Fundamentals in Mathematics

Akshay R. Thummar

December 23, 2021

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 SYLLABUS

Unit-1 : Set Theory

ˆ Introduction
ˆ Representation
ˆ Operation and its properties
ˆ Venn Diagram
ˆ Cartesian product and graph

Unit-2 : Functions
ˆ Definition
ˆ Types – Domain and Range
ˆ Construction and functions

Unit-3 : Mathematical Logic

ˆ Introduction to logic
ˆ Truth Table

Unit-4 : Boolean Algebra

ˆ Definition and Examples of Boolean Algebra
ˆ Boolean Functions
ˆ Representation and minimization of Boolean Functions
ˆ Design example using Boolean algebra

Unit-5 : Matrices and Determinants

ˆ Matrices of order M * N
ˆ Row and Column transformation
ˆ Addition, Subtraction and multiplication of Matrices
ˆ Computation of Inverse
ˆ Cramer’s Rule
ˆ Business Application of Matrices

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4
 CONTENTS

1 Set Theory 7
1.1 Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.1 Roster or tabular form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.2 Set-builder form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1.4 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2 Empty Set or Null Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 Equal Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4 Subsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.4.1 Proper Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 Power Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5.1 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6 Operations on Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6.1 Union of sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.6.2 Intersection of sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6.3 Difference of sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6.4 Symmetric Difference of sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.7 Complement of a Set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.8 Cartesian Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.8.1 Properties of Cartesian Product : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.8.2 Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.9 Practical Problems : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.9.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

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6 CONTENTS
UNIT 1
SET THEORY

1.1 Set
A set is a well-defined collection of objects.

The following points may be noted :

1. Objects, elements and members of a set are synonymous terms.

2. Sets are usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C, X, Y, Z, etc.

3. The elements of a set are represented by small letters a, b, c, x, y, z, etc.

If a is an element of a set A, we say that “ a belongs to A” the Greek symbol ∈ (epsilon) is used to denote the
phrase ‘belongs to’. Thus, we write a ∈ A. If ‘b’ is not an element of a set A, we write b ∈
/ A and read “b does
not belong toA”.

Thus, in the set V of vowels in the English alphabet, a ∈ V but b ∈

/ V . In the set P of prime factors of 30,
3 ∈ P but 15 ∈
/ P.

There are two methods of representing a set :

(i) Roster or tabular form

(ii) Set-builder form.

1.1.1 Roster or tabular form

In roster form, all the elements of a set are listed, the elements are being separated by commas and are enclosed
within braces {}. For example, the set of all even positive integers less than 7 is described in roster form as
{2, 4, 6}. Some more examples of representing a set in roster form are given below :

(a) The set of all natural numbers which divide 42 is {1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 14, 21, 42}.

(b) The set of all vowels in the English alphabet is {a, e, i, o, u}.

(c) The set of odd natural numbers is represented by {1, 3, 5, ...}. The dots tell us that the list of odd numbers
continue indefinitely.

1.1.2 Set-builder form

In set-builder form, all the elements of a set possess a single common property which is not possessed by any
element outside the set. For example, in the set {a, e, i, o, u}, all the elements possess a common property,
namely, each of them is a vowel in the English alphabet, and no other letter possess this property. Denoting
this set by V , we write
V = {x : x is a vowel in English alphabet}

7
8 UNIT 1. SET THEORY

1.1.3 Examples
1. Write the solution set of the equation x2 + x–2 = 0 in roster form.

Here,

x2 + x − 2 = 0
∴ x2 + 2x − x − 2 = 0
∴ x(x + 2) − (x + 2) = 0
∴ (x + 2)(x − 1) = 0
∴ x = 1, −2.

Therefore, the solution set of the given equation can be written in roster form as {1, –2}.

2. Write the set {x : x is a positive integer and x2 < 40} in the roster form.

12 = 1 < 40
22 = 4 < 40
32 = 9 < 40
42 = 16 < 40
52 = 25 < 40
62 = 36 < 40

The required numbers are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. So, the given set in the roster form is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.

3. Write the set A = {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ...} in set-builder form.

We may write the set A as

A = {x : x is the square of a natural number}

Alternatively, we can write

A = {x : x = n2 , where n ∈ N}

4. Write the set { 21 , 23 , 34 , 45 , 56 } in the set-builder form.

We see that each member in the given set has the numerator one less than the denominator. Also,
the numerator begin from 1 and do not exceed 5. Hence, in the set-builder form the given set is

n
{x : x = n+1 , where n is a natural number and 1 ≤ n ≤ 5}

1.1.4 Exercise
1. Write the following sets in roster form:

(i) A = {x : x is an integer and –3 < x < 7}

(ii) B = {x : x is a natural number less than 6}
(iii) C = {x : x is a prime number which is divisor of 60}

2. Write the following sets in the set-builder form :

(i) {3, 6, 9, 12}

(ii) {2, 4, 8, 16, 32}
(iii) {1, 4, 9, ..., 100}
1.2. EMPTY SET OR NULL SET 9

1.2 Empty Set or Null Set

A set which does not contain any element is called the empty set or the null set

The empty set is denoted by φ or {}.

We give below a few examples of empty sets.

(i) Let A = {x : 1 < x < 2, x is a natural number}. Then A is the empty set, because there is no natural
number between 1 and 2.
(ii) C = {x : x is an even prime number greater than 2}.Then C is the empty set, because 2 is the only even
prime number.

1.3 Equal Sets

Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they have exactly the same elements and we write A = B.
Otherwise, the sets are said to be unequal and we write A 6= B.

We consider the following examples:

(i) Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 1, 4, 2}. Then A = B.
(ii) Let A be the set of prime numbers less than 6 and P the set of prime factors of 30. Then A and P are
equal, since 2, 3 and 5 are the only prime factors of 30 and also these are less than 6.

1.3.1 Example
Find the pairs of equal sets, if any, give reasons:
A = {0},
B = {x : x > 15 and x < 5},
C = {x : x − 5 = 0},
D = {x : x2 = 25},
E = {x : x is an integral positive root of the equation x2 –2x–15 = 0}.

Here, A = {0}
B=φ
C = {5}
D = {−5, 5}

x2 − 2x − 15 = 0
∴ x2 − 5x + 3x − 15 = 0
∴ x(x − 5) + 3(x − 5) = 0
∴ (x − 5)(x + 3) = 0
∴ x = 5, −3

E = {5}

Hence, C = E.

1.4 Subsets
A set A is said to be a subset of a set B if every element of A is also an element of B.
It is denoted by A ⊆ B
We can write the definition of subset as follows:
A ⊆ B if a ∈ A ⇒ a ∈ B

If A is not a subset of B, we write A * B

If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A, then A = B
10 UNIT 1. SET THEORY

Note :
⇒ Every set is subset of it self
⇒ Empty set is subset of every set.

1.4.1 Proper Set

If every element of the set A is an element of the set B and B contains atleast one element which
does not belong to A, then we can say that set A is proper subset of set B and it is denoted by A ⊂ B

i.e. if A ⊆ B and A 6= B, then we can say that A is proper subset of B.

e.g. {2, 3, 6, 4} is proper subset of {4, 3, 2, 5, 6, 8}.

1.5 Power Set

The collection of all subsets of a set A is called the power set of A. It is denoted by P (A).
In P (A), every element is a set.

e.g. A = {1, 2}
P (A) = {φ, {1}, {2}, {1, 2}}

If A is a set with n(A) = m, then n(P (A)) = 2m .

1.5.1 Exercise
(i) Write power set of the set {2, 3, 4}

(ii) How many elements has P (A), ifA = φ ?

1.6 Operations on Sets

1.6.1 Union of sets
Let A and B be any two sets. The union of A and B is the set which consists of all the elements
of A and all the elements of B, the common elements being taken only once. The symbol ‘∪’ is
used to denote the union. Symbolically, we write A ∪ B and usually read as ‘A union B’.

Figure 1.1: A ∪ B

Properties of the Operation of Union :

(i) A ∪ B = B ∪ A (Commutative law)

(ii) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C) (Associative law)

(iii) A ∪ φ = A (Law of identity element, φ is the identity of ∪)

(iv) U ∪ A = U (Law of U )
1.6. OPERATIONS ON SETS 11

1.6.2 Intersection of sets

The intersection of sets A and B is the set of all elements which are common to both A and B.
The symbol ‘∩’ is used to denote the intersection. The intersection of two setsA and B is the set
of all those elements which belong to both A and B. Symbolically, we writeA ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and
x ∈ B}.

Figure 1.2: A ∩ B

Disjoint Sets
If A and B are two sets such that A ∩ B = φ, then A and B are called disjoint sets.

Figure 1.3: A ∩ B = φ

Properties of Operation of Intersection

(i) A ∩ B = B ∩ A (Commutative law)

(ii) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C) (Associative law)

(iii) A ∩ φ = φ, A ∩ U = U ( law of φ and U )

(iv) A ∩ A = A (Idempotent law)

(v) A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) (Distributive law)

1.6.3 Difference of sets

The difference of the sets A and B in this order is the set of elements which belong to A but not
to B. Symbolically, we write A − B and read as “ A minus B”.

Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8}. Find A − B and B − A

We have, A − B = {1, 3, 5}, since the elements 1, 3, 5 belong to A but not to B and B − A = {8}, since the
element 8 belongs to B and not to A.

Properties involving difference of sets

(i) If A and B are equal then A − B = A − A = φ

(ii) A − φ = A and φ − A = A

(iii) A − B = φ if A ⊂ B

(iv) A − B = A ∩ B c
12 UNIT 1. SET THEORY

Figure 1.4: A − B and B − A

1.6.4 Symmetric Difference of sets

The symmetric difference of two sets A and B is denoted by A∆B and It is defined as A∆B =
(A − B) ∪ (B − A)

Figure 1.5: A∆B

1.7 Complement of a Set

Let U be the universal set and A a subset of U . Then the complement of A is the set of all
elements of U which are not the elements of A. Symbolically, we write A0 or Ac to denote the
complement of A with respect to U . Thus, A0 = {x : x ∈ U and x ∈
/ A}. Obviously A0 = U –A

Figure 1.6: A0

Some Properties of Complement Sets

1. Complement laws:

(i) A ∪ A0 = U
(ii) A ∩ A0 = φ

2. De Morgan’s law:

(i) (A ∪ B)0 = A0 ∩ B 0
(ii) (A ∩ B)0 = A0 ∪ B 0

3. Law of double complementation : (A0 )0 = A

4. Laws of empty set and universal set : φ0 = U and U 0 = φ

Example : If U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, A = {2, 4, 6, 8} and B = {2, 3, 5, 7} then verify De Morgan’s law.
1.8. CARTESIAN PRODUCT 13

(i) (A ∪ B)0 = A0 ∩ B 0

LHS = (A ∪ B)0
= ({2, 4, 6, 8 ∪ {2, 3, 5, 7})0
= ({2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8})0
= {1, 9}

RHS = A0 ∩ B 0
= ({2, 4, 6, 8})0 ∩ ({2, 3, 5, 7})0
= {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} ∩ {1, 4, 6, 8, 9}
= {1, 9}

∴ LHS=RHS

(ii) (A ∩ B)0 = A0 ∪ B 0
Proof same as above

De Morgan’s law using Venn diagram.

Figure 1.7: (A ∪ B)0 = A0 ∩ B 0

1.8 Cartesian Product

Let A and B be two sets. Then, A × B = {((x, y) : x ∈ A, y ∈ B} is known as Cartesian product of A
and B.

1.8.1 Properties of Cartesian Product :

(i) The Cartesian product is non-commutative
i.e. A × B 6= B × A

(ii) A × B = B × A, only if A = B.

(iii) A × B = φ if either A = φ or B = φ

(iv) (A ∪ B) × C = (A × C) ∪ (B × C)

(v) (A ∩ B) × C = (A × C) ∩ (B × C)

(vi) (A − B) × C = (A × C) − (B × C)
14 UNIT 1. SET THEORY

Prove: If A is a set, then A × φ = φ and φ × A = φ

Assume that,A × φ 6= φ

Then there is some element (x, y) ∈ A × φ

According to definition of Cartesian product x ∈ A and y ∈ φ

Which is a contradiction as φ does not contain any element

∴ Our assumption is wrong.

Hence, A × φ = φ

Prove that A × (B ∪ C) = (A × B) ∪ (A × C)
Proof:
Let (x, y) ∈ A × (B ∪ C)
⇔ x ∈ A and y ∈ (B ∪ C)
⇔ x ∈ A and (y ∈ B or y ∈ C)
⇔ (x ∈ A and y ∈ B) or (x ∈ A and y ∈ C)
⇔ (x, y) ∈ (A × B)or (x, y) ∈ (A × C)
⇔ (x, y) ∈ (A × B) ∪ (A × C)

Example : If A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {4} and C = {6} then verify (i)A × (B ∩ C) = (A × B) ∩ (A × C) and
(ii)A × (B − C) = (A × B) − (A × C)

(i)

LHS = A × (B ∩ C)
= {4} ∩ {6}
=φ
RHS = (A × B) ∩ (A × C)
= {1, 2, 3} ∩ {4}
= {(1, 4), (2, 4), (3, 4)} ∩ {(1, 6), (2, 6), (3, 6)}
=φ

∴ LHS=RHS

(ii)

LHS = A × (B − C)
= {1, 2, 3} × {4}
= {(1, 4), (2, 4), (3, 4)}
RHS = (A × B) − (A × C)
= {(1, 4), (2, 4), (3, 4)} − {(1, 6), (2, 6), (3, 6)}
= {(1, 4), (2, 4), (3, 4)}

∴ LHS=RHS

1.8.2 Exercise
1. Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {2, 4} and C = {1, 3, 5} then find (A ∩ B) × C, B × C and (A ∪ B) × (A ∩ C)

2. Prove: (A ∩ B) × C = (A × C) ∩ (B × C)

3. Prove: (A − B) × C = (A × C) − (B × C)
1.9. PRACTICAL PROBLEMS : 15

1.9 Practical Problems :

Let A and B be finite sets. If A ∩ B = φ, then
n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B)

In general, if A and B are finite sets then,

n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B)

Prove : n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) − n(A ∩ B) − n(A ∩ C) − n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C)

Suppose, A ∪ B = D

n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(D ∪ C)
= n(D) + n(C) − n(D ∩ C)
= n(A ∪ B) + n(C) − n((A ∪ B) ∩ C)
= n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B) + n(C) − n((A ∩ C) ∪ (B ∩ C))
= n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B) + n(C) − (n(A ∩ C) + n(B ∩ C) − n((A ∩ C) ∩ (B ∩ C))
= n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B) + n(C) − n(A ∩ C) − n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C)
= n(A) + n(B) + n(C) − n(A ∩ B) − n(A ∩ C) − n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C)

1.9.1 Examples
1. If X and Y are two sets such that X ∪ Y has 50 elements, X has 28 elements and Y has 32 elements, how
many elements does X ∩ Y have ?

n(X ∪ Y ) = n(X) + n(Y ) − n(X ∩ Y )

∴ 50 = 32 + 28 − n(X ∩ Y )
∴ n(X ∩ Y ) = 60 − 50
∴ n(X ∩ Y ) = 10

2. In a class of 35 students, 24 like to play cricket and 16 like to play football. Also, each student likes to
play at least one of the two games. How many students like to play both cricket and football ?

Let X be the set of students who like to play cricket and Y be the set of students who like to play football.
Then X ∪ Y is the set of students who like to play at least one game, and X ∩ Y is the set of students
who like to play both games.

n(X ∪ Y ) = n(X) + n(Y ) − n(X ∩ Y )

∴ 35 = 24 + 16 − n(X ∩ Y )
∴ n(X ∩ Y ) = 40 − 35
∴ n(X ∩ Y ) = 5

∴ 5 students like to play both games.

3. In a survey of 400 students in a school, 100 were listed as taking apple juice, 150 as taking orange juice
and 75 were listed as taking both apple as well as orange juice. Find how many students were taking
neither apple juice nor orange juice.

n(U ) = 400, n(A) = 100, n(B) = 150 and n(A ∩ B) = 75

Let U denote the set of surveyed students and A denote the set of students taking apple juice and B
denote the set of students taking orange juice. Then

n(A0 ∩ B 0 ) = n((A ∪ B)0 )

16 UNIT 1. SET THEORY

= n(U ) − n(A ∪ B)
= 400 − (n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B))
= 400 − (100 + 150 − 75)
= 400 − 175
= 225

4. A college awarded 38 medals in football, 15 in basketball and 20 in cricket. If these medals went to a total
of 58 men and only three men got medals in all the three sports, how many received medals in exactly
two of the three sports ?

Let F, B and C denote the set of men who received medals in football, basketball and cricket, respectively.
n(F ) = 38, n(B) = 15, n(C) = 20, n(F ∪ B ∪ C) = 58 and n(F ∩ B ∩ C) = 3

n(F ∪ B ∪ C) = n(F ) + n(B) + n(C) − n(F ∩ B) − n(F ∩ C) − n(B ∩ C) + n(F ∩ B ∩ C)

∴ 58 = 38 + 15 + 20 − n(F ∩ C) − n(F ∩ B) − n(B ∩ C) + 3
∴ n(F ∩ C) + n(F ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) = 76 − 58
∴ n(F ∩ C) + n(F ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) = 18

Hence, 18 students received medals in exactly two of the three sports.