The Second Conditional

The second conditional uses the past simple after if, then 'would' and the
infinitive:

 if + past simple, ...would + infinitive

(We can use 'were' instead of 'was' with 'I' and 'he/she/it'. This is mostly done in
formal writing).

It has two uses.

First, we can use it to talk about things in the future that are probably not going
to be true. Maybe I'm imagining some dream for example.

 If I won the lottery, I would buy a big house.(I probably won't win the lottery)
 If I met the Queen of England, I would say hello.
 She would travel all over the world if she were rich.
 She would pass the exam if she ever studied.(She never studies, so this won't
happen)

Second, we can use it to talk about something in the present which is

impossible, because it's not true. Is that clear? Have a look at the examples:

 If I had his number, I would call him. (I don't have his number now, so it's
impossible for me to call him).
 If I were you, I wouldn't go out with that man.
 How is this different from the first conditional?
 This kind of conditional sentence is different from the first conditional
because this is a lot more unlikely.

For example (second conditional): If I had enough money I would buy a

house with twenty bedrooms and a swimming pool (I'm probably not
going to have this much money, it's just a dream, not very real)

But (first conditional): If I have enough money, I'll buy some new shoes
(It's much more likely that I'll have enough money to buy some shoes)
 Modals of Necessity, Prohibition, and Permission

Must, have to and have got to convey the idea that something is strongly required or
obligatory, often by law. Must is a true modal, so its form never changes. Have to and have
got to on the other hand, are phrasal modals which change forms to agree with their subjects.
For example:

I must renew my passport before I go on vacation.

I have to/ have got to renew my passport before I go on vacation.

William has to/ has got to renew his passport before he goes on vacation.

Must not and cannot (and their contracted forms mustn’t and can’t) convey the idea that
something is not allowed or prohibited, often by law. For example:

You cannot drive in Canada without a valid driver’s license.

Can is used to convey the idea that something is allowed at the time. Could is used to talk
about something that was allowed in the past, and will be able is used to talk about something
that will be permitted in the future. For example:

There’s plenty of room in the car. You can bring your friend with you.

Several years ago, people could smoke in almost all public buildings in British Columbia,

But now it is not allowed. For example:

In the future, people will be able to travel vast distances through space as easily as we travel
around the world today.

Should conveys the idea that it would be wise to do something. In other words, it is a good
idea to do it. For example:

In order to get to the airport in time to catch our flight, we have to leave home at 7:00 in the
morning. Therefore, everyone should go to bed early tonight.

Do/ does are used with have to and has/ have are used with have got to when forming
questions. Must is not commonly used in American English to form questions, nor is it used
with do/does. For example:

It’s still early. Do you have to leave so soon?

She’s working hard. Has she got to finish the assignment tonight?

It’s still early. Must we leave now?

In news reports and formal writing, it is common to use the passive forms of reporting verbs
(verbs of saying or believing). Using this resource allows us to give information when we don’t
know for sure whether it is true or not. We distance ourselves from the information.

Reporting verbs are verbs such

as agree, announce, believe, claim, consider, expect, hope, know, report, say, suggest, think, 
understand, etc. And we can use their passive form for distancing in two different ways.
 

it is said that …

 
It+ passive reporting verb + that + clause (subject + verb)

 It is  believed that  the murderer is no longer in the country. 

 It has been announced that  they are going to cancel the tour.

 It has been  suggested that  the team can’t be trusted defensively.

 It was thought that  the building  could collapse.

they are said to be

 
Subject + passive reporting verb + to + infinitive …

 He is thought to be  a close associate of the terrorist. 

 The terrorist is believed to have fled  to the mountains.

When we use this pattern, we use the simple infinitive or the continuous infinitive when the

reported action is simultaneous to the reporting.

 He is said  to be  an art collector. 

 They were believed  to be  secretly in love. 

 They are thought  to be living  under strict protection.

We can also use the simple infinitive to refer to the future.

 She is expected  to become  a super star. 

We use the perfect infinitive or the perfect continuous infinitive when the reported action

is previous to the reporting (earlier in the past).

 She was thought  to have left  the previous week. 

 He is claimed  to have hit  another student.

 He is known  to have been hiding  somewhere in Panama since he escaped.  

there are said to be

 
We can also use the same structure with the pronoun there.

 There are said to be  new leads on the case. 

 There is believed to be  a new donor who is partially financing the campaign.

seem / appear

 
We can also use the verbs seem and appear for distancing ourselves from the information we
are giving.
 

it seems/appears that + clause

 It seems/appears that  the new  series will begin shooting in about two months.

it would seem/appear that

 
It means the same as it seems that, but it more formal.

 It would seem/appear that  the situation is finally under control.

Subject + seem/appear + to infinitive

 The new secretary  seems/appears  to be  very concerned about climate.  (simple
infinitive)

 They  seem/appear  to be having  some difficulties.  (continuous infinitive)

 Their leaders  seem/appear  to have suffered  some setbacks.  (perfect infinitive)

 The company seems/appears to have been doing  very well over the last year (perfect
continuous infinitive)

there seem(s) to be/to have been

 There seem to be  two options for kids. 

 There seems to have been  a great response in social media. 

apparently, allegedly, according to

There are expressions that we can also use for distancing.
 

apparently

 Apparently, the new primer minister isn’t going  to visit Cuba until the end of May. 

allegedly

 
We use allegedly to give information when something wrong appears to been done, but there
is no proof.

 He  allegedly  took a knife and stabbed the victim in the stomach. 

according to

 According to  witnesses, she abandoned the place well after midnight. 

might / may

 
We can also use might or may to speculate and say that something is possible, but that maybe
it isn’t true.

 They  might have fled  the scene leaving the victim bleeding on the floor. 

 They  may be spending  their Christmas holiday together. 

I wish/If only
 

I wish I did
 
We can use wish + past simple to talk about things that we would like to be different
in the present or future (but which are very unlikely or impossible).

 I wish things were different, but this is the way they are.  

 We wish we had enough money to help you.
 I wish I could be there for you tomorrow.  

I wish I had done

 
We can use wish + past perfect to talk about things that happened in the past and
that we regret (we would have wanted them to be different).

 I wish I hadn’t quit my job two years ago. 

 I wish we hadn’t wasted all that money. 

I wish you would do

 
We can use wish + person/thing + would + infinitive when we talk about situations that
annoy us and we would like them to change, or to stop.

 I wish you would stop biting your nails. I hate it when you do it.
 I wish it would stop raining. It’s been three days!

We CANNOT use this structure to wish about ourselves (do NOT use I wish I would).
 

if only
 
We can use if only instead of I wish to mean the same. The only difference is that if
only is more emphatic.

 If only I was/were a bit taller!*

 If only you had followed my advice. 
 If only you would make a bit of an effort. You are wasting your life! 

Note that we can use were instead of was with I/he/she after I wish/if only.

 

would rather/would sooner

 
would rather (than)/would sooner (than)
 
We use would rather or would sooner + infinitive to talk about preference. We can
use them with than in affirmative sentences or with or in questions.

 I’d rather/sooner have tea, please. 

 I’d rather/sooner have tea than coffee. 
 Would you rather/sooner have tea or coffee?

would rather/would sooner + subject + past simple

 
When we use a different subject after would rather or would sooner, we use past
simple to refer to the present or future.

 We’d rather/sooner she was/were with us now.*

 She’d rather/sooner I picked her up after lunch. 
 Would you rather/sooner we went by bus or by train?

Note that we can use were instead of was with I/he/she after would rather or would

sooner.
 

would rather/would sooner + subject + past perfect

 
When we use a different subject after would rather or would sooner, we use past
perfect to refer to the past.

 I’d rather/sooner you hadn’t spoken to her like that.

 I’d rather/sooner you had called me before.

it’s time
 

it’s (high) time + subject + past simple

 
We can use it’s time or it’s high time followed by subject and past simple to say that
something should be done now or in the future.

 It’s time you went to the doctor. 

 I really think it’s high time you took a decision. We can’t go on like this any
longer. 

We can also use the alternatives it’s time + to infinitive or it’s time for someone +
to infinitive.

 It’s time for you to go to the doctor. 

 It’s time to take a decision. 

 
Other expressions
 

suppose/supposing/imagine/what if
 
Suppose, supposing, imagine, and what if can be used like we use if in conditionals.
So after these words, we use the present tense for real situations (first conditional), and
the past simple or past perfect for unreal situations (second and third conditionals).

 Imagine you meet him in the street, what are you going to tell him? (=First

conditional: If you meet him in the street, what are you going to tell him?)
 What if you found a suitcase full of money. What would you do? (=Second
conditional: If you found a suitcase full of money, what would you do?)
 Supposing she hadn’t told you anything, you would have
acted differently. (=Third conditional: If she hadn’t told you anything, you
would have acted differently.)

 
Stative or dynamic uses of sense verbs
 

Stative uses of  feel, hear, see, smell, taste

 
When we use the verbs feel, hear, see, smell, or taste to talk about the impressions that we
receive through our five senses (touch, hearing, sight, smell, taste), they are all non-
action verbs and cannot be used in progressive forms.

 You smell nice. (NOT you are smelling)

 This soup  tastes fantastic. What did you put in it? (NOT is tasting) 

can/can’t  (feel, hear, see, smell, taste)

 
We normally use can or can’t with these verbs (and NOT present continuous) to talk about
something that is happening at the moment.

 I can see  a beautiful woman  next to your sister. (NOT I am seeing)

 Sorry, can you speak up? I can’t hear you.  (NOT I’m not hearing)
 I can smell petrol. Have you just filled up the tank? (NOT I am smelling)
 I’ve burned my tongue and now I  can’t taste  the flavour in the dish. (NOT I am not
tasting)
 I can feel your heartbeat. It is very fast. (NOT I’m feeling)
 

look  and sound
 
Look and sound are also stative (or non-action) verbs when they mean ‘seem’ or ‘appear’.

 She looks  old.
 You sound  very happy.

Dynamic uses of  feel, hear, look, see, smell, taste

 
The verbs feel, look, smell, and taste can be used in continuous forms when they
are voluntary actions.

 Why are  you smelling the milk? Isn’t it good? (=Put your nose near something to see
how it smells)
 He’s tasting the food to see if it needs more salt. (=Put something into your mouth to
see how it tastes)
 I’m feeling the fabric to see if it’s soft or not.  (=Touch something to see how it feels)
 Why are  you looking in that direction? (=direct your eyes in order to see)

We can also use feel in progressive tenses to talk about how we feel physically or emotionally.

 ‘How  are you  feeling?’ ‘I’m not feeling very well.’

 I was feeling  very weak after the operation. 

The verbs hear and smell can also be used as action verbs with a different meaning.

 I’m seeing  Jerry for lunch. (=Meet someone)

 We’ve been seeing each other for months. (=Date someone)
 I’ve been hearing really strange things about him recently. (=receive information)

Sense verbs + infinitive or gerund?

 
After feel, hear, listen, notice, see, watch we can use a gerund to express an incomplete
action, an action in progress, or a repeated action:

 I saw  them  kissing  in the park. (=The action was in progress. I didn’t see it finish.)
 They  watched the man  hitting  a police officer.  (=The action was in progress; the man
hit the police officer repeatedly.)

After feel, hear, listen, notice, see, watch we can use an infinitive to talk about an action we
heard or saw from beginning to end; usually a short action, and not a repeated action.

 I saw  them  kiss  in the park. (=I saw the action from start to end. It was probably a
short kiss)
 They  watched the man  hit a police officer. (=They saw the action from start to end;
the man hit the police officer once)

 
Sense verbs + adjective, noun or clause (linking verbs)
 

look, smell, taste, sound, feel  + adjective

 
We can use feel, smell, taste, sound, and feel before an adjective to talk about how something
feels, tastes, etc.

 When you use that cream, your skin  feels really  smooth.

 When he talked to us sounded nervous.

look, smell, taste, sound, feel + like  + noun

 
We can also use feel, smell, taste, sound, and feel + like before a noun.

 You sound like your mother. 

 This tastes like chicken.

Note that we say smell/taste of when the smell or flavour are of the real thing and we
say smell/taste like when it’s a smell or flavour similar to the real thing. Compare:

 The soup smells of cheese. (=There is cheese in it.)

 The soup smells like cheese. (=The smell is similar to the smell of cheese.)
 

look, smell, taste, sound, feel  +  as if/as though + clause

 

 You sound as if you had a long party last night.

 You look as though you’ve just seen a ghost.

Note that in informal English we often use feel, smell, taste, sound, and feel + like + clause.

 You sound like you had a long party last night.

 You look like you’ve just seen a ghost.

seem, appear and look
 

seem  +  adjective,  seem like  + noun,  seem as if/though + clause

 

 You seem tired.
 He seems clever. 
 The final five minutes  seemed like five hours. 
 It  seems as if they aren’t going to help us.

Note that in informal English we also use like before a clause.

 It  seems like  we’ll never find out the truth.

seem, appear  +  to  + infinitive

 
After seem and appear we often use to + infinitive (present events), or a to + have + past
participle (past events).

 She appears to be  in very good shape. 

 It  seems to be some kind of insect. 
 He seems to have lost his moral compass. 

it seems/appears  +  that  + clause

 
We can also use It seems/appears + that clause.

 It  appears that  he might be telling the truth after all. 

 It  seems that  they have improved a lot since the end of the season. 

seem  vs look
 
When we use seem and look as non-action verbs, there is some difference in meaning.
  You look tired. (=I get the impression from seeing your face)
 You seem tired. (=I get the impression from the way you behave –your voice,
movements, etc.)

Sometimes we can use one verb but not the other and vice versa.

 She looks  beautiful. (NOT seems, because I get the impression from looking at her

physique)
 She seemsnice. (NOT looks, because I get the impression by her behaviour)

Sense verbs, followed by adjective or adverb?

 
When the verbs of senses are used as non-action verbs, they are copular verbs, and copular
verbs (like be) are followed by adjectives, and not by adverbs.

 You look tired. (NOT tiredly)
 She felt bad after saying that. (NOT badly