROPAGATIO2N
NNENNATHEORY &

5 ,Hornf e e d

ramidal or conical horn

fed with co-axial or wave the focus
guide system is plac
heparabola as shown in figure 4. Horn has moderate directiona
o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

ota r d s the reflector and here is no direct radiation. Even though lityobs
19% or
c t270
s the
of
or 270
reflecte ray when placed at the focus, the obstruction is not much (typically
1%
otal retlected energy).

Horn

Feed

Fig: 4 Horn feed

á Cassegrain feed
sub-reflector tne surrounding
Laurent Cassegrain of France used a hyperbolic shaped of
of the main parabolic reflector thereby offering a flexibility design
prime focus point o r sub-disn)
second reflector (sub-reflector
for reflecting optical telescopes. The use of
an additional degree of freedom for enhancing
the performance in several
provides the
in
Cassegrain feed as shoWn
This classical arrangement is referred to as
applications.
Figure 5.

OF-OF
OB=OA

Feed horm
A is

B O Hyperbolic reflector
Circle of radius C F C ' F

Plane of symmetry of
hyperbolic geometry

Parabolio
reflector

Fig: 5 Cassegrain Feed

reflection from the hyperbolic sub-retlecto is

he rays from the focal point F after
wave front (circle
ol radius
CF ). Thus using Fernmat' s
required to form a spherical
principle of equality of path length
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C'A +FA =CA+ FA
Now, CA= CF
and FA-AF' AF
- 2(OA)
FA-A'F' =2(OA)= BA
which yields the relation:
a
. . (1)
where
a= OA = OB. f =OF' =OF,
rr and
standard equation yy as indicated in figure 5. Eqn. (1) is the
of a
ne Cassegrain hyperbola.
Feed arrangement, one of
w h the the foci of the hyperbolit reflector
paraboloid. Thus the electro-magnetic rays from the hormcoincides
focus of the
aCncident on the antenna
paraboloid
paraboloid. These incident reflector,; they are reflected back and are
rays are reflected and incident on the
propagate as a
plane wave Iront.

what are the

important parameters for
Discuss with proper designing a rectangular horn antenna?
Answer: diagram. [WBUT 2016]
Refer to Question No. 3 of Long Answer Type Questions.
3. Write a short note on Horn Antenna
Answer: WBUT 2014]
The pyramidal horn was first constructed by Sir
A flared-out Jagadish Chandra Bose earlier in 1897
its typical shape
opened-out
or
waveguide is generally considered as a
horn antenna owing to
resembling that of a horn. In comparison to
produces a uniform phase front with a larger waveguide, the horm antenna
flared out to improve radiation aperture. Actually the waveguide mouth is
tlare angle, the horn also becomes
efficiency, directive pattern and directivity. With small
small.
Generally in a waveguide, the wave propagation is restricted
hence the does not spread.
waves by the walls and conducting
However, once the wave reaches the
spread laterally and the wave front becomes mouth, they
spherical.
impedance matching, improve directivity and narrow the
The flaring is done to
beam width.
provide
aperture, the directivity also enhances. The horns Owing to large
pyramidal horn and conical horn (however other typesbroadly classified as sectoral hom.
do exist) are
depicted in figure l.

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 ANIENNA IEORY PROPAGATION
Rectangular Iloms
Cular |lorns
Waveguide lorn

Apertur

Throat
(a) Exponentially tapered pyTammdal (c)Exponcnttally tapcred

(b) Sectoral H-plane (1) Conical

Axis

(c) Sectoral E-planec (g) TEM bioconical

t.
(d) Pyramidal Fig: 1 (h) TEo bioconical

The sectoral E-plane and H-plane horns have flares along the direction of electric and
magnetic field respectively. However flaring along E and H are referred to as pyramidal
horn which has the shape of a truncated pyramid. A conical horn results if the cireular
waveguide are flared out.
The gain of the conical antenna is optimum for a given slant flare length (() and diameter

ofthe aperture, d =

Directivity of a lossless horn antenna is expressed as

lfaperture efficiency E= 0.6, D= 7.54 . (1)

For
rectangular hom: A, =
d,d
whe
wnere d = aperture size i n E -plane, and

Haperture size in H -plane

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For conical horn:
A,= Td
where daperture diameter.
CC-plane and H-plane radiation ficld patterns of rectangular i as a function of
angle and horn length flare
are
depicted in figure 2
R 1 R 2) R 4) R 81 R 16.

0 - 20 E-plane

R R 2 R 47 R 8. R 16. (a)

O20°
H-plane

O5° E10° 20° Op 30° E=40 O 50°

R=8
M E-plane
O5 e 10° 6 20° 6 =30° =40 =50° (b)
R 87 0 H-plane

Fig: 2
Design equations of Horn Antenna:
Considering the equivaBent diagram of a horn anteuna as shown in Figure 3, wve have
l= Length of centre of feed to centre of antenna
6 Path difference between centre of feed to the
=
centre of antenna and centre of feed to
edge of antenna.
d = aperture diameter

0= angle depicting flare out of horn.

.'. cos /2
2 NOI2

and tan| d/2

0 2 cos . (2) Fig:3

5)
2 tan . (3)

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 ANTENNA IHEORYh PROPAGATION

Aso. (+ 8)

ofr.+2/8+S

S is small, hence is very small

21
(4)
or. half-poweer
Also, the
(4) are the design equations for horn
antenna.
and
aations (2). (3)
width in E and H-plane
are
heam

diameter in E -

plane
d =

6,
672 :d=diameterinH-plane. (5)
=-
and.
d
A ... (6)
D =

and directivity,

. (7)
power gain. g, =
4.5 Ap
are as
follows:
antennas moderate gains.
of horn with
The uses
at Microwave
frequency bands
primarily used
(2) Horns are feed element.
These are used as antenna
parameters.

(b) measurement
and study of different
laboratories for
C) Also in

A T & P - F C - 8 9
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RADIOVWAVE PROPAGATION
1.
Multiple Choice Type
- guestions
The
ground wave field
a) strength is
inversely proportional WBUT 2013
to distance
Dinversely
c) directly proportional to tiie square of distance
a)
directly proportional to distance
Answer: (a) proportional to the
square of distance
2.
Space wave
a) below HFpropagation occurs at
frequencies
Answer: (¢) b) in HF c) above HF WBUT 20151
d) none of these
3. Ground
wave
propagation is
a) AM broadcasting widely used for
c) over the horizon b) ship to ship communication
WBUT 2015
Answer: (d) radar d) all of these

4. When the transmitter

and receiver
wave link must working at are
separated by a skip distance the
a) MUF sky
c) LUHF b) less than MUF WBUT 2015
Answer: (b) d) none of these

5. The true horizon

based on
geometric straight line of sight is
a) d(kms) 3.566Vh. (mts)
=

b)
WBUT 2015
d(kms) 4.266/h. (mts)
=

c) d(miles) 3.566/h, (n)

=

d)
Answer: (a) d(miles) 4.266Vh. (ft)
=

6. The maximum distance which can be

frequency is defined as covered by ground wave for a
100
given
a) max km WBUT 2016]
b) na 100
fMH:)
3rkl:) =km
100
c) max fkile) -km 100
d) ax
Answer: (b)

7. Critical frequency of the ionospheric layer is given as

a) f. =9N b) f 81VN max
c) f=9N
WBUT 2016
Answer: (a) 111AX d) f81N m
AT&P-EC-90
 PROPAGATION
ANTENNA THEORY &

8.
correct expression for refractive index for any ionospheric layer is
The cor

WBUT 2016]

81N 9N 81N
a) b) n= c) d)n
Answer: (a)

WBUT 2016]
9.
The highest electron density is found in
b) E-layer d) F2-layer
a) D-layer c) F1-layer
Answer: (d)

WBUT 2018]
10. Duct propagation is useful to
a) reduce the effect of curvature of earth b) create shadow zones
transmission
c) lower the frequency d) lower the distance of
Answer: (d)

Short Answer Type gQuestions

mean by
1. What are the different modes of radio wave propagation? What do you
wBUT 2013]
fading?
Answer:

Part:
with the
The various obstacles, discontinuities andpropagation medium variations along
waves in a n earth
inherent wave properties dictate the propagation of electro-magnetic
modes of radio wave
environment and its immediate surroundings. The three prominent
propagation from transmitter to the receiver are:

1. Ground wave / Surface wave

2. Sky wave/lonospheric wave/Short wave

wave
3. Space wave/Tropospheric

2nd Part:
Fading received signal strength at the receiver
Fading is defined as the fluctuation in the or a
random variation in the received signal. It may be regarded as undesirable variations in
at the receiver. Fading is attributed
loudness of the wave received
ta
intensity or

lations in ionospheric conditions and multipath

reception.

2.Derive line of sight distance in space wave propagation. WBUT 2014]

Answer:
The radio horizon of an antenna is defined as the distant points locus
al
at which antenna's
direct ray
rayy become tangential to planetary surlace.
On a
surface, tha
spherical surface. the radio
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horizon to space wave
norizon is acircle. The curvature of the radio
the earth exhibits
propagation. It extends beyond optical horizon 1or he
hr
standard atmosphere
owing to bending or refraction Optical
ofradio waves; typical value is about times the horizon

3
optical horizon. The refraction takes place owing to
changes in tropospheric layer density, temperature,
relative conductivity and water-vapour content. Curvature of ray path as a
The radio Fig: 1
horizon which is actually the range of air refractive index
tn
direct ray from transmitting antenna travels to reach
result

the receiving antenna. It is thus enhanced by increasing the antenna helgnis.

Earth's radius, a as shown
r the cquivalent straight line ray path for equivalent
in Figure2.
d
(a +d =(a' +h, (1)
d d
where a' is the earth's equivalent radius M P
hr ha
h = height of transmitting antenna(MA)
A B
or, d =a+h +2a'h, -a?
a
= 2a'h +h

Now, as a >>h, d 2a'h (2)

Similarly, (a')* +d2 =(a'+h, (3)
0
or, d =2a'h, +h Fig: 2
Again, as a'>>hg, d2a'h ... (4)
Let d be the maximum distance of tropospheric propagation
From figure, d=d, +d,
d=2a'h, +2ah, . (5)
Now, the earth's equivalent radius a'= ka
0.048
where k is the effective earth's radius factor =.

dM
dh
a is the actual earth's radius = 3960 miles.

0.048 0.048
.a dM 0.036 -a . (6)

dh
dM for standard atmosplhere = 0.036 units /

dh

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 ANIENNA THEORY& PROPAGATION

a (miles)=
3960 miles =(4x1320)miles= 5280 miles.

(6.37x 10° )m = 8.493x 10°m.

a ( m ) =

3
from cquation (5).
Hence.
d(km) = V17h, (m) + y17h,(m).. (7)
wave
from
of sight (LOS) is defined
the distance covered by direct space
as
Theline of
antenna height
ransmitting to receiving antenna. The LOS is dependent upon the
transmitting

mtter and receiver and the eftfective earth's radius factor (k).
uation (7). the line of sight is expressed as
From

des 17h,(m)
+y17 h, (m) . (8)

WBUT 2016]
3. Prove
that refractive index of inonosphere.
81N

Answer:
Refractive Index of Ionosphere
The refractive index (n) of the ionosphere is
defined as the ratio of the phase velocity of a
wave in vacuum to the velocity in the ionosphere

.(1)
Vp

wnere e= relative permittivity.of the ionosphere.

,=1-
Ne .. (2)
ma Eo
N density of electrons (m)
10"C
charge of electron 1.6
= x
e=

at rest= 9.11x10" Kg
m mass of electron
= 27f= angular frequency of wave.
at very hign temperature consisting of the
plasma is the completely ionized gas
The plasma frequency ) . i.e.
.e., the natural
charged nuclei
ei and negative
electrons.
is the one at whieh e,=
particles in plasma region,
on

irequency of oscillation of charged

Henc from cquation
ed (2), putting w
=
0, and e,
0, we have

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0=1 Ne
mo EFo
Ne?
or, =-

or, o Ne2 .. (3)

m E
= N e 2 = 9N .(4)
Eo

Refractive index, n
=ye .. (5)

From equation (5), it is evident that the maximum value of electron density of the
lonospheric layer determines the highest frequency of the wave thát will be reflected
back from ionosphere. This is called the critical frequency, J.
Thus if Nmx be the maximum value of the electron density of the ionospheric layer, the
critical frequency is S. =9Nma . (6)
The phase velocity (v») is defined as the rate at which the electromagnetic wave

changes phase and the group velocity (v,) is defined as the velocity of propagation of
the envelope.

.(7)

and =Vp "g (8)

4. Derive the equation to show that the radius curvature of path in troposphere is a
function rate of change of dielectric constant with height. Draw the necessar
diagram. WBUT 2017]
Answer:
Let us consider a radio wave travelling nearly horizontally in the troposphere and its path
is hent into an arc by the variation ot the refractive index with height as shown in figure.

Let V= velocity of propagation

h height above the earth
=

R radius of curvature of the ray path

r = actual radius of earth

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Then from figure,

Arc V+ dv) d
Angle =

Radius dh V+dv
vdt vd
d0 R
Rd0= vd . (i) h+ dh

Similarly. (R+dh)d0 (v+dv)di

= R+dR

. (R+dh-R)d0 =(v+dv-v)dt
dh de= dv dt
thEarth
. (ii)
dt
O
V ... ii)
But kr
where kr = dielectric constant (relative)
c=velocity of light
at height h
= refractiveindex
Hence the change in refractive index with height is obtained by differentiating Eqn. (ii)
w.r.t. h

dv - d_C.d
dh dh 4
=
Vd . . (iv)
dh

dv v ah : u=1 ... (v)

dh
Hence from Eqn. (1)

R= do (d0 dv d
dt dh dh

or,
dh . . (vi)
R
dp is a lunction ot the rate of change of
This s of the wave path
s Shown that radius of curvature and it changes Irom hour to hour, dav
refractive index with height
Clectric constant o r
o
day and season to season

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distance for D.
E. F1 F2 layers if t
and
ae the maximum single hop
respectively above the p
their
ts are assumed to be 70. 130, 230 and 350 km earth
and the
angle of incidence is 15° in all cases. WBUT 2017
Answer:
be
theangle ofincidence, 1hen forsinglehop distance
4h
cos i=
4h +D
Where h is the height and D is the distance between single hop

= sec"i
4/ cosi
or, D = sec i-1
4h
or, D 4h Vseci-1
=

D 2hvseci-1
For angle Zi =
15°,
D = 2hvsec 15-1 =2hV1.0718-1 = 2/h/0.0718

2hx0.2679 =0.5358h = 0.54h.

For D-layer, D=0.54h = 0.54x 70 =37.8 km
For E -layer, D= 0.54h =0.54x 130 70.2 km
For F-layer, D=0.54h = 0.54x 230 = 124.2 km
For F-layer, D=0.54h = 0.54x 350 = 189 km

6. Define Doppler Effect in Radar system. WBUT 2018]

Answer
Doppler Effect:
In case of radio wave propagation, when a receiver is moving towards the source. then
the zero crossings of the signal appear faster leading to increase in received frequeney.
However if the receiver is moving away from the source then opposite effect ocçurs. The
resulting change in frequency is known as Doppler shift.
Let us consider the transmitter to be fixed at some location and let receiver be moving
away from the transmitter with a constant velocity v. A ssuming complex envelope of the
signal emitted by the transmiter be A e , then signal at a point along -direction (as
shown in Fig. 1) is

. (1)

whereA(x) = amplitude as a 1unction ol distance x, c=vclocitv o f liolht.

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Fixed transmitter Movnp 1CCCve

O O-
F'ig: I llustration of Doppler eflect

the locatio of the constant velocity receiver, then

frTeprese

. (2)
initial position of receiver,
yelocity ot receiver mOving away from the sourceC

v a l u e of.r in Eqn. ( )) wwe get

stituting
A+

- Jr,

= A( +1v7)e e (3)

=10 1 (4)
Received frequency J,
where , = carrier transmission frequency.
s is evident from Eqn. (3);

hus Doppler shift = Af =1, -1, =-J0 C

. . (5)
Or.
C

negative depending on whether the receiver is moving

Doppler shift is positive or

transmitter.
towards or away from the

to ionosphere: [wBUT 2018]

7. Explain the following terms with respect
a) Virtual height
b) Skip distance
Answer:
4) Virtual height: Refer to Question I(a) of Long AnsWer Type Questio15.
No.
AnsH'er l}pe Questious.
0) Skip distance: Refer to Question No. 8(c) of lLong

Answer Type guestions

Long

1.e f i n e MUF, Critical frequency and virtual height. WBUT 20131

OR,
usual frequency in ionospheiic
etine critical frequency and
these
maximum
two parameters. WEUT 20171
getion. Derive the relation between

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An wer:
Maximum Usable Frequency
aNimum Usable Frequcncy (MUF) is defincd as the highest wave frequency at.
is r:tlected by the ionospheric layer at an angle of incidence other than normal inc which
idence
Crtical Frequency
The highest frequency of the radio wave that is reflected from the ionospheric laver
to the earth at Vertical distance is called the critical frequency of that ayer be
It layer. may als
regarded as the limiting frequency above which the wave penetrates throok
1on ospheric layer and below which the wave is reflected by the layer, when the
wae is normally incident on the
layer.
Critical trequeney. . where N= electron density
=9NN
;

Vir tual Height

W en a short pulse ofenergy, travelling with the speed of light is sent vertically upwe
the1 it reaches to a
height, called virtual height, taking a time same as the two ways trae
time of the reflection
of the actual from thepulse layer.
Ionosphere
Projected
height

Virtual
height (h)
Actual height

Th s height measured with the help of an instrument called

is
lonosonde.
. Virtual height, = C

where c velocity oflight (3x10 m/s)

=

T two way travel üme (approx. pulse duration=

150 Lus)
b) At what frequency a wave must propagate for
the D region to have an
refraction 0.6? Given N=500 electron / c.c. for D index
WBUT 2013
region.
Answer:
Fo D-layer:
8IN
Refractive index n=

81N 81x500 81x 500 81x500

or. -
1- n I(0.6) 1-0.36 0.64

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 ANTENNA THEORY &PROPAGATION
frequency f = 81x 500 251.56 Hz.
0.64

2. a pefine MUF, Critical frequency and virtual height.

b). At what frequency a wave must WBUT 2014]
ction 0.6? Given
propagate for the D region to have an index of
refractic
500 electron/cc for D region.
In a communication link two identical antennas at 10 GHz and used propagation
40 dB.
of If the transmitted power is 1W find the received
power if the range of the
link is 30 Km.
Answer:

slRefer 1o Question No. I(a) of Long Answer Type Questions.

b) Given:
N 500 electrons/cc
A=0.6

81N
Refractive index u =.
f
or, (0.6) =1- 81x500
2
= 1--
40500
f
40500 40500251.56Hz
,j=1-0.36 0.64

c)Given
=10GHz

Gy =10 = G
P = 1W

R 30 km
By Friis Transmission Formula,

Received power P, =P,G=

4TR
P,G,G«\ArR
2

3x10
Ix10 x10* xi10x10°
10x10°)
(47)x30x10)
0.633 x 10" W =
0.633 uW
= 6.33 x 107 =

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S.What is Duct
propagation. What Propagation? Determine the Skip distance in sk
sky wav
usuable frequency?
is radio horizon? Define virtual height? What
t is maximum maxi
Answer: WBUT 2014, 20161
Part: Refer to uestion No. 8(a) of Long Answer Type Questions5.
P'art:
Refer to Question No. 8(c) of Long Answer 7ype
P'art: Refer to Question No. 2 of Short Answer Type QuestuOns.
art:Refer to Question No. 2(a) of Long Answer Type Quesons.
Questions.
Part: Refer to
Question No. 2(a) of Long Answer Type Questions.
4.a) What is the Wave tilt?
Answer: WBUT 2015]
he waves transmitted from the transmitter and reaching the receiver by
Surface of the earth is gliding over the
usually referred to as the ground/surface wave. The ground
are also
loosely known as Norton surface waves, Zenneck waves, Sommertield waves
or waves
gliding waves. The propagation is
and a wave basically by means of a combination of diffraction
guide action. Signals having frequencies up to 2 MHz are
by means of surface usually propagated
All broadcast radio signals received
wave.
ground waves.For ground wave
during daytime are
close to each other
propagation, both transmitters and receivers should be
(approx. few kms) with their antennas having vertical
These waves find extensive polarization.
applications in broadcasting at LF range.
Direction of propagation>

Successive Increasing
angle of tilt
wave fronts

Surface of the Earth

Fig: 1
As the ground wave
passes over the surtace of the earth, it losses
absorption. part this lost energy Is made up by the energy diffracted of its energy by
some
A of
the upper portion of the wave iront. Hence the downward from
propagating wave suffers varying amount
of attenuation while propagating along the curvature of the
earth, depending upon
frequency, surface irregularities, permittivity and
conductivity. The attenuation increases
with increase in the frequency and thus is more suitable at VLF, LF and MF (up to 2
MHz).

Moreover the wave front ol the progressing wave tilts more and
more as shown in
1. This increase in the tilt causes short-circuiting ot the figure
eleetuic field comnonent of the
wave and hence reducing the 1iela strength. Ihe wave
ultimately dies out after traversing
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