Optical Communication

Unit 1

1. ELEMENTS OF AN OPTICAL FIBER TRANSMISSION LINK : Explain the block

diagram of an optical fiber link transmission and discuss about the different components.

The basic components in the optical fiber communication or the light source, the light
signal transmitter, the optical fiber and the photo detecting receiver. Additional elements include fiber and
cable splices and connector, regenerators, beam splitters and optical amplifiers.

INFORMATION SOURCE : The information signal to be transmitted may be voice, video or computer
data from one location to other location with high degree of reliability and accuracy.
 The first step is to convert the information into a form compatible with the communications
medium.
 In the case the information source provides an electrical signal to the transmitter.
 They also convert the non-electrical message into an electrical signal.
TRANSMITTER : Transmitter which contains,
a) Drive circuit
b) Light source with associated electronic control & modulation circuitry.
DRIVE CIRCUIT : The drive circuit is used to drive the electrical signal to the light source.
LIGHT SOURCE : Semiconductor Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) and Laser diodes are two Light
source.
The light source has two main functions- Converts electrical to Optical Signal and carrier
Modulation.
The electrical input signals to the transmitter can be either of an analog or of a digital form. The transmitter
circuitry converts these electrical signals to an optical signal by varying the current flow through the light
source, ie. the light output is modulated by varying the input at desired transmission rate to produce optical
signal.
Since a linear variations in a drive current result in a corresponding linear change in the optical output
power, an optical source is called square-law device( Operating point is set in linear region).
For high data rate signal the direct modulation of the source can lead to unacceptable optical signal
distortion, so external modulator is used to vary the amplitude of continuous light output from a laser source.
In the 770 to 910 nm region the light sources are generally alloys of GaAlAs, at longer wavelength (1260
to 1675nm) an InGaAsP alloys is used.
INFORMATION CHANNEL
 The information channel is a medium bridging distance between transmitter and receiver.
 In fiber optic communications, the fiber optic cables are used as channels.
 Fiber-optic cables are made from glass and plastic. Glass has the lowest loss but is brittle. Plastic is
cheaper and more flexible but has high attenuation.
 To protect the glass fibers, different cable configuration is installed based on regions like under sea,
underground duct, inside building etc.
 For the long distance optical communication, we use repeater to compensate the attenuation loss.
OPTICAL CONNECTOR , SPLICING AND SPLITTER: Connector and splicing is required for
joining optical fibers in optical network. Connector and splicing mechanism should exactly match the core
of one fiber with another. If not the loss of signal is more. Optical splitter that divides the power in an optical
signal into a number of different branches. Optical multiplier combines signal from two or more distinct
wavelengths onto the same fiber in multiple wavelength
REPEATERS : Repeaters which contains optical receiver optical transmitter and amplifier.
 OPTICAL RECEIVER
An optical receiver detects the optical signal and converts it to an electrical signal,
which is amplified, reshaped and sent to the electrical input of the amplifier.
 AMPLIFIER
The amplifier receives the electrical signal from the optical receiver and amplifies the
signal and also sends it to the optical transmitter.
 OPTICAL TRANSMITTER
An optical transmitter converts the electrical signal back to an optical signal and sends it
down to the optical fiber waveguide.
RECEIVER
 The receiver consists of a detector that will detect the optical signal and convert them into an
electrical current.
 The electrical current developed by the detector is proportional to the power in the incident optical
signal. Detector output current contains the transmitted information.
 Photodiodes (p-n ,p-i-n or avalanche) and, in some instance, photo transistors and photo conductors
are utilized for the detection of the signal and the optical-electrical conversion.
 The electrical signal is then amplified and restores it to its original form before passing it onto the
message destination.
 2.MODES AND CONFIGURATION OF FIBER

• Optical Fiber structure

– Core
– Cladding
• Reduces scattering loss
that results from
discontinuities at core
• Mechanical support
• Protect core from
contaminants
- Coating

FIBER TYPES:
1.Based on Modes : Mode refers to the number of paths for the light rays in the cable. There are two
classifications
Single mode and Multimode Fiber
• Single mode sustains one mode of propagation
• Multimode supports many modes
2.Based on refractive Index - Step index and Graded index Fiber
Step index and Graded index Fiber
• Refractive index of the core is uniform throughout and undergoes an abrupt change at the cladding
boundary. This is called a Step-index fiber
• Core refractive index is made to vary as a function of the radial distance from the center of the fiber.
This is called a Graded-index fiber
3.Based on the material
a).Glass fiber:
Silica(SiO2) has ultra low loss
Transmission window at the wavelength 1.3μm to 1.55μm.
Multicomponent glass fiber like sodium borosilicate glass fiber and soda lime silicate glass fiber.
Endoscopic applications and long distance communication.
b). Plastic clad silica fiber(PCS fiber):
core – silica , cladding- silicone resin
Teflon is used as buffer coating material
High NA due to large index difference between core cladding.
C). Plastic fiber:
Low cost, Multimode step index fibers, High NA, High Toughness and high Attenuation
than glass fibers
core – Polystyrene(n=1.6), cladding- Methyl methacrylate(n=1.49)
core – Polymethyl methacrylate (n=1.49), cladding- its co polymer (n=1.40)

SINGLE MODE FIBER

In single mode, line follows a single path through the core.
 ADVANTAGES OF SINGLE MODE
 No intermodal dispersion.
 Information capacity of a signal mode fiber is large.
 DISADVANTAGES
  Launching of light into single mode and joining of two fibers are very difficult.
 Fabrication is very difficult and so the fiber is so costly.
MULTIMODE FIBER
 In multimode, the light takes many paths, through the core.
 The number of paths(modes) possible for a multimode fiber cable depends on the
frequency(wavelength) of the light signal, the refractive indexes of the core and cladding,
the core diameter.
Mathematically
Where,
𝜋𝑑
𝑁 ≈ ( 𝜆 √𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 )2
N-Number of propagation modes
d-Core diameter(meters)
λ-Wavelength(meters)
n1-Refractive index of core and
n2-Refractive index of cladding.
 Multimode fibers offer several advantages compared with single mode fibers
 The larger core radii of multimode fibers make it easier launch optical power in the
fiber.
 Connecting together of similar fibers are easy.
 Light can be launched into a multimode fiber using Light Emitting Diode(LED).
Although LED’s have less optical output power than laser diodes, LED’s are easier
to make and less expensive and have longer life times.
 Fabrication is less difficult and so fiber is not costly.
 Disadvantages:
Multimode fibers are suffered from intermodal dispersion.
Intermodal dispersion (or) Intermodal distortion:
When an optical pulse is launched into a fiber, the optical power in the pulse is distributed overall of
the modes of the fiber. Each of the modes that can propagate in a multimode fiber travels at a slightly
different velocity. So the optical pulses arrive at the fiber end at slightly different times, thus causing the
pulse to spread out in time as it travels along the fiber.

OPTIC-FIBER CONFIGURATION
Depending on the refractive index profile of fiber and modes of fiber, three configurations are
commonly used. This optic-fiber configurations are
i. Single mode step – index fiber.
ii. Multimode step – index fiber.
iii. Multimode graded – index fiber.
SINGLE MODE OR MONO MODE STEP – INDEX FIBER:
 Single mode single – index fibers are the dominant fibers used in today’s
telecommunications and data networking industries.
 A single mode step – index fiber has a central core that is significantly smaller in diameter
than any of the multimode cables.
 In fact, the diameter is sufficiently small that here is essentially only one path that light
may take as it propagates down the cable.
 Intermodal dispersion is essentially eliminated.
 Typical core size is 8 or 12 μm.
 With minimum refraction, no pulse stretching occurs.
 The output pulse has essentially the same duration as the input pulse.
 For very long distance transmission and maximum information content, this cable should
be used.
MULTIMODE STEP-INDEX FIBER:
 Multimode step-index are similar to the single mode step-index except the centre core is
much larger with the multi configurations.
 It is easy to manufacture.
 Its core diameter is 50-200 μm.
 The light rays are propagated down the core in zig-zag manner.
 There are many paths that a light ray may follow during a propagation.
MULTIMODE GRADED-INDEX FIBER:
 Graded-index fiber are characterized by a central core with a non-uniform refractive index.
 Multimode graded-index fiber cables have a several mode or path of transmission through
the cable, but they are much more orderly and predictable.
 The continuously varying index of refraction across the core, the light ray are bend
smoothly and converge repeatedly at points along the cable.
 The light rays near the edge of the core take a longer path but travel faster since the index
of refraction is lower.
  All the mode or light path tend to arrive at one point simultaneously .The result is that there
is less modal dispersion.
 This fibers are easier to couple light into and out of the signal index fibers but are more
difficult than the multimode step-index fibers.
Advantages of Multimode over single mode:
- Larger core radii makes it easier to launch optical power into the fiber and facilitate connecting
of similar fibers.
- LEDs can be used.
Disadvantages
- Intermodal dispersion (when optical pulse is launched into fiber, optical power is distributed
over all of the modes. Each mode travels at slightly different velocity. This means modes arrive
at the fiber end at slightly different times, causing pulse to spread out in time. This is known as
intermodal dispersion or intermodal dispersion.)
- Intermodal dispersion can be reduced using graded index profile. Thus, graded index fiber have
much larger bandwidth than step index fiber.
- Higher bandwidths are possible in single mode.

3. RAY OPTICS: Describe ray theory behind the optical fiber communication with a special
mention about the total internal reflection, Acceptance angle and Numerical aperture.
INTRODUCTION
The light ray propagation in a fiber can be analyzed by two methods.
i. Ray theory approach
ii. Mode theory approach
RAY THEORY APPROACH
 A ray of light is the one dimensional approach and indicates the direction of propagation of
light through the fiber.
 The ray theory is otherwise known as trace approach or geometrical optics representation.
RAY TYPES
The light ray which is passing through the fiber is classified as follows.
Rays

Meridional Rays Skew rays

BOUNDED RAYS UNBOUNDED RAY

MERIDIONAL RAYS
 Meridional rays are confined to meridian plane of
the fiber , which are the plane that contain
the access of symmetric of the fiber(the core
axis).
 Meridional rays lies in a single plane, its path is
easy to track as it travels along the fiber.
BOUNDED RAYS
Bounded rays that are trapped in the core and
propagate along the fiber axis according the laws of geometrical optics.
UNBOUNDED RAY
Unbounded rays that are refracted out of the fiber core.
  The light ray enters the fiber core
from a medium of refractive index n
at an angle Ѳ0 with respect to the
fiber axis and strikes the core-
cladding interface at the normal
angle Φ.
 If it strikes core-cladding interface at
an angle Φ that is totally internally
reflected. Then the meridional ray
allow a zig-zag path along the fiber
core, passing through the axis of the
guide after each reflection.
 From snell’s law, the minimum
angle Φmin that supports total internal
reflection for the meridional rays is given by
𝑛
SinΦmin= 𝑛2
1
 Rays striking the core-cladding interface at an angle less than Φmin will be refract out of the
core and be lost in the cladding.
 By applying snell’s law to the air-fiber face boundary. The maximum acceptance (or)
entrance angle Ѳ0, max is given by
n Sin Ѳ0, max= n1 Sin Ѳc = (𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 ) 1/2
Most probably, the light is launched to fiber from the air medium n=1.
𝜋
Ѳc = 2 − 𝛷c
Ѳc = Critical angle.
 The ray having entrance angle Ѳ0 less than Ѳ0, max will be totally internally reflected at any
core-cladding interface.

NUMERICAL APERTURE OF MERIDIONAL RAYS

 The numerical aperture(NA) of a step-index fiber for meridional rays from equation.
NA = n Sin Ѳ0, max
=(𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 ) 1/2
NA = n1√2∆
Where,
𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2
∆=
2𝑛1 2
𝑛1−𝑛2
∆≈ 𝑛 for ∆≪ 1
1
 Since the numerical aperture is related to the maximum acceptance angle,it is commonly
used to describe the light acceptance or gathering capability of a fiber and to calculate
source-to-fiber optical power coupling efficiency.
SKEW RAY
 Skew ray are transmitted through the fiber
axis. The skew rays are following a helical
path in a fiber.
 These rays are more difficult to track as they
travel along the fiber , since they do not lie in
a single plane.
 The skew ray will change the light-acceptance ability of a fiber and power losses of light
traveling along a waveguide.
  A greater power losses arise when skew ray the geometric optics predicts to be trapped in a
fiber or actually leaky rays.
LEAKY RAYS
The leaky rays are only partially confined to the core of the circular optical and attenuate as the
light travels along the optical waveguide.
 The helical path traced through the fiber gives a change in direction of 2𝛾 at each
reflection.
 𝛾 is the angle between the projection of the ray in two dimension and the radius of the fiber
core at the point of reflection.
 The acceptance conditions of skew rays are
n0 sinѲ0 cos𝛾 = (𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 ) 1/2 =NA

In the case of fiber in air (n0 = 1)

sinѲ0 cos𝛾 = NA

4. MODE THEORY FOR CIRCULAR WAVEGUIDES / WAVEGUIDE EQUATION

 To understand the optical power propagation mechanism in a fiber it is necessary to solve

Maxwell’s equations subject to the cylindrical boundary conditions at the interface between the
core and cladding of the fiber.
 When solving Maxwell’s equations for hollow metallic waveguides, only transverse electric(TE
modes) and transverse magnetic(TM modes) are found.
 In the optical fibers, the core-cladding boundary conditions lead to a coupling between the electric
and magnetic field components. This give rise to hybrid modes, which makes optical waveguide
analysis more complex than metallic waveguide analysis.
 The hybrid modes are designated as HE or EH modes, depending on whether the transverse
electric field(The E-field) or transverse magnetic field(The H-field) is larger for that mode.
 The two lowest-order modes are designated by HE 11 and TE01 , where the subscripts refer to
possible modes of propagation of the optical field.
Assuming a linear, isotropic dielectric material having no currents and free charges, these equations
take the form
𝝏𝑩
𝛁𝑿𝑬 = −
𝝏𝒕

𝝏𝑫
𝛁𝑿𝑯= 𝝏𝒕

𝛁.𝑫 = 𝟎

𝛁. 𝑩 = 𝟎

Where D = εE and B = μH. The parameter ε is the permittivity(dielectric constant) and μ is the
permeability of the medium.

A relationship defining the wave phenomena of the electromagnetic fields can be derived from maxwell’s
equations. Taking the 1st eqn, and making use of the 2nd eqn. yields
 𝝏 𝝏𝟐 𝑬
𝛁 𝑿 (𝛁 𝑿 𝑬) = −𝝁 𝝏𝒕 (𝛁 𝑿 𝑯) = −𝜺𝝁 𝝏𝒕𝟐
Using the vector identity,

𝛁 𝑿 (𝛁 𝑿 𝑬) = 𝛁 (𝛁. 𝑬) − 𝛁 𝟐 𝐄

Using 3rd eqn.(i.e ∇ . 𝐸 = 0)

𝝏𝟐 𝑬
𝛁 𝟐 𝐄 = 𝜺𝝁 𝝏𝒕𝟐

Similarly by taking the curl of 2nd equation it can be shown that

𝝏𝟐 𝑯
𝛁 𝟐 𝐇 = 𝜺𝝁 𝝏𝒕𝟐

Thus the last two equations are standard wave equations.

WAVEGUIDE EQUATIONS

Consider electromagnetic waves propagating along the cylindrical fiber shown in the below figure. For
this fiber, a cylindrical coordinate system(r,Φ,z) is defined with the z axis lying along the axis of the
waveguide. If the electromagnetic waves are to propagate along the z axis, they will have a functional
dependence of the form,

E = 𝑬𝟎 (𝒓, 𝜱)𝒆𝒋(𝝎𝒕−𝜷𝒛)

H =𝑯𝟎 (𝒓, 𝜱)𝒆𝒋(𝝎𝒕−𝜷𝒛)

Which are harmonic in time t and coordinate z. The parameter β is the z component of the propagation
vector and will be determined by the boundary conditions on the electromagnetic fields at the core-
cladding interface. Then,
𝟏 𝝏𝑬
( 𝝏𝜱𝒛 + 𝒋𝒓𝜷𝑬𝜱 ) = −𝒋𝝎𝝁𝑯𝒓
𝒓

𝝏𝑬
( 𝝏𝒓𝒛 + 𝒋𝜷𝑬𝒓 ) = 𝒋𝝎𝝁𝑯𝜱

𝟏 𝝏 𝝏𝑬𝒛
(𝝏𝒓 (𝒓𝑬𝜱 ) − ) = −𝒋𝝎𝝁𝑯𝒛
𝒓 𝝏𝜱
 From the above equations,
𝟏 𝝏𝑯
( 𝝏𝜱𝒛 + 𝒋𝒓𝜷𝑯𝜱 ) = 𝒋𝝎𝜺𝑬𝒓
𝒓

𝝏𝑯𝒛
( + 𝒋𝜷𝑯𝒓 ) = − 𝒋𝝎𝜺𝑬𝜱
𝝏𝒓

𝟏 𝝏 𝝏𝑯𝒓
(𝝏𝒓 (𝒓𝑯𝜱 ) − ) = 𝒋𝝎𝜺 𝑬𝒛
𝒓 𝝏𝜱

By eliminating variables, these equations can be rewritten such that, when E z and Hz are known, the
remaining transverse components Er , EΦ ,Hr and HΦ can be determined. For eg, EΦ or Hr can be
eliminated from the above equations so that the component E r or HΦ respectively, can be found in terms
of 𝐸𝑧 or 𝐻𝑧 . Doing so yields,
𝒋 𝝏𝑬𝒛 𝝁𝝎 𝝏𝑯𝒛
𝑬𝒓 = − 𝒒𝟐 (𝜷 + )
𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝜱

𝒋 𝜷 𝝏𝑬𝒛 𝝏𝑯𝒛
𝑬𝜱 = − 𝒒𝟐 ( 𝒓 − 𝝁𝝎 )
𝝏𝜱 𝝏𝒓

𝒋 𝝏𝑯𝒛 𝜺𝝎 𝝏𝑬𝒛
𝑯𝒓 = − 𝒒𝟐 (𝜷 − )
𝝏𝒓 𝒓 𝝏𝜱

𝒋 𝜷 𝝏𝑯𝒛 𝝏𝑬𝒛
𝑯𝜱 = − 𝒒𝟐 ( 𝒓 + 𝜺𝝎 )
𝝏𝜱 𝝏𝒓

Where 𝑞 2 = 𝜔2 𝜀𝜇 − 𝛽 2 = 𝑘 2 − 𝛽 2 ,

Substituting above equations, we get, (refer pg no.53 in textbook)

𝝏𝟐 𝑬𝒛 𝟏 𝝏𝑬𝒛 𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝑬
+𝒓 + 𝒓𝟐 𝝏𝜱𝟐𝒛 + 𝒒𝟐 𝑬𝒛 = 𝟎
𝝏𝒓𝟐 𝝏𝒓

Similarly, we get,

𝝏𝟐 𝑯𝒛 𝟏 𝝏𝑯𝒛 𝟏 𝝏𝟐 𝑯𝒛
+ + + 𝒒𝟐 𝑯𝒛 = 𝟎
𝝏𝒓𝟐 𝒓 𝝏𝒓 𝒓𝟐 𝝏𝜱𝟐

When Ez =0 the modes are called Transverse Electric or TE Modes, when Hz=0 they called Transverse
Magnetic or TM Modes. Hybrid modes exist if both Ez and Hz are non zero. HE or EH modes.

Expression of the wave equations for step index fiber

The expression Ez and Hz inside the core are

The expression Ez and Hz outside the core are

The permissible range of β for bound solution is n2k=k2≤ β ≤ k1= n1k

5. MODAL EQUATION / MODES OF STEP INDEX FIBER / dielectric

The order of a mode is equal to the number of field zeros across the guide.

 Consider the waveguide is composed of a dielectric slab of refractive index n1 > n2 , which is
called cladding.
 The electric fields are not completely confined within the core i.e. they do not go to zero at core-
cladding interface and extends into the cladding.
 The field vary harmonically in the guiding region of refractive index n1 and decay exponentially
outside the region.
 In the low-order modes the fields are tightly concentrated near the center of the slab(or the axis
of an optical fiber), with little penetration into the cladding region.
 In the Higher-order modes the fields are distributed more towards the edge of the guide and
penetrate further into the cladding region.

The boundary conditions requires that the tangential components E Φ and Ez of E inside and outside of the
dielectric interface at r=a must be the same, and similarly for the tangential components H Φ and Hz.

Ez1 - Ez2 = AJv (ua) – CKv (wa) = 0

𝑞 2 = 𝑢2 = 𝑘12 − 𝛽 2
2𝜋𝑛1
Where 𝑘1 = = 𝜔 √𝜀1 𝜇 ,
𝜆

𝑤 2 = 𝛽 2 − 𝑘22
2𝜋𝑛2
Where 𝑘2 = = 𝜔√𝜀2 𝜇 ,
𝜆

𝑗 𝑗𝑣𝛽
𝐸𝛷1 − 𝐸𝛷2 = − 𝑢2 [𝐴 𝐽𝑣 (𝑢𝑎) − 𝐵𝜔𝜇𝑢𝐽𝑣′ (𝑢𝑎)]
𝑎

𝑗 𝑗𝑣𝛽
− 𝑤 2 [𝐶 𝐾𝑣 (𝑤𝑎) − 𝐷𝜔𝜇𝑤𝐾𝑣′ (𝑤𝑎)] = 0
𝑎

Where the prime indicates differentiation with respect to argument.

Similarly for the tangential components of H it is readily shown that, at r=a.

Hz1 - Hz2 = BJv (ua) – DKv (wa) = 0

 𝑗 𝑗𝑣𝛽
𝐻𝛷1 − 𝐻𝛷2 = − 𝑢2 [𝐵 𝐽𝑣 (𝑢𝑎) + 𝐴𝜔𝜀1 𝑢𝐽𝑣′ (𝑢𝑎)]
𝑎

𝑗 𝑗𝑣𝛽
− 𝑤 2 [𝐷 𝐾𝑣 (𝑤𝑎) − 𝐶𝜔𝜀2 𝑤𝐾𝑣′ (𝑤𝑎)] = 0
𝑎

𝐽𝑣 (𝑢𝑎) 0 −𝐾𝑣 (𝑤𝑎) 0

𝛽𝑣 𝑗𝜔𝜇 ′ 𝛽𝑣 𝑗𝜔𝜇
|𝑎𝑢2 𝐽𝑣 (𝑢𝑎) 𝐽 (𝑢𝑎)
𝑢 𝑣
𝐾𝑣 (𝑤𝑎) 𝐾𝑣′ (𝑤𝑎)|
𝑎𝑤 2 𝑤
=0
| 0 𝐽𝑣 (𝑢𝑎) 0 −𝐾𝑣 (𝑤𝑎) |
𝑗𝜔𝜀1 ′ 𝛽𝑣 𝑗𝜔𝜀2 𝛽𝑣
− 𝐽𝑣 (𝑢𝑎) 𝐽 (𝑢𝑎) − 𝐾𝑣′ (𝑤𝑎) 𝐾𝑣 (𝑤𝑎)
𝑢 𝑎𝑢 2 𝑣 𝑢 𝑎𝑤 2

Evaluation of this determinant yields the following Eigen value, equation for β:

MODES IN STEP-INDEX FIBER:

The modes of fiber depends on the J-type Bessel function which will have oscillatory behavior with
m roots for a given normalized frequency(V value). This roots will be designated by βvm and corresponding
modes are either TEvm, TMvm ,EHvm or HEvm. The electric field pattern of four lower order modes is shown
below.

For dielectric fiber waveguide all modes are hybrid modes except those for v=0.

V MODE CUTOFF CONDITION

0 TE0m, TM0m 𝐽0 (𝑢𝑎) = 0
1 HE1m, EH1m 𝐽1 (𝑢𝑎) = 0
≥2 EHvm 𝐽𝑣 (𝑢𝑎) = 0
HEvm 𝑢𝑎
𝐽 (𝑢𝑎)
𝑣−1 𝑣
The normalized frequency V(V number or V parameter) is defined as
2𝜋𝑎 2𝜋𝑎 2𝜋𝑎
𝑉= (√𝑛12 − 𝑛22 ) = 𝑁𝐴 = √2∆
𝜆 𝜆 𝜆

The parameter V can relate the number of modes M in multimode fiber. The total number of modes M
𝑉2
entering the fiber 𝑀 = .
2

POWER FLOW IN STEP-INDEX FIBER

𝑃𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑 4
( ) = 3 𝑀−1/2
𝑃 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

𝑃𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒
Where ( ) =1−
𝑃 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑃

Where P = total power in mode V, 𝑃𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑 is the power flow in cladding region.

𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 is the power flow in core region.

6. LINEARLY POLARISED(LP) MODES

 Usually the fibers are constructed that the difference in the core and cladding indices of refraction
is very small(n1 – n2 << 1).
 With this assumption, only four field components(HE,EH,TE and TM) need to be considered and
their expressions become significantly simpler. The field components are called linearly
polarized(LP) modes.
 The linearly polarized(LP) modes are not exact modes of the fiber except for the
fundamental(lowest order) mode.
 Linearly polarized modes are labeled LPjm where j and m are integers designating mode solutions.
 In this scheme for the lowest-order modes, each LP0m mode is derived from an HE1m mode and
each LP1m mode comes from TE0m , TM0m and HE0m modes.
 The fundamental LP01 mode corresponds to an HE11 mode.

set of modes called HE modes is defined by the J-value,

𝑗=
1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝐸 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑀 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒𝑠
{ 𝑣+1 𝐸𝐻 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒
𝑣−1 𝐻𝐸 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒
So, these modes have regenerative modes such regenerative modes are called linear polarized modes.
Each LP01 mode is derived from an HE1m mode.\

Each LP1m mode is derived from an TE0m, TM0m and HE2m modes.

Each LPvm mode(V≥0) is from an HEv+1,m and an EHv-m mode.

Correspondence between the lower order in linearly polarized modes the traditional exact modes from
which they are formed.

Sl.no. Linearly Exact No of

polarized degenerative
modes
1 LP01 HE11 2
2 LP11 HE21,TE01, TM01 4
3 LP21 HE31,EH11 4
4 LP02 HE12 2
5 LP31 HE41, EH21 4
6 LP21 HE22 , TE02 ,TM02 4
7 LPlm HE2m,TE0m ,TM0m 4
8 LPlm(l≠ 0 or 1) HEl+1,m ,EHl-1,m 4
LEAKY MODES

In the leaky modes the fields are confined partially in the fiber core and attenuated as they
propagate along the fiber length due to radiation and tunnel effect.

TUNNEL EFFECT

 The leaky modes are continuously radiating their power out of the core as they propagate along
the fiber. This power radiation out of the waveguide results from the quantum mechanical
phenomena known as the tunnel effect.
 Therefore in order to mode remains guided, the propagation factor satisfy the condition
n2K < β <n1 K

where n1 is refractive index of the fiber core

n2 refractive index of cladding
𝜋
K is the propagation constant for light in a vacuum = 2 𝜆
 The boundary between truly guided modes and leaky modes is defined by the
cutoff condition β= n2 K.
 When β becomes smaller than n2 K( n2 K < β) power leaks out of the core into the
cladding region.
 Leaky modes can carry significant amounts of optical power in short fibers.

7. Single mode fiber – page 64 to 68

8. Graded index Fiber – page 68-70
9 Compare Single mode and Multimode fibers.
10. Compare step index fiber and Graded index fiber
10. Problems

Unit 1 Problems
1. Prob1: Consider the interface between a glass slab with n 1= 1.48 and air for
which n2= 1.00. What is the critical angle for light travelling in the glass?
Soln: Given Refractive Index of Glass n1= 1.48 , Refractive Index of air n2= 1.00
𝑛2 1.00
Critical Angle according to Snell’s law 𝜑𝑐 = sin−1 = sin−1 = 42.5o
𝑛1 1.48

Note: Any ray incident on glass air interface at a normal anlgle 𝜑1 greater than 42.5o
is totally reflected back into the glass.

2. Prob2: A light ray traveling in air is incident on a smooth, flat slab of crown
glass, which has a refractive index n1= 1.5. If the incoming ray makes an angle
of 𝝋𝟏= 30.0 o with respect to the normal, what is the angle of Refraction 𝝋𝟐 in
the glass?
Soln: Given Refractive Index of Glass n1= 1.5, Refractive Index of air n2= 1.00
 𝑛1 1.00
From Snell’s law sin 𝜑2 = sin 𝜑1 = sin 30 = 0.75
𝑛2 1.5

𝜑2 = sin−1 0.329 = 48.59𝑜

3. Light traveling through an optical fiber (n=1.44) reaches the end of the
fiber and exits into air. (a) If the angle of incidence on the end of the fiber
is 30o, what is the angle of refraction outside the fiber? (b) How would
your answer be different if the angle of incidence were 50 o?

4. The speed of light in an unknown medium is measured to be 2.76 x

108 m/s. (a) What is the index of refraction of the medium? (b) Does it match
any of the materials listed in your Table?

5. Consider the interface between a GaAs surface with a refractive index n1=
3.299 and for air n2= 1.00. Show that the critical angle is 𝝋𝒄= 𝟏𝟕. 𝟔 o .
Soln: Given

𝑁𝐴 = 𝑛 sin 𝜃𝐴 = (𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2 )1/2 = 𝑛1√2∆

6. A step index fiber has a normalized frequency V= 26.6 at a 1300nm wavelength.
If the core radius is 25μm, what is the Numerical aperture.

Soln: Given V = 26.6, λ = 1300nm or 1.30 μm, a= 25μm

𝜆 1.30 𝑋 10−6
𝑁𝐴 = 𝑉 = 26.6 = 0.22
2𝜋𝑎 2𝜋 𝑋 25 𝑋 10−6

7. Suppose we have a multimode step index optical fiber that has a core radius of
25μm, a core index of 1.48, and an index difference of 0.01. What are the
number of modes in the fiber at wavelength 860, 1310 and 1550nm?
 Soln:
Given Core index n1= 1.48, 𝚫= 0.01 , λ =860,1310 and 1550nm
Core radius a= 25μm
a). For 860nm
2𝜋𝑎 2𝜋 𝑋 25 𝑋10−6
V= 𝑛1 (√2𝛥) = 𝑋 1.48(√2 𝑋 0.01)
𝜆 0.86 𝑋10−6

V= 38.2
𝑉2
Total Number of modes M= = 729
2

b). For 1310nm

2𝜋𝑎 2𝜋 𝑋 25 𝑋10−6
V= 𝑛1 (√2𝛥) = 𝑋 1.48(√2 𝑋 0.01)
𝜆 1.31 𝑋10−6

V= 25.1
𝑉2
Total Number of modes M= = 315
2

c). For 1550nm

2𝜋𝑎 2𝜋 𝑋 25 𝑋10−6
V= 𝑛1 (√2𝛥) = 𝑋 1.48(√2 𝑋 0.01)
𝜆 1.55 𝑋10−6

V= 21.2
𝑉2
Total Number of modes M= = 224
2
Therefore when wavelength increases, V number decreases and Total number of
modes M also decreases.

8. A single mode optical fiber has a beat length of 9 cm at 1300nm. Find the
birefringence of the fiber.
Soln:
Given Lp = 9cm or 0.09m;
Lp = 2π/𝛽
2𝜋 2 𝑋 3.14
𝛽= = = 69.7cm-1
𝐿𝑝 0.09

9. Find out the possible number of paths for a multimode fiber when diameter is
80μm at wavelength 0.85 μm, core index of 1.50 and cladding index of 1.47.

Soln: d= 80μm , λ = 0.85 μm, n1 = 1.50 and n2 = 1.47

 𝜋𝑑 2
Total number of paths 𝑁 = ( √𝑛1 2 − 𝑛2 2)
𝜆
2
3.14 𝑋 80 𝑋10−6
𝑁= ( −6
√1.502 − 1.472 )
0.85 𝑋10

251.2
𝑁= √0.09 , N= 89
0.85

10. A manufacturing engineer wants to make an optical fiber that has a core index
of 1.480 and a cladding index of 1.478. What should the core size for a single
mode operation at 1550nm.
Soln:
Core index n1= 1.480 , cladding index n2= 1.478, λ =1550nm
2𝜋𝑎
Core radius a= ? using V = 𝑛1 (√2𝛥)
𝜆

Condition for a single mode V ≤ 2.405,

𝑉𝜆 1 2.405 𝑋 1.55 𝑋 10−6 1
𝑎= = = 7.419μm
2𝜋 √𝑛1 2 −𝑛2 2 2𝜋 √1.4802 −1.4782

If want use this same fiber in single mode operation at 1310nm also, then core radius
a
𝑉𝜆 1 2.405 𝑋 1.310 𝑋 10−6 1
𝑎= = = 6.53μm
2𝜋 √𝑛1 2 −𝑛2 2 2𝜋 √1.4802 −1.4782

11. Suppose we have a 50μm diameter graded index fiber that has a parabolic
refractive index profile(α=2). If the fiber has a NA= 0.22, what is the total
number of guided modes at a wavelength of 1310nm?
Soln:
Given NA = 0.22 , α=2 , λ= 1310nm , d=50μm, therefore a= 25 μm
M=?, V=?

2𝜋𝑎 2𝜋 𝑋 25𝑋10−6 2
V= 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑁𝐴 =26.4 0r 𝑉 = 2.405√1 +
𝜆 1.31 𝑋 10−6 𝛼

M = number of bounded modes in graded index

𝑎 𝑉2
𝑀= = 174
𝑎+2 2
12. An applications engineer has an optical fiber that has a 3μm core radius and
numerical aperture of 0.1. Will this fiber exhibit single mode operation at
800nm?
Soln:
Given NA = 0.1 , λ= 800nm , a= 3μm
2𝜋𝑎 2𝜋 𝑋 3𝑋 10−6
V= 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑋 0.10 = 2.356
𝜆 0.80 𝑋 10−6
Since v= 2.356, the condition for single mode operation V≤ 2.405, it satisfies. This
can be used for single mode operation.

13. A certain single mode step index fiber has a MFD= 11.2 and V= 2.25. What is
the core diameter of this fiber?
Soln:
Given Mode Field Diameter MFD = 11.2, V = 2.25, core radius a= ?
We know MFD= 2 𝑊0 , where 𝑊0 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 .
For a single mode step index fiber, V value is 1.2 ≤ V≤ 2.4, is given by
𝑊0 −3
= 0.65 + 1.619𝑉 ⁄2 + 2.879 𝑉 −6
𝑎
𝑊0
𝑎= −3
0.65 + 1.619𝑉 ⁄2 + 2.879 𝑉 −6

5.6 𝑋 10−6
= −3⁄
0.65 + 1.619𝑋 (2.25) 2 + 2.879 𝑋 (2.25)−6

a=4.68μm
Therefore the core diameter d= 2a= 9.72μm

14. Compare the relative spot size w0/a for V= 1.2, 1.8 and 2.4
a).Given : V = 1.2
𝑊0 −3
= 0.65 + 1.619𝑉 ⁄2 + 2.879 𝑉 −6 = 2.845
𝑎

b).Given : V = 1.8
𝑊0 −3
= 0.65 + 1.619𝑉 ⁄2 + 2.879 𝑉 −6 = 1.405
𝑎

c). V= 2.4
𝑊0 −3⁄
= 0.65 + 1.619𝑉 2 + 2.879 𝑉 −6 = 1.1005
𝑎

Therefore V number increases the spot size decrease.

15. Find the cladding power when core power is 20W total transmitted power = 25 W .
Soln:
𝑃𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑 𝑃
= 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 1-20 / 25 = 0.2 = 20%
𝑃 𝑃
therefore 20% of power out of total power is transmitter through the cladding. 20%
total power is lost through the cladding.
 Unit -2

1.Describe the linear and non-linear scattering losses in optical fiber

SCATTERING LOSSES
INTRODUCTION:
 Scattering losses in glass arise due to following factors:
1.Microscopic variations in the material density.
2.Compositional fluctuations
3.Structural in homogeneitits and
4.Structural defects occurring during fiber fabrication.

 As glass is composed by randomly connected network of molecules and several oxides(eg.SiO 2,GeO2 and
P2O5),these are the major cause of compositional structure fluctuations.
 The first two give rise to refractive-index variations within the glass over distance that are small compared
with wavelength.These index variation cause a scattering of light which is named as Rayleigh scattering.

TYPES OF SCATTERING LOSSES:

THE TWO SCATTERING LOSSES ARE

 Linear scattering loss

1.Rayleigh scattering
2.Mie scattering
 Non linear scattering loss
1.Stimulated Brillouil scattering
2.Stimulated Raman scattering.

LINEAR SCATTERING LOSSES

  Linear scattering transfers linearly the optical power in one propagation mode to different
mode.These losses will occur in the leaky mode or radiation mode.
 It will not continue to propagate within the core of fiber and is radiated out from the fiber.
 Scattering loss will be more in multimode fiber due to higher dopant concentration and greater
compositional fluctuations.
 All linear processes there is no change of frequency on scattering.

NON LINEAR SCATTERING LOSSES:

 This non linear scattering causes the optical power from one mode to be transferred in either the forward or
backword direction to the same,or other modes,at adifferent frequency.
 It depend critically upon the optical power density within the fiber and hence only becomes significant
above threshold power levels.

RAYLEIGH SCATTERING:
 This loss occurs in the ultra violet region.Its tail extends upto infra red region.
 Rayleigh scattering in the glass is the same phenomenon that scatters light from the sun in the
atmosphere which gives rise to a blue sky.
1
 This scattering is almost in all direction and produces an attenuation propotional to 𝜆4
.
 For single component glass Rayleigh loss given by
8𝜋3
𝛼𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑡 = (𝑛2 − 1)2 𝐾𝐵 𝑇𝑓 𝛽𝑇 ---------(1)
3𝜆4
Where,n-Refractive index of silica.
KB-Boltzman’s constant.
𝛽𝑇 -Isothermal compressibility of the material at fictive temperature
𝛼𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑡 -Rayleigh scattering coefficient
𝑇𝑓 -fictive temperatu

FICTIVE TEMPERATURE:

Fictive temperature is defined as the temperature at which the glass can reach a state of thermal
equilibrium and is closely related to the anneal temperature.

 Equation (1) may be return in another form,that is

8𝜋3
𝛼𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑡 = 3𝜆4 𝑛8 𝑝2 𝐾𝐵 𝑇𝑓 𝛽𝑇 ------(2)
Where,p is the photoelastic co-efficient.
 The two equations are in neper units.To convert neper units to decibel,the equation can be multiplied by
10loge=4.343.
 For multi component glasses the scattering is given by
8𝜋3 2 2
𝛼= 4 (𝛿𝑛 ) 𝛿𝑣-------------(3)
3𝜆
Where, (𝛿𝑛2 )2 is the mean-square refractive-index fluctuation over a volume of 𝛿𝑣.
 Mean square refractive index fluctuation is given as
2
𝜕𝑛 2 𝜕𝑛 2
(𝛿𝑛2 )2 = ( ) (𝛿𝑝)2 + ∑𝑚 2
𝑖=1 ( 𝜕𝑐 ) (𝛿𝑐𝑖 ) ---------(4)
𝜕𝑝 𝑖
Where, 𝛿𝑝 is the density fluctuations and
 𝛿𝑐𝑖 is the concentration fluctuation of the ith glass component.
 The magnitude of the compositions and density fluctuations are generally not known and must be
determined from experimental scattering data.Once they are known the scattering loss can be calculated.
 The Rayleigh scattering is related to the transmission loss factor(tranmissivity)of the fiber length L
following the relation.
∅ = 𝑒𝑥𝑝(−𝐿𝛼𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑡 )------(5)

TYPICAL SPECTRAL ATTENUATION RANGE FOR PROTECTION RUN

GRADED-INDEX MULTI MODE FIBERS

 Losses of multi mode fibers are generally higher than single-mode fiber because higher dopant
concentrations and the accompany larger scattering losses due to greater compositional fluctuations in multi
mode fibers

2.BENDING LOSS

INTRODUCTION:
Radiating losses occur whenever an optical fiber undergoes a bend of finite radius of curvature.

Types of bending losses:

There are two types of bending losses

 1.Macroscopic bending losses and

2.Microscopic bending losses.

MACROSCOPIC BENDING LOSSES(OR) LARGE RADIUS LOSSES:

 These occur when the radius of curvature of bend is greater than the fiber diameter.
 As the radius of curvature of bend decreases,the loss increases exponentially upto a certain critical radius
the curvature loss becomes observable.
 The bend radius is made smaller,otherwise it will reach the threshold point,the losses suddenly becomes
extremely large.

AN ILLUSTRATION OF THE RADIATION LOSS AT A FIBER BEND

  The part of the load which is on the cladding outside the dashed arrowed line may be required to travel
faster than that on the inside so that a wavefront perpendicular to the direction of propagation is
maintained.As this not possible,the energy associated with this part of the mode is lost through radiation.
 The amount of optical radiation from a bent fiber is depending on the field strength at x c and on the radius
of curvature R.
 The higher-order modes are boundless tightly to the fiber core than lower-oredr modes,the higher-order
modes will radiate out of the fiber first.
 Large bending losses tend to occur in multi mode fibers at critical radius of curvature R c is given by
𝜆3𝑛12
𝑅𝑐 ≈ 3
4𝜋(𝑛12 −𝑛22 )2
 The total number of modes that can be supported by a curved fiber is less than in a straight fiber.
 The effective number of modes(Neff) that are supported by a curved multimode fiber is given by
2
𝛼+2 2𝑎 3 3
𝑁𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑁∝ {1 − 2𝛼∆ [ 𝑅 + (𝐾𝑅2𝑛 ) ]}
2

Where,α-graded index profile

∆ − 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 − 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
n2-cladding refractive index
2𝜋
k= 𝜆 -wave propagation constant and
𝑁∝-total number of modes in a straight fiber
𝛼
𝑁∝ is given by 𝑁∝ = 𝛼+2 (𝑛1 𝑘𝑎)2 ∆

Macro bending losses may be reduced by

1.Designing fibers with large relative refractive index differences and

2.Operating at a shortest wavelength possible.

MICRO BENDING LOSSES OR MODE COUPLING LOSSES:

 Micro bends are due to small-scale fluctuations in the radius of curvature of the fiber axix.This situation
arises when the fibers are incorporated into cables.
 The fluctuations in the radius of curvature are caused either by non uniformities in the manufacturing of the
fiber or by non uniform lateral pressures created during the cabling of the fiber.
 The latter effect is often referred to as cabling or packaging losses.
 Thie type of bending introduces slight surface imperfection,which can cause mode coupling between
adjascent modes or coupling of energy between the guided modes and the leaky modes(non-guided
modes)in the fiber which inturn creates a radiative loss.
 SMALL-SCALE FLUCTUATION IN THE RADIUS OF CURVATURE OF THE FIBER
AXIS LEADS TO MICROBENDING LOSS.

MINIMIZING THE MICRO BENDING LOSSES:

THE COMPRESSIBLE JACKET EXTRUDED OVER A FIBER REDUCES MICRO BENDING

RESULTING FROM EXTERNAL FORCES.

 Micro bending losses can be minimized by introducing compressible jacket over the fiber.
 When the external forces are applied,the jacket will be deformed but the fiber will tend to stay relatively
straight.
 For a multi mode graded-index fiber having a core radius a,outer radius b(excluding the jacket) and index
difference ∆,the micro bending loss αM of a jacket fiber is reduced from that of an unjacketed fiber by a
factor,
 −2
𝑏 4 𝐸𝑓
𝐹(𝛼𝑀 ) = [1 + 𝜋∆2 (𝑎) ]
𝐸𝑔
Where,Ej and Ef are the young’s moduli of the jacket and fiber,respectively.
 The young’s modulus of common jacket materials ranges from 20 to 500MPa.The young’s
modulus of fused silica glass is about 65GPa.

3.Discuss about information carrying capacity and group delay of optical

fiber.
INFORMATION CAPACITY DETERMINATION:
 A light pulse will braden as it travels along the fiber.This pulse broadening will cause overlap with
neighbouring pulses.
 At certain distance the pulse are not individually distinguished at the receiver and error will occur.
 Therefore the information capacity of an optical waveguide is usually specified by the bandwidth-
distance product(BDP)in MHz-km.
 As the length of an optical cable increases,the bandwidth decreases in proportion,
 For step index bandwidth distance product is 20MHz km and for graded index it is 2.5GHz km.
 The information carrying capacity can be determined by short light pulses propagating along the
fiber.
GROUP DELAY:
 In Guided optical communication,core is having slow propagating modes and cladding is having
faster propagating modes.
 Group delay is caused by the different path lengths with each of the modes of the fiber.
 Each mode carriers an equal amount of energy through the fiber.
 Group delay is an important parameter in multimode fibers.
 When the signal propagates along the fiber,each spectral component can be assumed to travel
independently and to undergo a time delay or group delay per unit length in the direction of
propagation.
 The transit time or group delay 𝜏𝑔 for a light pulse propagating along a unit length of fiber is
inverse of the group velocity Vg.
 The group delay is given by
GROUP VELOCITY:
 Group velocity is the velocity at which the energy in a pulse travels along a fiber.
 The group delay depends on the wavelength,each spectral component of any particular mode takes
a different amount of time to travel a certain distance.
𝑑𝜏𝑔
 The delay difference per unit wavelength along the propagation path is approximately 𝑑𝜆
𝑑𝜏𝑔
 The total delay difference δ𝜏 over a distance L is δ𝜏 = 𝛿𝜆--------(9)
𝑑𝜆
 if the spectral width 𝛿𝜆 of an optical source is characterized by its rms value,then the pulse
spreading can be approximated by the rms pulse width
4. Describe about material dispersion and derive the expression for the
pulse broadening due to material dispersion.
MATERIAL DISPERSION OR CHROMATIC DISPERSION:
 This dispersion arises due to the variation of the refractive index of the core material as a function
of wavelength or frequency of light.
 This causes a wavelength dependence of the group velocity of any given mode,that is pulse
spreading occurs even when different wavelength follow the same path.
 MINIMIZE THE MATERIAL DISPERSION:
Material dispersion can be reduced either by choosing sources with narrower
spectral output widths,or by operating at longer wavelength.
GROUP VELOCITY:
 The group velocity V g of mode is a function of a the index refraction,the various spectral
component of a given mode will travel at different speeds,depending on the wavelength.
REDUCTION OF MATERIAL DISPERSION:
 Material dispersion can be reduced either by using sources with narrower spectral output
widths(reducing 𝜎𝜆 )or by operating at longer wavelengths.

.5. Explain about wave-guide dispersion and Derive the expression for it.
WAVEGUIDE DISPERSION:

 Waveguide dispersion occurs when a single-mode fiber only confines about 80% on the optical
power to the core.
 Dispersion arises from the 20% of the light propagating in the cladding which travels faster than
the light cofined to the core.
 The amount of waveguide dispersion depends on the fiber designed.
 The waveguide dispersion also intramodal dispersion.this results from the variation in group
velocity with wavelength for a particular mode.
 The effect of waveguide dispersion on pulse spreading can be approximated by assuming that the
refractive index of the material is independent of wavelength.
 The group delay-that is,the time required for a mode to travel along a fiber of length L.
 The group delay can be expressed in terms of the normalized propagation
  When we plot this expression as a function of V for various LP modes.The plots show that for a
fixed value of V,group delay is different for every guided mode.

6.Signal distortion in optical fiber

INTRODUCTION:
  Dispersion of the transmitted optical signal causes distortion for both digital and analog
transmission along optical fibers.
 An optical signal is distorted as it travels along a fiber. This distortion is due to intramodal
dispersion and intermodal delay effects.

DISPERSION:
 The term dispersion refers to spreading of light pulse as it propagates through the fiber
 It introduces intersymbol interference (ISI). It limits the information carrying capacity of fiber.

TYPES OF DISPERSION:
 The dispersion effect can be explained on the basis of behavior of group velocities of the guided
modes in the optical fiber.

DISPERSION:

 INTRAMODAL DISPERSION:
1.Material or chromatic dispersion
2.Waveguide dispersion
3.Group velocity dispersion(GVD)or modal dispersion
 INTERMODAL DISPERSION

GROUP VELOCITY:
  Group velocity is the velocity at which the energy in a particular mode travels along the fiber,or it
is the velocity of a group of wavelength.

INTRAMODAL DISPERSION:
 Intramodal dispersion is pulse spreading that occurs within a single mode.
 It arises due to group velocity being a function of wavelength.The increasing spectral width of the
optical source will increase the intramodal dispersion.

MATERIAL DISPERSION OR CHROMATIC DISPERSION:

 This dispersion arises due to the variation of the refractive index of the core material as a function
of wavelength or frequency of light.
 This causes a wavelength dependence of the group velocity of any given mode,that is pulse
spreading occurs even when different wavelength follow the same path.
 MINIMIZE THE MATERIAL DISPERSION:
Material dispersion can be reduced either by choosing sources with narrower
spectral output widths,or by operating at longer wavelengths.

WAVEGUIDE DISPERSION:
 Waveguide dispersion occurs when a single-mode fiber only confines about 80% on the optical
power to the core.
 Dispersion arises from the 20% of the light propagating in the cladding which travels faster than
the light cofined to the core.
 The amount of waveguide dispersion depends on the fiber designed.

GROUP DELAY DISPERSION OR INTERMODAL DELAY:

 This type pulse spreading occurs when each mode having different value of the group velocity at a
single frequency.
 The intramodal dispersions are available only in single mode fibers.

INTERMODAL DISTORTION OR MULTIMODE DISPERSION:

 The intermodal distortion arises due to the variation in the group delay for each individual mode at
a single frequency.When the group velocity of different mode varies,the group delay will be
formed.
 This distortion is available in multimode fibers.
  The maximum pulse broadening arises from intermodal distortion is the difference between the
travel time Tmax of the longest ray congruence paths(the highest-order mode)and the travel time
Tmin of the shortest ray congruence paths(the fundamental mode).
Delay difference,δTmod=Travel time of longest ray Travel time of shortest ray
congruence paths - congruence path
= Tmax-Tmin
𝐿𝑛12 𝐿𝑛1 𝐿𝑛1 𝑛1
= - = ( − 1)
𝐶𝑛2 𝐶 𝐶 𝑛2
𝑛1 ∆𝐿 𝑛1 −𝑛2
δTmod= [∴ ∆≈ ]
𝐶 𝑛2

7.What is mode coupling? Discuss the pulse broadening in GI fiber.

PULSE BROADENING IN GRADED INDEX WAVEGUIDES:
INTRODUCTION:

 The core refractive index varies radially,in gradedindex waveguide fibers.

 It supports multimode propagation in a relatively large core together with a low intermodal delay
distortion and allows the transmission of high data rates over long distance.
 If the index profile is carefully controlled,then the transit times of the individual modes will be
identical,so it is eliminating model dispersion.
 The rms pulse broadening 𝜎 in a graded-index fiber is given by
1
2 2
𝜎 = (𝜎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑎𝑙 + 𝜎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑎𝑙 )2
where,𝜎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑎𝑙 -rms pulsewidth intermodal delay distortion and
𝜎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑎𝑙 -rms pulsewidth resulting from pulse broadening within
each mode.
 The intermodal delay and pulse broadening are related by expression given by personick.

MODE COUPLING:
 After a certain initial length,the pulse distortion increases less rapidly because of mode coupling
and differential mode loss.
 The coupling of energy from one mode to another arises because of
-structural imperfections
-fiber diameter variations
-refractive-index variations
-cabling-induced microbends and
-irregularities at the core-cladding interference.
 The mode coupling tends to average out the propagation delays associated with the modes and
thereby reduce the intermodal dispersion.
 Consider certain initial coupling length L c,mode coupling length over Lc is Z.Additional loss
associated with mode coupling,which is designated by h and which has units of dB/km.
 The improvement in pulse spreading by mode coupling over the distance(Z<L c)is related to the
excess loss hzincurred over this distance by the equation
𝜎 2
ℎ𝑧 (𝜎𝑐 ) = 𝐶-----------(1)
𝑜
where,C is a constant independent of all dimensional quantities and refractive indices.
𝜎𝑐 is the pulse broadening in the presence of strong mode coupling and
𝜎𝑜 is the pulsewidth increase in the absence of modecoupling.
  The modecoupling and power distortion can occur at connectors,splices and other passive
component in a optical link;this can have a significant effect on the overall system bandwidth.

8.Discuss the design optimization of single mode fibers

DESIGN OPTIMIZATION OF SINGLE MODE FIBERS:
INTRODUCTION:

 The attributes of single mode fibers are

-long lifetime
-very low attenuation
-high quality signal transfer due to absence of modal noise and
-largest bandwidth-distance produced.
 basic design-optimization includes the following
-cut-off wavelength
-dispersion
-mode-field diameter and
-bending loss,

REFRACTIVE-INDEX PROFILES:

Dispersion limits long-distance and very-high-speed transmission.

 The dispersion of a single-mode silica fiber is lowest at 1300nm while its attenuation is maximum
at 1550nm,where the dispersion is higher.
 For achieving a maximum transmission distance of a high-capacity link,the dispersion null should
be at the wavelength of minimum attenuation.
 To altering the behaviour of signal-mode fibers,varieties of core-cladding refractive-index
configurations are used.They are
-1300 nm optimized fibers
-dispersion shifted fibers
 -dispersion-flattened fibers and
-large-effective-core-area fibers.
 1300 nm-OPTIMIZED FIBERS:
These are most popularly used single-mode fibers in telecommunication
networks.Here two configurations are available.
1.Matched cladding fibers
2.Depressed cladding fibers.
 MATCHED CLADDING FIBERS:
1.Matched cladding fibers have a uniform refractive index throughout the cladding.
2.Typical mode-field diameter are 9.5μm and ∆= 0.37%.
 DEPRESSED CLADDING FIBER:
1.In depressed cladding fibers the cladding portion next to the core(inner cladding
portion)has a lower index than the outer cladding region.
2.Mode –field diameters are around 9μm,and typical positive and negative index
difference are 0.25 and 0.12percent,respectively.
 DISPERSION-SHIFTED FIBERS:
1.Material dispersion depends only on the composition of the material,waveguide
dispersion is a function of the core radius,refractive index difference,and the shape of the
refractive index profile.
2.Total dispersion in a fiber is the sum of waveguide and material dispersion can shift
the zero dispersion point to longer wavelengths.The resulting optical fibers are known as
dispersion-shifted fibers.
3.Two configurations of dispersion shifted fibers are
o Step index dispersion shifted fiber
o Triangular dispersion shifted fiber.
 DISPERSION FLATTENED FIBERS:
1.To reduce fiber dispersion by spreading the dispersion minimum out over a wide
range.This approaches known as dispersion flattening.
2.These fibers are more complex to design,because dispersion must be considered over
a much broader range or wavelength.
3.Two configuration of dispersion flattened fiber are
o Double-clad profile
o Quadruple-clad profile
 LARGE-EFFECTIVE-CORE-AREA FIBERS:
1.Large core area is needed to reduce the effects of fiber non linearities,which limits
system capacities.
2.The standard signal-mode fibers have effective core area of about 55 μm2,these
profiles yield values greater than 100μm2.
3.Two configurations are
o Large-area dispersion-shifted fiber
o Large-area dispersion-flattened fiber.
 Total dispersion characteristics for the various types of single mode fiber

CUT OFF WAVELENGTH:

 One of the important transmission parameter for single-mode fibers,this cutoff wavelength for the
first higher-order mode(LP11).
 It seperates the single-mode and multi mode regions.
 The theoretical cutoff wavelength of a single-mode operation is given by
1
2𝜋𝑎
𝜆𝑐;𝑡ℎ = (𝑛12 − 𝑛22 )2 ----------------(1)
𝑣𝑐
Equation (1) in another form
1
2𝜋𝑎𝑛1
𝜆𝑐;𝑡ℎ = (2∆)2 ------(2)
𝑣𝑐
Where vc is the cutoff normalized frequency.
Vc=2.405 for step-index fiber.
 At this wavelength,only the LP01 mode(i.e,the HE11 mode)should propagate in the fiber.
 G.650 of the ITU-T and EIA-455-80A standard specify methods for determining an effective cut
off wavelength λc.
 The logarithmic radio R(λ) between the two transmitted powers P 1(λ)and P2(λ)is calculated as
P1(λ)
𝑅(𝜆) = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔 [ P2(λ) ]----------(3)
 The cutoff wavelength is an important parameter,when we estimate the radius of curvature for a
single-mode fiber.
20𝜆 𝜆 −3
𝑅𝐶𝑆 = 3 (2.748 − 0.996 𝜆 ) ---------(4)
(𝑛1 −𝑛2 )2 𝑐

EFFECTIVE CUT OFF WAVELENGTH:

  The effective cutoff wavelength λc is defined as the largest wavelength at which higher-order LP11
mode power relative to the fundamental mode LP 01 mode power is reduced to 0.1dB,that is,when
R (λ)=0.1dB.
 Recommended values of λc range from 1100 to 1280nm,to avoid modal noise and dispersion
problems.

9.Signal Degradation in the Optical Fiber

Signal Attenuation

It determines the maximum unamplified or repeaterless distance between transmitter and receiver.

Signal Distortion

• Causes optical pulses broaden.

• Overlapping with neighboring pulses, creating errors in the receiver output.

• It limits the information carrying capacity of a fiber.

Introduction
 The signal transmitting through the fiber is degrade by Two mechanisms
1.Attenuation
2.Dispersion
 Both are important to determine the transmission characteristics of the fiber at operating wavelength.
Attenuation
 Power loss in a fiber cable is probably the most important characteristic of the cable.power loss is often
called as attenuation.
 Attenuation is a measure of decay of signal strength or loss of light power that occurs as light pulses
propagate through the length of the fiber.
 Attenuation has several adverse effects on performance , including reducing the system’s bandwidth,
information transmission rate, efficiency and overall system capacity.
 The standard formula for expressing the total power loss in an optical fiber cable is

A(dB)=10log(pin/pout)

Where, A(dB) –total reduction in power level, attenuation

Pout- Cable output power(Watts)

Pin –Cable input power(Watts)

The basic attenuation mechanisms in a fiber are

1.Absorption

2.Scattering

3.Radiative losses of the optical energy

 Absorption is related to the fiber material and scattering are due to fiber material and with structural
imperfections in the optical waveguide.
 Radiative losses occur whenever an optical fiber undergoes a bend (both microscopic and macroscopic) of
finite radius of curvature.

ATTENUATION UNITS
 As light travels along the fiber , its power decreases exponentially with distance.
 The power at distance z is given by

𝑃 (𝑍) = 𝑃(0)𝑒 −𝛼 pz

Where P(0)-is the optical power in a fiber at origin (z=0) and αp is the fiber attenuation constant(per km) and
given by
 1 𝑃(0)
𝛼𝑝 = 𝑙𝑛 [ ] (𝑘𝑚−1)
𝑧 𝑃(𝑧)

 The attenuation is denoted by α and is given in

the units of dB/km

𝑑𝐵
𝛼[ ]=
𝑘𝑚
10 𝑃(0)
𝑙𝑜𝑔 [ ]
𝑧 𝑃(𝑧)

=4.343αp(km-1)
This parameter is known as fiber loss or fiber attenuation.Attenuation is also a function of wavelength.

ABSORPTION LOSSES
 Absorption losses related to the material composition and fabrication process of fiber.Absorption is caused
by three different mechanisms.
1.Absorption by atomic defects in the glass composition.
2.Extrinsic absorption by impurity atoms in the glass material.
3.Intrinsic absorption by the basic constituent atoms of the fiber material.
 Impurity absorption losses occur either because of electron transition between the energy levels within these
ions or because of charge transition between ions.
 Modern vapour-phase fiber techniques for producing a fiber preformed have reduced the transition-metal
impurity levels by several orders of magnitude.such low impurity levels allow the fabrication of low-loss
fibers.
IMPURITY LOSS DUE TO 1ppm OF ABSORPTION PEAK(nm)
IMPURITY(dB/km)
Iron:Fe2+ 0.68 1100
Copper:Cu2+ 1.1 850
Chromium:Cr2+ 1.6 625
ABSORPTION BY ATOMIC DEFECTS
 Atomic defects are imperfections in the atomic structure of the fiber material such as missing molecules
high-density clusters of atom groups,or oxygen defects in the glass structure.These absorption losses are
negligible compared with the intrinsic and absorption effects.
 The radiation damages in the internal structure of the fiber.The damage effects depend on the energy of the
ionizing particles or rays(eg.electrons,neutrons or gamma rays),the radiation flux(dose rate),and the
fluence(particles per square centimeter)
 The total dose a material receives is expressed in rad(Si),which is a measure of radiaton absorbed in bulk
silicon.This unit is defined as
1𝑟𝑎𝑑(𝑆𝑖 ) = 0.01𝐽/𝑘𝑔
 Attenuation is increased due to ionizing radiations causes attenuation centers that absorbs optical energy.

EXTRINSIC ABSORPTION
 Absorption is due to impurities in the fiber material.

1.Transition metal impurities and

2.OH ions.
 Transition metal impurities

1.Iron,cobalt,chromium,copper and nickel-metal impurities.

2.In ultra low loss fibers from vapour axial deposition(VAD) methods the impurity level ranges from 1 to
10 parts per billion(ppb).The transition metal ions produce losses from 1 to 10 dB/km.This effect of
metallic impurities can be reduced by glass refining techniques.
 3.Impurity absorption losses occur either because of electron transition between energy levels associated
with the incompletely filled inner subshell of these ions or because of charge transition from one ion to
another.
 OH(water)IONS IMPURITIES

1.These OH impurities results from oxy hydrogen flame used for the hydrolysis reaction of the SiCl 4,GeCl4
and POCl3.

2.This type of absorption is reduced by reducing the water content in the fiber around 1ppb , due to this
single – mode fibers have nomial attenuation of 0.5dB/km in the 1300nm window and 0.3dB/km in the 1550nm
window.

INTRINSIC ABSORPTION
 Intrinsic absorption occurs when material is in absolutely pure state with no density variations, impurities
and material in homogeneities.
 Thus intrinsic absorption sets the fundamental overlimit on absorption for any particular material.
 Intrinsic absorption results from electronic absorption bands in the ultra violet region and from atomic
vibration bands near –infrared region.
 ELECTRONIC ABSORPTION
1.The electronic absorption bands are associated with the band gaps of amorphous glass material.
2.Absorption occurs when a photon interacts with an electron in the valence band and excites in to
a higher energy level.
The ultra violet edge of absorption bands of both crystalline and amorphous materials follows the empirical
relationship.
𝐸
𝛼𝑢𝑣 = 𝐶𝑒 𝐸0

Which is known as urbach’s rule.

Where C and E0 are empirical constant and E is the photon energy.

UV absorption decays exponentially with increasing wavelength (λ)

The ultra violet loss at any wavelength is expressed as

4.63
154.2𝑥 [ ]
𝛼𝑈𝑉 = 𝑋10−2𝑒 𝜆
46.6𝑥+60

Where x is mole fraction of GeO 2

Λ is operating wavelength and αUV is in dB /Km

ATOMIC VIBRATION:
 In the near IR(infra red)region above 1.2μm,the optical waveguide loss is determined by presence of the OH
ions and the inherent IR absorption of the constituent material.
 The inherent infra red absorption is associated with the characteristic vibration frequency of the particular
chemical bond between the atoms of which the fiber is composed.
 The inherent IR absorption is due to interaction between the vibrating band and the electromagnetic field of
optical signal this results in transfer of energy from the field to the band,thereby giving rise to
absorption.This absorption is strong because of many bonds present in the fiber.
The loss in infrared(IR)region (above 1.2μm)is given by expression
−48.48
𝛼𝐼𝑅 = 7.81𝑋1011 𝑋𝑒𝑥𝑝 [ ]
𝜆
 The expression is derived for GeO2-SiO2 glass fiber.

Problems: