MIDTERM REVIEWER MMW

Sets- a well-defined collection of objects. - Is the set that contains all objects
of interest in a particular discourse.
- An undefined term in mathematics.
Example:
Elements- objects in a set. In algebra, the usual domain of
discourse is the set of real numbers, ℝ.
Example:
2 is an element of the set of even numbers. 3. Subset
- More than one set.
2 ∈ {even numbers}
- is a set whose elements are all
- Denoted as capital letters. members of another set.
- A set B is said to be a subset of a set
A if every element of B is also an element
Three (3) ways to denote a specific set of A. This can be denoted as B ⊆ A.
1. Verbal Description Example:
Example: The set of even integers is a subset
“The set of all even numbers” of the set of integers. (This is because
“The set of even numbers between 1 and even numbers are also integers)
19”
4. Cartesian Product
2. Listing - the set of all ordered pairs (x, y)
such that x belongs to A and y belongs to
Example: B.
{…, -4, -2, 0, 2, 4,…} and {2, 4, 6, …,16, 18} - Given the two sets A and B, the
cartesian product A × B (read as A cross
Weaknesses: B) is the set of all ordered pairs (a,b)
1. cannot list down all the elements; it where a ∈ A and b ∈ B.
needed an ellipsis! A × B= {(a, b) | where a ∈ A and b ∈ B}
2. Not all ellipsis means infinite! Ellipsis
is used to indicate pattern. Example:
3. Problem in using ellipsis: causes
ambiguity and violates one of the Let A be the English alphabet (in
characteristics of Mathematics which capital) = {A, B, C, …, X, Y, Z} and B be the set
is precise. of whole numbers= {0, 1, 2, 3, …}. Then
examples of elements of A × B are:
- (A,1)
3. Set- builder notation - (Z,5)
- (G,6)
Example:
Relations- connection between two or
{x|x is an even number} can be read as: more sets.
“The set of all x such that x is an even
number.” - A relation R from set A to set B is a
subset of A × B. If A=B, we say that
{x|x is an even number, 1<x<19} R is a relation on A.
Check for more info: Example:
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Let A and B be as in our previous
Special Kinds of Set example. If we let R={(A,1), (Z,5),
1. Empty Set (G,6)},
- Is said to be empty, denoted Ø, if it Then R is a relation from A to B. (This is
is does not contain any element. true since (A,1), (Z,5), (G,6) are
Example: elements of A × B, and so R ⊆ A × B.)
Suppose we define the set A to
contain dogs which are also cats. Here we say that:
“A is related to 1 by R”
2. Universal Set (or Domain of
Discourse) “Z is related to 5 by R”

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“G is related to 6 by R” Once we do, we can conclude that

Can we say that 1 is related to A? R3 is transitive.

No, since 1 is not included in the set of R.

It is ordered pair, not interchangeable! Unless, if
Example:
there is (1, A), then we can say that 1 is related to
A.
Consider the set A= {2, 3, 4 ,5, 6}
The relation R= “is a multiple of” can be
expressed as a subset of A × A as follows:
R= {(2,2), (4,2), (6,2), (3,3), (6,3), (4,4), Equivalence Relation
(5,5), (6,6)}
- A relation R on a set A is said to
Properties of Relations be equivalence relation if it
satisfies the reflexive,
1. Reflexive Property
symmetric, and transitive
- If x ∈ A, then (x,x) ∈ R. (“x is
properties.
related to itself by R.”)
Example:
True or False:
Let R1 = “is equal to” be a relation
on A= ℤ=the sets of integers. 1. 1 ∈ {0, 1, 25, 7, 11} True
2. 1 ∈ {2,5} True
It is true that “any number is equal
3. {0,1} ∈ {0, 1, 2} False
to itself.”
4. {0,1} ⊆ {0, 1, 2} True
Then we conclude that R1 is 5. {0} ∈ { {0}, {1}, {2} } True
reflexive.
2. Symmetric Property
Function
- If (x,y) ∈ R, then (y,x) ∈ R.
-is a special kind of relation.
-Let A and B be sets. A function
Example:
is a relation from A to B that
Let R2 = “is brother or sister of” be connects every element of A to a
a relation on A= the sets of all unique element of B.
people. - In other words, a function f is a
subset of AxB that satisfies the
Suppose we have two people x,y ∈ ff:
A such that (x,y) ∈ R2, i.e. “x is a i. for all a ∈ A, there is some b ∈
brother or sister of y.” B such that (a,b) ∈ f. (every a is
Then we know that “y is a brother related to b)
or sister of x”, too. (Then (y,x) ∈ ii. if (a, b1), (a, b2) ∈ f, then
R2 .) b1=b2. (a is related to only one
b)
Then we say that R2 is symmetric.
Kinds of Relations
3. Transitive Property
- If (x,y) ∈ R and (y,x) ∈ R, then 1. One-to-one relation (function)
(x,z) ∈ R. 2. One-to-many relation
3. Many-to-one relation (function)
Example:
Example:
Let R3 = “is less than” be a relation
on A= ℝ =the sets of real numbers. Let A= {1,2,3,4,5} and B= {a,b,c,d,e}

Suppose we have x,y,z ∈ ℝ such that f1= {(1,e), (2,a), (2,c), (4,b), (4,d)}
(x,y), (y,z) ∈ R3 .
f2= {(1,a), (2,d), (3,e), (4,b), (5,a)}
i.e. “x is less than y” and “y less than
f3= {(1,a), (1,d), (2,e), (3,b), (4,a),
x”, so that (x,z) ∈ R3 .
(4,c), (5,a)}

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Then: F2 is a function, F1 and F3 are - Is a function from A to B that

not. can be defined by evaluating a
polynomial.
Function (cont. of definition)
Example:
- Given f: A → B, we call A the
domain of f, and B the codomain f(x)= 3x2-2x+5 where x= 4
of f.
f(4)= 3(4)2 -2(4) +5= 45
- If (a, b) ∈ f, we write b = f(a)
Here f(a) can be read as: “the (4,45) ∈ f
function f valuated at a”.
The function f (seen as a set of
Furthermore, we can treat f(a)
ordered pairs) is the set
as the output of f when a is used
as input. {(a, f(a)) | f(a)= 3(a)2 -2(a) +5}
- The range of f is the set that
contains all possible outputs of
f. Note that the range is, just a Rational Function
subset of the codomain.
- R(x)= P(x)/ Q(x), for all x
Example: (look for the F2) where P and Q are polynomial
function and Q is not the zero
Let A= {1,2,3,4,5} and B= {a,b,c,d,e} function.
F2= {(1,a), (2,d), (3,e), (4,b), (5,a)} Types of Function
Domain= A= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Codomain= B= {a, b, c, d, e}
Range= {a, b, d, e}
Common Types of Functions
o Identity Function
o Constant Function
o Polynomial Function (linear,
quadratic, cubic, quartic,
quintic)
o Rational Function
o Absolute Value Function

Polynomial Functions
- A polynomial is an expression
that can be written using
constant (fixed values) and
variables (or determinates), and
using the operations addition,
multiplication, and
Binary Operations
exponentiation by a non-
negative integer. - Let A be a set. Then a binary
- A constant multiplied to a operation is a function from
variable called coefficient. A×A to A.
- Note: A polynomial can have - Describes an interaction
more than 1 variable, and its between two objects from a set
degree is the highest of the A to obtain a new object in the
sums of exponents of every same set.
term.
Examples:
Example: x2y3 + x5y4 (9th degree
polynomial) or (polynomial of o Addition of natural numbers is
degree 9) binary an operation, since the sum

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of two natural numbers is also a o Disjunction ( ν ) “or” -two or more

natural number. statements joined using the word “or”
o Multiplication of integers is a -the disjunction of two statements is
binary operation, since the product true when at least one of the
of two integers is also an integers. statements is true.
o Subtraction of natural numbers is Examples:
p: I am hungry
not binary operations, since the
q: I am happy p
difference of two natural numbers may
p ν q: I am hungry or I am happy
not be a natural number. (e.g., 5-8)
p ν q: Either I am hungry or I am happy.
o Division of integers is not a binary
operation since the quotient of two
integers may not be an integer. (e.g., 7/3)
o Other examples of binary operations are
set operations.

LOGIC AND FORMALITY

Logical Statement
- a meaningful declarative sentence that is
either true or false, but not both/ neither. It has
exactly one truth value.
-usually represented by lowercase letters.
Examples:
o A triangle has three sides
o1+ =3
oEvery even whole number greater than 2
is the sum of two prime numbers.
oSir Eric is the most handsome teacher in
Ateneo
Logical Connectives
- using this, we can create new statements
from existing statements.
Negation (~) -A statement which has the opposite
truth value of another statement.

Examples:

p: I am hungry.

~p: I am not hungry

or

~p: It is not the case that I am hungry.

o Conjunction ( ∧ ) or “and” -two or more

statements joined using the word “and”.
o The conjunction of two
statements is true exactly when both
statements are true.

Examples:
p: I am hungry
q: I am happy
p ∧ q: I am hungry and I am happy
p ∧ q: I am hungry but I am happy.