QUESTIONED DOCUMENT EXAMINATION

CRI 200

DERIVATION OF WORD DOCUMENT.

It from Latin word DOCUMENTUM meaning lesson or example. In Medieval Latin it
means instruction or official paper. It also arrived from the French word “docere” –means
to teach.

DEFINITION OF DOCUMENT / DOCUMENTS.

DOCUMENT:
 Applies to writing, to words printed, lithographed, photographed, to maps or plans,
to seals, plates or even stones in which inscriptions.
 Plural form means deeds, agreements, contracts, title, letters, receipts and other
documents.
 It refers to any material that contains marks, symbols or signs either visible or in
visible that may ultimately convey a meaning or message to someone. Pencil or
ink writing, typewriting or printing on paper are the most usual form of document

QUESTIONED DOCUMENT AND DISPUTED DOCUMENT.

QUESTIONED DOCUMENT
 These are other less violent, more subtle-tools and products of crime. They do
not bruise, batter cut or shed blood, but they are used to steal your money, and
threaten your security, more than guns, knives and pray bars.

DISPUTED DOCUMENT
 A term suggesting that there is an argument or controversy over the document
and strictly speaking this is its true meaning. However, disputed document and
questioned document are employed interchangeably to signify a document that is
under special scrutiny.

Classes of Questioned Documents

 Documents with questioned signatures.
 Questioned documents alleged to have been containing fraudulent alterations.
 Questioned or disputed holographic wills.
a. HOLOGRAPHIC WILL - will entirely written in the handwriting of the testator
b. NOTARIAL WILL - signed by the testator acknowledge before a notary public with 3
witnesses.
 Documents investigated on the question of typewriting.
a. with a view of ascertaining their source
b. with a view of ascertaining their date
c. with a view of determining whether or not they contain fraudulent alterations or
substituted pages.
 Questioned documents on issues of their age or date.
 Questioned documents on issues of materials used in their production.
 Documents or writings investigated because it is alleged that they identify some persons
through handwriting.
a. anonymous and disputed letters, and
b. Superscriptions, registrations and miscellaneous writings.

Classes of Disputed Signatures

 Simple or Spurious
 Traced forgery;
 Copied or simulated forgery;
 Forged signature of fictitious persons;
 Genuine signature that the writer is honestly unwilling to accept as genuine;
 Genuine signature obtained by trickery;
 Genuine signature deliberately written illegibly or in an unusual manner to avoid
identification.

STANDARD DOCUMENT, EXEMPLAR AND HOLOGRAPHIC DOCUMENT;

STANDARD DOCUMENT
-Are condensed and compact set of authentic specimens which, if adequate and proper,
should contain a cross section of the material from a known source.They are used by the
document examiner as the basis of his identification or non-identification of the questioned
document, as for example the known handwriting which serves to establish who wrote the
disputed letter.

STANDARD
-In questioned documents investigation, it means those things whose origins are known and
can be proven and which can be legally used as examples to compare with other matters in
question. Usually, a standard consist of the known handwriting of the person such case,
“standard” has the same meaning as is understood by the word “specimen “ of handwriting.

EXEMPLAR
-A term used by some document examiners and attorneys to characterize known material. Sta
ndard is the older term.

SAMPLE
-A selected representative portion of the whole is known as a sample. In this text, the term "sa
mple" follows closely the statistical usage.

HOLOGRAPHIC DOCUMENT
-A document that completely written and signed by one person, also known as hologarph. In a
number of jurisdiction a holographic will can be probated without any one having witness on its
execution.

KINDS OF DOCUMENT :
1. PUBLIC DOCUMENTS – Instruments notarized by a notary public or competent
officials with solemnities required by law.
2. OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS – Any instruments issued by the government or its agents
or its officers having the authority to do so, and the offices, which in accordance
with their creation they are authorized to issue and be issued in the performance of
their duties.
3. PRIVATE DOCUMENTS - Every deed or instruments executed by a private persons
without the intervention of a notary public or any person legally authorized by which
documents , disposition or agreement is provided evidence or set worth.
4. COMMERCIAL DOCUMENTS – Any instrument executed in accordance with the
Code of Commerce.
5. ELECTRONIC DOCUMENT- exist only in electronic form such as data stored on a
computer, network, archive and other storage media.(RA8792)

DOCUMENT EXAMINER AND THE EXPERT WITNESS

DOCUMENT EXAMINER
 One who studies scientifically the details and elements of documents in order to
identify their source or to discover other facts concerning to these. Document
examiners are often referred to as Handwriting identification Expert, but today the
work has outgrowth this title involves other problems than merely the
examination of handwriting.

EXPERT WITNESS
  A legal term used to describe a witness who by reason of his special technical
training or experience is permitted to express an opinion regarding the issue, or a
certain aspect of the issue, which is involved in a court action. His purpose is to
interpret technical information in his particular specialty in order to assist the
court in administering justice. The document examiner testifies in court as an
expert witness.

IMPORTANT AND RELATED TERMS IN QUESTIONED DOCUMENT

1. GRAPHOLOGY – The art of attempting to interpret the character or personality of

an individual from his handwriting.
2. GRAPHO-ANALYSIS – A form of Graphology commonly practiced in the United
States. It has no relationship to handwriting identification.
3. BIBLIOTICS – Science of handwriting analysis, study of documents and writing
materials to determine its genuineness or authorship.
4. FORENSIC STYLISTICS – Focus on semantics, spelling, word choice syntax and
phraseology.
5. PETROGRAMS – Writings and drawings printed on the surface of the rocks.
6. PETROGLYPHS – Writings or images on the walls of the public area. It most often
prohibited by law.
7. AMBIDEXTROUS – Ability to write with both left and right hand.
8. ANACHRONISM - Something wrong in the time or place. This means that the
forger has trouble matching the paper, ink or writing material to the exact date it was
supposed to have been written. He may use the paper that was not manufactured at
the time the document was supposed to have been written.
9. CACOGRAPHY – Characterized as bad writing.
10. CALLIGRAPHY – The art of beautiful writing.
11. CALCOGRAPHY – Art of drawing with colored chalks or pastels.
12. AGRAPHIA – One loses the ability to write although he could grasp pen or any
writing instrument.
13. PALEOGRAPHY – The study of early writings, old and ancient scripts. It also
focuses on writings done in papyrus, parchment, vellum and others.
14. LITHOGRAPHIC OR OFFSET PRINTING – Printing from a smooth surface, plate
that has been treated so that the printing areas are ink attracting and the non-
printing areas are ink repelling. Originally, this process is used a smooth stone
surface, but today most offset printing is prepared specially treated zinc or paper
plates.
15. REFERENCE COLLECTION – Material compiled and organized by the document
examiner to assist him in answering special questions. Reference collection of
typewriting, check writer specimens, ink, pens, pencils and papers are frequently
maintained.
16. DESKTOP FORGERY – Unwanted forgery of modern technology. Invention of
modern computer software and scanner, document examiners have speculated on
and studied the potentials of machines and materials to facilitate the transfer of
genuine signatures from one document to another.
17. AUTOFORGERY – Defined as forgery of one’s signature created by oneself.
18. QUALIFICATION – The professional experience, education and ability of document
examiner, before he is permitted to testify as an expert witness, the court must rule
that he is qualified expert in his field.
19. QUALITY – A distinct or peculiar character. It is used in describing handwriting to
refer to any identifying factor that is related to the writing movement itself.
20. COLLATION – Critical comparison or side by side examination .
21. COMPARISON – The art of setting two or more items side by side to weigh their
identifying qualities. It implies not only a visual but also a mental act in which the
elements of one item are related to the counterparts of the other.
22. FIST OFF THEORY OF COMPARISON - The act of setting two or more
signatures in an inverted position to weigh their identifying significance, the reason
 being that those fail to see under normal position/ comparison may readily see
through this procedure.
23. EXAMINATION – The art of making a close and critical study of any material ,
and with questioned documents, it is the process necessary two discover the facts
about them. Various types of examinations are undertaken including microscopic,
visual, photographic, chemical, ultra violet and infra- red examinations.
24. CONCLUSION – A scientific results from relating observed facts by logical,
common sense , reasoning in accordance with established rules or laws. The
document examiner’s conclusions are so derived.
25. OPINION – In legal language, the document examiner’s conclusion. Actually, in
court he is not only expresses an opinion but demonstrate the reasons for
arriving at it.
26. NON-IDENTITIFICATION (Non-identity) – as used in this text it means that the
source or authorship of the compared questioned and standard specimens is
different.
27. OBLITERATION - the blotting out or shearing over the writing to make the original
invisible to as an addition.
28. FORENSIC DOCUMENT EXAMINATION – Applies the principles of Science and
Logic to all questioned document problems in order to determine the origin,
authenticity and genuineness.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

PAPER:

 Parchment- writing material made from skin of animals primarily of sheep, calves or goats
– was probably developed in the Middle East more or less contemporaneously with
papyrus. It came into wide use only in the 2nd century B.C. in the city of Pergamum,
Anatolia.
 Vellum- writing materials from fine skins of young calves or kids and the term vellum was
often used for all kinds of parchment manuscripts, it became the most important writing
material for bookmaking, while parchment continued for special manuscripts.
 Papyrus –The origin of word paper discovered by the Egyptian more than 4,000 years ago.
It is the early form of writing surface made from grasses called “reeds”.
 Cailun (Tsai Lun )- it is widely claimed that invention of paper is generally attributed to a
Chinese court official, CAILUN, in about 105 A.D.
 China – made the first paper more than 2000 years ago. Paper was made out of mulberry
tree.
 Nicholas Louis Robert – French inventor who made the first practical paper machine in
1798
 Henry Fourdrinier and Sealy Fourdrinier - produced the first of the machines that bear
their name in 1803

WRITING INSTRUMENT:

PEN - It came from the Latin word "PENNA", meaning feather. A tool for writing or drawing
with a colored fluid, such as ink; or a writing instrument used to apply inks to the paper is a pen.
PEN NIBS - The tow divisions or points which from the writing portion of a pen are its nibs.

 Quill Pens – A hollow, horny part of large feather usually from goose and was used for
writing on parchment. Poland, Germany, Russia and the Netherlands were the largest
producers of quill.
 Lewis Waterman – 1884, A New York insurance agent, patented the first practical
Fountain Pen containing its own ink reservoir. Waterman invented a mechanism that fed
ink to the pen point by capillary action, allowing ink to flow evenly while writing.
 Reed pen/Swamp pen – It came from especially selected water grasses found in Egypt.
  Ball Point Pen – John Loud in 1888, patented the first ball point writing tool. A ball point
pen has in its point a small rotating metal ball that continually inks itself as it turns.
 Fiber Tip Pens – In 1963, fiber tip markers were introduced into the U.S. market and have
since challenged the ball point as the principal writing implement. The first practical fiber tip
pen was invented by YUKIO HORIE of Japan in 1962. It was ideally suited to the strokes
of Japanese writing, which is traditionally done with a pointed ink brush.
 Felt-tip markers – are made of dense natural or artificial fibers impregnated with a dye.
These markers can be cut to a variety of shapes and sizes, some up to an inch in width. A
modification of the ball point pen using a liquid dye fed to a metal/plastic ball was
introduced in the U.S. from Japan in 1973.

INK - is a fluid or viscous marking material used for writing or printing.

1. India inks –oldest form of ink. An ancient writing inks were compounded of lampblack (carbon)
and a gum or glue and were mixed with water used on papyrus and vellum.
2. Iron gallo-tannate ink – is made of gallo tanic acid from the gall nuts.
3. Logwood ink – Ink containing potassium chromate in saturated logwood used since about
1850. It is purple dark color and turns black on the paper and can be washing off chemically.
4. Nigrosine and Aniline inks – it is first manufactured sometime in 1870 derived or made from
a coal tar.
5. Indelible ink. This ink is rarely use in paper because of its permanent heavy ink that
penetrates the paper and cannot be remove at all.
6. Copying inks – similar to writing inks in composition, but in addition contain small amounts of
glycerin or sugar.
7. Stamp-pad ink is a slow evaporating ink that dries in the paper composed of coloring materials
that contains glycerol and glycols.
8. Secret ink or the invisible inks – ink used by spy organizations in sending messages. It is
use to write secret notes or codes. Early secret inks or writing fluids are urine, milk and lemon
juice.
9. Dyestuff Inks – These inks are composed of aqueous solutions of synthetic dyestuffs, to
which a preservative and a flux are added. The writing qualities of the ink are improved by
addition of substances such as glycerol, glucose or dextrin.
10. Water Resistant Writing and Drawing Inks – These inks are special group of dyestuff inks.
They consist of a pigment paste and a solution of shellac made of soluble in water by means of
borax, liquid ammonia or ammonium bicarbonate. Sometimes the pigment suspension is
combined with acid or basic dyestuff.

ALPHABET:

o Iconographs – The first form of written communication started as long as 20,000 years ago,
graphically represented by arranged objects and drawing on the walls of caves and big stones
o Ideographs – are simple drawing such as sticks figures and then iconographic symbols were
combine with ideograph in providing information has started sometime after 3500 BC.
o Pictographic writing – an early systems of writing used pictures to represent things and then
to represent the sounds of those things.
o Hieroglyphics – represents symbols and forms(Egyptians)
o Cuneiform – coined to mean wedge shaped. Considered as the oldest form of writing.(made
of soft clay-Southwest Asia, Sumerians)Latin Alphabet of the Roman Empire was developed in
the first century

The first Latin alphabet consist of 21 Greek letters from the Etruscan alphabet. After 600 years
of changes the Roman alphabet was established
In the first century BC two more Greek symbols were added (“Y” and “Z”). Three Latin letters
were also added (“U”, “W”, and “J”) brought the total to the current 26 letters of the Roman
Alphabet.

Egyptian- Developed three different styles of symbol system:

 1. Hieroglyphics- symbols represents objects and ideas
2. Hieratic- the choice of business and private documents
3. Demotic- a highly cursive form of hieratic
Phoenician- are credited with the spread of the first alphabet
Calligraphy- for book hand forms
Tachygraphy- for document hand forms
Minuscules- small letters in the alphabet
Majuscules – big letters in the alphabet
Paleography – early writings, old ancient scripts ( writings done in papyrus, parchment, vellum
)

1882 – Gilbert Thompson, a railroad builder with the US Geological Survey in New Mexico,
put his own thumbprint on wage chits to safeguard himself from forgeries.

1910 – Albert S. Osborn, an American and arguably the most influential document examiner,
published Questioned Documents. ALBERT S. OSBORNE – Became dominant figures in
Questioned Document during the first half of the twentieth century, began to publish articles
Questioned Document in 1910. Regarded to be the FATHER OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENT.

Various Aspect of Questioned Document Examination

1. Examination of Handwriting (which involves signature) and hand printing for purposes of
determining their genuineness or source.
2. Miscellaneous aspects such as detection of alteration, decipherment of erased writing,
restoration of obliterated writing, determination of age of documents, identification of
stamps, seal and other authenticating devices, currency bills and coins and the like.

EQUIPMENTS AND APPARATUSSES USED IN THE EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONE

D DOCUMENTS.

1. STEREOSCOPIC MICROSCOPE - A kind of microscope which gives a three (3)

dimensional enlargement of objects. It use in the following aspect
a. Discover the defects in stroke structure and typewriting,
b. Discover overlapping of line,
c. Un even distribution of ink,
d. Overwriting
e. An ink line crossing a fold,
f. Fraudulent addition and interlineation,
g. Erasures and pencil outline of forged signatures.
2. VIDEO SPECTRAL COMPARATOR ( VSC ) - It is use in the examination of masked
or obliterated text, watermarks, visible fluorescence, paper fluorescence and
oblique illumination of indented writing and embossing features, intaglio script. It
also detects variation in the infra – red characteristics of inks.
3. ELECTROSTATIC DETECTION APPARATUS (ESDA) – It detects indentation /
indented writings. It records the transparencies of any indentations.
4. COMPARISON MICROSCOPE - A kind of microscope especially constructed so
as to facilitate side by side strongly of microscopic details.
5. INFRA – RED IMAGE COMPARISON MICROSCOPE - It provides instant
comparison of inks and their ability to absorb or reflect infra – red light.

6. SHADOWGRAPH - A machine which enlarges small minute detail as much as

20x but with no pieces, as in the microscope. It facilitates examination of
handwriting and typewriting.
7. CAMERA - Consists of a light tight box designed to hold the photographic film.
It is equipped with a lenses system by which the image is found on the film
and a shutter device by which the desired light is admitted to expose the film. The
following are the uses of the camera;
 a. all the detailed characteristics of a handwriting can be clearly
interpreted,
b. accurate reproductions may afford un limited opportunities for strongly
comparison and investigation.
c. Un even distribution of ink in re-touching can be visible,
d. Supplements the microscope by recording what is seen by the
magnifying lens,
e. Enlarges the erased portion,
f. Photographed can be cut apart as maybe deniable and various part
classified for comparison,
g. Signatures are enlarged in preparation of comparison chart for court
presentation wherever, the examiner render expert opinion.
8. INDERICT LIGHTING EQUIPMENT ( OBLIQUE LIGHTING ) - An equipment
with controlled illumination. The document is viewed with the source of
illumination behind it and the light coming through the paper. It use for the
following;
a. for indented writing - deciphering of letters and word ,
b. examination of erased entries in documents ,
c. When viewing watermarks and other element of characters in the
documents which her fluorescence quality .
9. ULTRA – VIOLET LIGHT - the exposure of a document to ultra – violet light is
useful in consists of several pages and substitution is being suspected. The
color and intensity of fluorescence reaction is very apparent in case of a
substituted page. Mechanical and chemical erasures will certainly change the
reflectivity and fluorescence of the area affected.
10. TYPEWRITING MEASURING PLATE - It measures the number of characters
and letters in typewriter.
11. TYPE ANGLE MEASUREMENT - It measures the angle or degrees of mal –
alignment in horizontal of typewriter.
12. PAPER THICKNESS GAUGE - It measures the thickness of paper .
13. MICROMETER CALIPER - It use for some paper examinations and comparison.
14. HAND LENS - A convenient instrument which aides in examination of almost all
questioned document as it enlarger the size of the letter or character.

The Study of Handwriting

Basic Terms In Handwriting

1. Writing- is the result of a very complicated series of acts, being as a whole a combination
of certain forms, which are the very visible result of mental and muscular habits, acquired
by long, continued, painstaking effort.

2. Handwriting – (as further defined in Wigmore’s Principles of Judicial Proof) is a visible

effect of bodily movements, which is an almost unconscious expression of certain ideas
associated with script form.

3. System of Writing – is the combination of basic design of letters and writing movements
as taught in school.

4. Natural Writing – any specimen of writing executed normally without any attempt to
control or alters its identifying habits and its usual quality of execution.

5. Disguised Writing – a writing in which the writer deliberately try to alter his usual writing
habits in hope of hiding his identity.

6. Signature – one’s name written by himself on a document as a sign of acknowledgement.

7. Documentary evidence is any evidence introduced at a trial in the form of documents.
Although this term is most widely understood to mean writings on paper (such as an
invoice, a contract or a will), the term actually include any media by which information can
be preserved. Photographs, tape recordings, films, and printed emails are all forms of
documentary evidence.

8. Charred Document- It is a partially damaged document.

9. Document Examiner- A person conducting examination of documents to prove the falsity

and or authenticity.

10. Expert Witness- A witness in court to give an opinion upon recognition of his qualifications
as to knowledge, skills, training or experience.

11. Standard Specimen- A specimen considered as authentic or genuine and generally

accepted.

a) Collected Standard- A type of standard specimen being procured by circumstances

for comparison to questioned specimen.

b) Requested Standard- A type of standard specimen obtained upon request for

comparison to questioned specimen.

12. Authentic- The term is used in two senses. It is applied first to a book or document whose
contents are invested with a special authority, in virtue of which the work is called authentic.
In its second sense it is used as a synonym for “genuine”, and therefore means that a work
really emanates from the author to whom it is ascribed

13. Original Copy- It is the first copy of the document to be the source for reproduction.

14. Duplicate Copy- It is a document as product of reproduction.

15. Exemplars – refers to specimen standards or disputed document which has been used for
comparison.

16. Legible Handwriting- It is a handwriting execution that can be read.

17. Illegible Handwriting- It is a handwriting execution that cannot be read.

18. Guided or Assisted Handwriting- It is the execution of handwriting by hand-assistant of

another person.

19. Conscious Handwriting- It is a type of handwriting execution as product curiosity.

20. Unconscious Handwriting- It is a handwriting execution derived from mastery of the

pattern

21. Alteration – refers to any form of changes be it an addition or a deletion to the original
contents of a document.

22. Blank Papers – a sheet of paper which contains no visible or readily visible writing. At
times it might only contain certain depressed mark or latent writing that can be made
legible with proper treatment.

23. Examination – is the act of making a close or a critical study of any material so as to
discover facts about them.
 24. Decipherment – refers to the process of making clear or out of what is otherwise illegible
or what has been effaced.

25. Efface – refers to the act of rubbing out or erasing or removing something from the
document. It is also called as erasure, which can be accomplished either mechanically or
chemically.

26. Restoration – it refers to the process by which an erased writing is developed or brought
out again on the surface of the document itself.

27. Safety paper – Refers to a document which is treated in such way as to minimize changes
of forgery by erasure. ( EX. A check that contains minute designs forming a pattern ).

28. Wrong Handed Writing – Any writing executed with the opposite hand from that normally
used, this is one means of disguise.

29. Writing Habit – is any repeated elements or details that may serve to individualize writing.

30. Significant Writing Habit – this term is applied to any characteristics of handwriting which
is sufficiently unique and well-fixed to serve as fundamental point in the identification.

31. Loose writing - this is characterized by too much freedom of movement and lack of
regulation. This is noticed especially in tall letters forms.

32. Restrained writing - there is lack of freedom and inhibited movements. It gives you the
impression that every stroke was made with great difficulty. This writing is small.
There is distortion of letter forms which may lead to illegibility.

Characteristics: Class Characteristics and Individual Characteristics.

Characteristics – is any property or mark which distinguishes and in questioned document

examination commonly refers to identifying details.

KINDS OF HANDWRITING CHARACTERISTICS

1. Common/ Class Characteristics

They are those which conformed to the general style acquired when learning to write and
which is fashionable at the particular time and place. It is the style taught to the child in school
or by the parents. Not all characteristics encountered is document examination are peculiar to
a single or thing but rather common to a group.

EXAMPLE OF COMMON CHARACTERISTICS

a. ordinary copy book form

b. usual systematic slant
c. ordinary scale of proportion and ratio
d. conventional spacing

2. Individual or Personal Characteristics

Are those introduced into the handwriting, consciously or unconsciously by the

writer. They are highly personal or peculiar and are unlikely to occur in other
instances. This class of characteristics are acquires either by:

a. outgrowth of definite teaching

b. result of imitation
 c. accidental condition or circumstances
d. expression of certain mental and physical traits of the writer as affected by
education, environment and by occupation.

EXAMPLES OF INDIVIDUAL OR PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS

a. hook to the right and hook to the left

b. shape, position, size and angle of “i” dots and “t” crossing
c. indiosyncracies
d. buckle and distinctive initial and final pen pressure
e. embellishment, added strokes and free movement
f. conventional spacing
g. abbreviation of letters
h. simple and compound curves and graceful endings
i. labored movement producing ragged lines
j. terminal shadings and forceful endings
k. presence of and influence of foreign handwriting

Development of Handwriting

The following are the different steps in the development of person’s handwriting:

Step No. 1
– When the person first begins to learn the art of handwriting, penmanship copybook
form or blackboard illustration of the different letters is placed before him. His first step is one
of the imitations only or a process of drawing. Painstaking, laborious and slow copying of the
letter forms. The forms of each letter at first occupy the focus of his attention.
Step No. 2
– As the person progresses, the matter of forms recedes, and the focus of attention is
centered on the execution of various letters, that is, they are actually writing instead of drawing.
Step No. 3
– The manual operation in the execution of letters, after more progress, is likewise soon
relegated to the subjective mind and the process of writing becomes more or less automatic.
As the person attains maturity in writing by many repetitions, writing becomes an unconscious
coordinated movement that produces a record. Attention is no longer given to the process of
writing itself because the subject matter to be written now occupies the focus of attention.
The manner in which writing is produced is shown by itself, that is, the appearance of
the writing strokes will indicate where attention was focused in the writing process. Where the
writing is more or less automatic or unconscious, as attention was focused on the subject
matter and not on the writing process itself, the careless abandon in the writing process will be
shown by free, coordinated strokes. On the other hand, a forgery of simulated or copied class
is produced by a method similar to that employed by a person learning how to write (pupil in
following a copy).

Groups of muscles which function in the act of writing.

 extensor muscles pushes up the pen to form the upward stroke
 flexor muscles which pushes the pen to form the downward strokes.
 lumbrical muscles – combined the this flexor and extensor muscles to form the lateral
strokes.

Generally speaking, four groups of muscles are employed in writing. Those which
operate the joints of the fingers, wrist, elbow and shoulder. The delicate way in which the
various muscles used in writing work together to produce written forms is known as “motor
coordination.”

MOVEMENT IN HANDWRITING
 A. KINDS OF MOVEMENT
1. Finger Movement - the thumb, the first, second and slightly the third fingers are in
actual motion. Most usually employed by children and illiterates.
2. Hand Movement - produced by the movement or action of the whole hand with the
wrist as the center of attraction.
3. Forearm Movement - the movement of the shoulder, hand and arm with the
support of the table.
4. Whole Forearm Movement - action of the entire arm without resting. i.e.,
blackboard writing.

Recognition of Writing Characteristics

Following are the writing characteristics commonly involved in the examination of handwriting:

A. Form – This refers to the shape or design of the individual letters.

B. Slope or Slant – It is an angle or inclination of the axis of letters relative to the baseline.
C. Size – Size as a writing characteristics is somewhat divergent under varying condition and
may have but little significant when applied to only one example, or to a small quantity of
writing like a signature unless the divergence is very pronounced.
D. Proportion – refers to the relative height of one letter to another letter. Proportion of letters
is one of the hidden features of writing. It is being unknown even to the writer.
E. Ratio – is the relationship between the tall and short letters.
 Short – letters written entirely between the lines. Ex. a, c, e, I, m, n, o, r, s, u, v, w and x.
 Tall – letters with upper or lower loops or other projected portions. Ex. b, d, f, g, h, j, l, p,
t, y and z.
F. Connecting Strokes – this refers to the strokes of links that connects a letter with the one
following. It classified as angular, elliptical or oblong, and circular or rounded.
G. Initial Strokes – it is the beginning strokes of a letter or words.
H. Terminal Strokes – it is the ending strokes of a letter or of words.
I. “When a letter, word or name (signature) is completed in a free, natural writing, the pen is
usually raised from the paper while in motion with a “flying finish” (or what is also referred
to as “vanishing”, “tapering” or “flourishing” terminal strokes) and with many writers, the
motion of the pen also slightly precedes the putting of the pen on the paper at the
beginning with a “flying start” so that the strokes at the beginning and end of words
gradually diminish or taper to a “vanishing point.”
J. Pen-Lift – It is an interruption in a stroke caused by removing the pen from the paper.
Pen-lift or disconnections between letters and letter combinations are maybe due to lack of
movement control.
K. Hiatus – It is a gap between strokes due to speed in writing or defective writing
instruments.
L. Lateral Spacing – It is the distance of letter in a word or of words in a sentence. It is
considered as a common characteristic when it conforms to the ordinary copy-book-form.
M. Shading – It is the widening of the ink strokes with increase pressure on the paper surface.
It is due to the spitting of the pen-nib resulting in the widening of the ink lines, as controlled
by the variation in pen pressure. The consistent variation in width due to the variation in
pressure of fine and delicate lines is more specifically referred to as “unconscious
emphasis”.
N. Line Quality – It is the visible records in the written stroke of the basic movement and
manner of holding the writing instrument. This quality of the visible record is derived from a
combination of factors including writing skills speed, rhythm, shading, pen pressure, pen
position and freedom of movement. It is the overall character of the written strokes from
initial to the terminal.
O. Alignment – It is the relation of the parts of the whole line of writing or line of individual
letters in words or signature to the baseline. In general, a signature is written in a more
florid style and often associated with greater degree of misalignment of the letters.
Persistent errors in the alignment of letters in a signature often considered individual
characteristics.
P. Rhythm – It is the balance quality of movements of the harmonious recurrence of stress or
impulse. It is the flowing succession of motion that is recorded in a written record.
Q. Writing Skill – is the relative degree of ability of a writer’s proficiency. Writing skills
dependent upon many factors, manual dexterity being the most important of them. Manual
dexterity is either inherent or acquired.
R. Pen pressure – It is the average force in which the pen contacts the paper or the usual
force involved in the writings. Pen pressure is one of the most personal but somewhat
hidden characteristics in writing. Pen pressure more accurately describes the proportion of
strokes to each other in width as affected by shading and by unconscious emphasis.
S. Tremor – it is a deviation from uniform strokes due to lack of smoothness perfectly
apparent even without magnification.
*Vertical Tremor – is the involuntary up and down movements or changing pressure which
produces a line of varying width or intensity as the pressure is suddenly increased or
diminished.

Kind of tremor:
*Genuine tremors such as:
i. tremor of age; ii. tremor of illiteracy; iii. tremor of weakness;
*Tremor of fraud

T. Natural Variation – it is due to lack of machine like precision of the human hand. It is also
caused by external factors, such as the writing instrument and the writing position, physical
and mental conditions such as fatigue, intoxication, illness, nervousness and the age of the
writer, and the quantity of the writing prepared in the course of time.
U. Rubric or Embellishment – It is the additional, unnecessary strokes, not necessary to
legibility of letter forms or writings but incorporated in writing for decorative or ornamental
purposes.

CLASSES OF HANDWRITING

CURSIVE WRITING - is any style of handwriting which is design for writing down notes and
letters by hand. It is connected writings or letters are jointly connected.

SCRIPT WRITING - Any disconnected style of writing in which each letter is written
separately is a form of hand lettering or printing. It is combination of capital and small letters.

BLOCK - Disconnected style of writing and purely capital letter.

Common Terms and Description of Letters

1. Arc or Arch – any arcade form in the body of the letter.

2. Beard – a rudimentary curved initial strokes.
3. Blunt Ending or Beginning – blunt ending and initial strokes are results of the drawing
process in forgery.
4. Buckle Knot – the horizontal and looped strokes that are often use to complete such
letters.
5. Central Part of the Body – the part of a letter ordinarily formed by a small circle that
usually lies on the line of writing.
6. Eye loop or Eye let – the small loop formed by strokes that extend in divergent direction.
7. Foot of the Letter or Oval – the lower portion of any down stroke which terminated on the
baseline.
8. Diacritic – an element added to complete certain letters.
9. Hitch – the introductory backward strokes added to the beginning or ending of capital or
small letters.
10. Hook or Trough – the bend, crook or curve on the inner side of the bottom loop or curve of
small letter.
11. Hump – the rounded outside of the bend, crook, or curve in small letters.
12. Spur – short, horizontal beginning strokes.
13. Knob – rounded appearance at the beginning or ending strokes.
14. Main Stroke or Shank Stem – downward strokes of any letter.
15. Whirl – the upward strokes usually on letters that have long loops.
16. Space Filler or Terminal Spur – an upward horizontal or downward final stroke usually
seen in small letters.
17. Retrace or Retracing – a stroke that goes back over another writing stroke.
18. Retouching or Patching – a stroke that goes back to repair a defective portion of writing.
19. Staff – backspace of a letter.
20. Baseline – rules of imaginary line where the writing rest.
21. Copybook Form – design of letter, which is fundamental to a writing system.
22. Pen Emphasis – it is the periodic increase in pressure of intermittently forcing the pen
against the paper surface with increase pressure.
23. ASCENDER - is the top portion of a letter or upper loop.
24. BOWL - a fully rounded oval or circular form on a letter complete into "O".
25. DESCENDER - opposite of ascender, the lower portion of a letter.

TECHNIQUES IN THE EXAMINATION OF QUESTIONED DOCUMENTS

MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION - Any examination or study which is made with the

microscope in order to discover minute physical details. Stereoscopic examination with low
and high power objectives is used to detect retouching, patching and unnatural pen-lift in
signature analysis. With proper angle and intensity or illumination, it aids in
the decipherment of erasures, some minute manipulations not perfectly pictured to the unaided
eye and the sequence of entries done by different writing instruments.

TRANSMITTED LIGHT EXAMINATION – In this examination, the document is viewed with the
source of illumination behind it and the light passing through the paper. Documents
are subjected to this type of examination to determine the presence of erasures, matching
of serrations and some other types of alterations.

OBLIQUE LIGHT EXAMINATION - An examination with the illumination so controlled that it

grazes or strikes the surface of the document from one side at a very low angle.
Decipherment of faded handwriting, determination of outlines in traced forgery, embossed
impressions, etc. are subjected to this type of examination.

PHOTOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION - This type of examination is very essential in every

document examination. Actual observations are recorded in the photographs.

ULTRA-VIOLET EXAMINATION - Ultraviolet radiation is invisible and occurs in the wave

lengths just below the visible blue-violet end of the spectrum (rainbow). These visible rays
react on some substances so that visible light is reflected, a phenomenon known as
FLOURESCENCE. This type of examination is done in a darkroom after the lamp has been
warmed up in order to give a maximum output of the ultra-violet light. Exposure to the ultra-
violet light should be to the minimum duration in order to avoid fading of some writing ink and
typewriter ribbon.

INFRARED EXAMINATION - This examination of documents employs invisible radiation

beyond the red portion of the visible spectrum (rainbow) which is usually recorded on a
specially sensitized photographic emulsion.

The examination of questioned document falls into two broad classes:

I. Criminalistic Examination – for the detection of forgeries, alterations and obliter
ations.
II. Handwriting Identification – this is to find out who is the author of the writing.
 The Criminalistic Examination of questioned document is similar to other kinds of
laboratory work. Dr. Wilson Harrison, the noted British Examiner of questioned document says
that an intelligent police investigator can detect almost 75% of all of his magnifiers and
measuring tools. The examination of document in the criminalistics laboratory is also a
scientific procedure which can be learned in a very short time.

Handwriting identification on the other hand is a more difficult procedure and requires a
long study and experience. Because we recognize the handwriting of other person fairly, easily
we think that it is a simple matter to detect forgery in handwriting. This is not true. The problem
is that no person ever writes a letter exactly the same every time. The handwriting experts
have to learn differences of form and structure by a sort of intuition, which is not easy to
reduce to a science. For this reason, the police investigator or the laboratory criminalist should
confine his work to the detection of forgeries and erasures and leave the identification of
handwriting to a more qualified document expert.

Scientific Handwriting Examination consists of three essential phases namely:

1. Recognition of characteristics (analysis)

2. Complete comparison of all characteristics
3. Correct interpretation of characteristics (evaluation)

The document examiner strives constantly for objectivity and the avoidance of personal bias. A
scientific method consists of the following processes.

Process in Scientific Method of Examination

1. Analysis – properties or characteristics are observed, measured and determined.
2. Comparison – properties or characteristics of the unknown items determined thru analysis
are now compared with the familiar or recorded properties of known items.
3. Evaluation – similarities or dissimilarities in property or characteristics that have certain
value for identification is determined by its likelihood or occurrence.

The examination involves, therefore, the recognition, complete comparison and correct
interpretation or evaluation of the handwriting.

CRITERION FOR SCIENCE

ACCURACY - Refers to the correspondence between results obtained and the truth.
PRECISION - A measure of the consistency of results obtained in repeated study or exp
erimentation.

PRINCIPLES INVOLVED IN HANDWRITING IDENTIFICATION

1. “No two writers write exactly alike”

2. “The physical writing condition and position of the person including its writing instrument
may affect the handwriting characteristics but it does not confine with all its identifying
elements.”
3. “A writer cannot exceed his maximum writing ability or skill without serious effort and
training applied over a period of time (Ordway Hilton, 1958).”
4. “The combination of handwriting characteristics included those derived from form and
writing movements is essential elements of identification.”
5. “Individuality in handwriting can only determine through comparative examination with the
standard written or prepared under comparable condition.”
6. Similarity does not mean identity
7. Complete identity means definite forgery (Hanna Sulner)
8. A) “A sufficient number of identical writing habits and identical primary controlling
characteristics and in addition the absence of divergent characteristics will lead to the
conclusion of identical writing (Hanna Sulner).”
 B) “A sufficient number of divergent writing characteristics and the absence of identical
primary controlling characteristics will lead to the conclusion of different writing (Hanna Sulner).”

SIGNATURES

I. Identification of Signatures
The identification or the so-called “verification” of signature is a specialized branch of
handwriting examination for the following reasons:
 A signature is a word most practice by many people and therefore most fluently written;
 A signature is a means to identify a person and have a great personal significance;
 A signature is written with little attention to spelling and some other details;
 A signature is a word written without conscious thought about the mechanics of its
production and is written automatically.
 A signature is the only word the illiterate can write with confidence;

Elements which constitute general form of signature:

a. design of letters
b. slant of letters
c. relative size of capitals, single space small letters and those which follow the
baseline or above the height of a single space
d. ornamentation or flourishes ( embellishments )
e. simplification of form
f. arrangement of different parts of the signature with respect to the balance of its
strokes

Characteristics of a Genuine Signature

 Degree of Skill
 Firmness of Strokes
 Habitual Speed of Writing
 Fundamental Muscular Movement
 Pattern of Shading and Pen Emphasis;
 Presence of Natural Variation
 Coordination, continuity and rhythmic in writing;
 Carelessness in strokes and movement.

STYLES OR KINDS OF SIGNATURE

1. CONVENTIONAL SIGNATURE - Legible or readable.

2. HIGHLY INDIVIDUAL (INDIVIDUALIZED ) SIGNTURE - Series of intertwining
strokes, ornamentation and flourishes .

THREE (3) CLASSES OF SIGNATURES

1. FORMAL SIGNATURE - Complete, correct signature for an important document/s.

2. INFORMAL SIGNATURE - Signature for routine documents and personal
correspondence
a) Personalized
b) Semi-personalized

3. CARELESS SCRIBBLE - For the mail carrier, delivery boy, or the autograph collector.

SIGNIFICANT TERMS

A. CROSS MARK. Historically, many who could not write signed with a cross mark or crude
X. This authenticating mark is still used today by illiterates, and if properly witnessed, it
can legally stand for a signature. Ballot marks are also referred to as cross marks
 because of the common practice of marking with an X.
B. EVIDENTIAL SIGNATURE - Is not simply a signature - it is a signature, signed at a
particular time and place, under particular conditions, while the signer was at particular
age, in a particular physical and mental condition, using particular implements, and with a
particular reason and purpose for recording his name.
C. FRAUDULENT SIGNATURE. A forged signature. It involves the writing of a name as a
signature by someone other than the person himself, without his permission, often with
some degree of imitation.
D. FREEHAND SIGNATURE. A fraudulent signature that was executed purely by simulation
rather than by tracing the outline of a genuine signature.
E. GUIDED SIGNATURE. A signature that is executed while the writer’s hand or arm is
steadied in any way. Under the law of most jurisdictions such a signature authenticates a
legal document provided it is shown that the writer requested the assistance. Guided
signatures are most commonly written during a serious illness or on a deathbed.

a. Imitated Signature. Synonymous with freehand forgery.

b. Model Signature. A genuine signature that has been used to prepare an imitated or
traced forgery.
c. THEORY OF COMPARISON - The act of setting two or more signature in an inverted
position to weigh their identifying significance, the reason being that those we fail to see
under normal comparison may readily be seen under this theory.

FORGERY – it is committed by any person who with intent to defraud, signed the name of
another person, or of a fictitious person knowing that he has no authority to do so, or falsely
makes alters, forges, or counterfeit any check, draft, due-bill for the payment of money or
property, or counterfeits or forges the seal or handwriting of another knowing the same to be
fake, altered or forged or counterfeit with intent to prejudice, damage or defraud any person.

Forgery is, strictly speaking, a legal term which involves not only a non-genuine
document but also and intent to fraud. However, it is also used synonymously with fraudulent
signature or spurious document

HOW FORGERY IS COMMITTED UNDER ART 168 OF REVISED PENAL CODE

(RPC )

A.) By giving a treasury or bank note or any instrument payable to the bearer
mentioned therein, the appearance of a true and genuine document.
B.) By erasing, substituting, counterfeiting or altering by any means the figures ,
words or signs contained therein.

ELEMENTS OF FORGERY
1. It must be shown that writing was falsely made or altered. It must be shown by the
document examiner by comparison of signature with the true signature which it
purports to be. The forged instrument itself should be produced.
2. Legal Liability - the signatures of writing must be in a nature which would, if
genuine, impose a legal liability on another or changes his legal rights or liability
to his prejudice.
3. Identity of the Forger - it must be shown that it was the accused who falsely
made or altered the writing or who knowingly offered or issued the false
instruments.
4. Intent to Defraud – intent to defraud another must be shown. It need not be directed
to a particular person or for advantages of the offender. The intent can be inferred
from the act. It must be shown that the suspect knew that the instrument /
document / bank note he is offering are forgery.

FORGERY, COUNTERFEITING AND FALSIFICATION

COUNTERFEITING - It is the crime of making, circulating or uttering false coins and
banknotes. Literally, it means to make a copy of; or imitate; to make a spurious semblance of,
as money or stamps, with the intent to deceive or defraud. Counterfeiting is something made
to imitate the real thing used for gain.

FALSIFICATION – The act/process of making the content/s of a document not the intended
content.

FORGERY – The act of falsely making or materially altering, with intent to defraud, any writing
which if genuine, might be of legal efficacy or the foundation of a legal liability.

KINDS OF FORGERY

1. Simple forgery (Spurious signature) - Forged signature without the attempt to copy a
genuine model, this kind of forgery is easily detected as fraudulent in view of the fact
that is widely different from the genuine or even in general appearance alone.

MODEL SIGNATURE – a genuine signatures that has been used to prepare an imitated or
traced forgery.

2. Traced Forgery – This means following the outline of genuine signatures. This are
generally created by one of four methods; transmitted light, carbon intermediate,
pressure indented image, and tracing paper technique.
a. DIRECT TRACING - tracing is made by transmitted light.
b. INDIRECT TRACING - forger uses a carbon paper and place document on which
he will trace the forged signature under the document bearing the model signature
with a carbon paper between the two.

KINDS OF TRACED FORGERY

I. CARBON PROCESS (CARBON OUTLINE) – It denotes that the forgery interleaves a

carbon paper between the genuine signatures (top sheet) and the document intended to
be forged (bottom sheet). The outline of the model or genuine signatures is traced with a
dry pen or any sharp pointed instrument with considerable pressure to make a carbon out
line on the fraudulent document.
II. INDENTATION PROCESS – is that type whereby indentations of canal-like outlines of the
genuine signatures is produced by the fraudulent document (bottom sheet) by tracing the
outline of the genuine signatures (top sheet) with considerable pressure with any sharp
pointed instrument. The indented first retraced with pencil very lightly before it is finally
“inked-in”.
III. TRANSMITTED LIGHT PROCESS – fraudulent document is placed immediately above
the genuine document (signature) and with strong light directed through the two super
imposed sheets of paper from under with transparent glass used as writing surface, the
outline which is seen thru the upper sheet is then traced with any suitable writing
instrument.

3. SIMULATED FORGERY (FREE-HAND FORGERY) – An act of simulating or imitating

the genuine signatures. It used by forgers who have a certain skill in writing, after some
practice, the forger tries to write a copy of the model quickly.
a. DIRECT TECHNIQUE - forger works directly with ink.
b. INDIRECT - forger works first with pencil and afterwards covers the pencil strokes
with ink.

Some of the Methods Used For Illustrations And Demonstrations of Traced Forgeries:

a. Photographing of the signature and the making of prints on transparent films so that
they may easily be superimposed.
 b. Photographing of the signature under transparent glass carrying uniform ruled squares
so that all parts maybe compared by inspection.
c. Photographing or printing by photography of the signature as composites, or one over
the other, with all identical superimposed.
d. Photographic reproduction of the signature with various lines drawn over the
photographs representing identical measurement.
e. Photographing of the signature with a superimposed transparent rule showing exact
measurement of position of various parts and especially of beginning point.
f. Illustration of identity by actual measurements of the original various points.
g. Getting apart and matching together in various ways and parts of different photographs
of signatures showing the unnatural uniformity.
h. Direct superimposition of the original by transmitted light at the window or over an
appropriate artificial light.

SUGGESTED STEPS IN THE EXAMINATION OF SIGNATURE:

The difference between a layman’s observation and those with special training in signature
verification lies on the fact that the former is much concerned with the obvious and gross
features in the signature while the latter makes an exhaustive study of the minute details.

STEP 1 - Place the questioned and the standard signatures in the juxta-position or slide-by-
side for simultaneous viewing of the various elements and characteristics.
STEP 2 - The first element to be considered is the handwriting movement or the manner of
execution (slow, deliberate, rapid, etc). The fundamental difference existing between a
genuine signature and an almost perfect forgery is in the manner of execution.
STEP 3 - Second elements to examine is the quality of the line, the presence or tremors,
smooth, fluent or hesitation. Defect in line quality is only appreciated when simultaneous
viewing is made.
STEP 4 - Examine the beginning and ending lines, they are very significant, determine whether
the appearance blunt, club-shaped, tapered or/vanishing.
STEP 5 - Design and structure of the letters - Determine as to roundness, smoothness,
angularity and direction. Each individual has a different concept of letter design.
STEP 6 - Look for the presence of retouching or patching.
STEP 7 - Connecting strokes, slant, ratio, size, lateral spacing.
STEP 8 - Do not rely so much in the similarity or difference of the capital letters, for theses are
the often changed according to the whim of the writer.

Classification of Movements
1. As to quality
a. clumsy, illiterate and halting d. hesitating and painful due to weakness and illness
b. strong, heavy and forceful e. nervous and irregular
c. smooth, flowing and rapid

2. As to speed
a. slow and drawn b. average c. deliberate d. rapid

Indication of Speed and Rapidness in Writing

a. smooth, unbroken strokes e. misplaced and misshaped I=dots and t-crosses
b. joining of initials or of words f. letters tapered illegibly towards end of words
c. wide writing and spacing g. mark difference in pressure on up and down stroke
d. simplification of letters especially in capitals

Indication of Slowness in Writing

a. Broken strokes and wavy lines e. I-dots and t-crosses made and placed perfectly
b. Carefully made final and spacing f. Pauses unnecessary marks and angles retouching
c. Narrow writing and spacing g. Little difference in pressure on up and down strokes
d. Ornamentals of flourishing letters
Evidence of Naturalness in Writing
a. a general rhythmic writing throughout
b. smooth, unbroken strokes in writing
c. finely tapered strokes both at the beginning and ending of letters
d. tendency towards illegibility especially towards end of signature or other words indicating
great speed

Primary Signs of Forgery

a. slow, broken strokes and wavy lines
b. unnecessary retouching or patching
c. lack of difference in pressure on up and down strokes
d. blunt starting and ending strokes
e. meaningless markings and dots caused by a false start
f. shading in more than one direction caused by an effort to imitate line, which by twisting the
pen rather than varying the pressure or imitating pen hold.

PREPARATION OF STANDARDS AND CARE HANDLING OF DOCUMENTS

PREPARATION OF STANDARD FOR COMPARISON

“Standard” – refers to those things whose origin are known and can be proven and which can
be legally used as samples to compare with other matters in questioned.

In handwriting identification, “standard of comparison” or what is commonly referred to as

“basis of comparison” consists of known authenticated writing of a person.

A comparative examination of a questioned signature or writing is made with the standard of

comparison in arriving at a conclusion or an opinion as to the genuineness or authorship
of the questioned matter.

A positive opinion on the genuineness or identity of writing is not given or reached unless an
adequate and appropriate standard writing for comparison is supplied.

The determination as to whether the standards of comparison are adequate and appropriate is
to be made at the stage of a preliminary examination of a questioned document.

As a basic requirement, the standard of comparison must contain appropriately prepared

material or writing so as to indicate not only the individual writing characteristics of the
writer but also the usual variations in these habits from one writing to the other.

The standard of comparison need not embody all the innumerable characteristics of the
person’s writing but only those which would occur in material exactly like that in
questioned or disputed.

CLASSES OF HANDWRITING STANDARDS

1. COLLECTED STANDRDS ( EXEMPLARS ) – Known signature of a person written in

the course of his daily life, business, social or personal affairs such as signatures an
endorsements on cancelled checks, commercial, official or public and private
documents.
2. REQUESTED EXEMPLARS OR STANDARDS – Are signatures or other writings
written by an individual upon the request of the investigator for the purposes of
comparison with other handwritings, hand printing and signature.
3. POST LITEM MOTAM EXEMPLARS – Writings produced by the subject after
evidential writings have come into disputes and solely for the purpose of establishing
his contentions.
 BASIC POINTS THAT SHOULD BE CONSIDERED IN OBTAINING STANDARDS

A. Procured or Collected Standard

1. Amount of standard writing available: There is no fixed rule as to the definite number of
standards that maybe considered adequate or sufficient.

Experience shows, however, that at least seven stands usually constitute sufficient amount of
these standards, but effort should not be made merely to comply with this minimum
requirement, but as much as possible, more should be procured, for as a rule, 10 is better than
7, 15 is better than ten and 20 is better than 15. More standard provide a wider field for
selection of the more appropriate standards.

2. Similarity of subject matter: As a rule, like things must be compared.

A signature cannot be compared with an extended writing, neither a cursive writing with a
block (or hand-lettered or hand-printed) writing, or an extended or conventional (lay hand)
writing with block writing.

Therefore, a signature should be compared with a signature, extended writing with an

extended writing and so on.

3. Relative date of the questioned signature or writing with the standards: The standard
must be those executed or affixed on documents with dates contemporaneous with, or close to
the date of the questioned. The best standards are those made on dates, which comes a
period of before, about and after the date of the questioned. In some cases, where the
standards do not show radical changes or variations in few years, writing made to years before
or after the date of the questioned may prove appropriate as standards.

4. Conditions under which known writing or signature is prepared: Serious illness,

intoxication, haste, lack of care or an unnatural writing position as resting the paper on knee or
magazine or back held with the other hand or writing while riding on a moving vehicle may
introduce variations in writing which may render such writing not appropriate or unsuited
standard for comparison with more carefully written material.

Writing made under such unusual or unnatural conditions should not be solely the basis of
comparative examination of a writing made or done in a normal condition or position.

The main difficulty encountered in a comparative examination of questioned writing under

unusual condition is that there are no available standards written under similar conditions.

5. Kinds of instrument and paper used: The kind of writing instrument and paper used might
influence or affect writing.

Pencil writing, for example may not entirely show the characteristics of a fountain pen or ball
pen writing.
As a rule, some of the standards at least should be those written with the same instrument as
that in the questioned, and as far as possible, the paper used in the standard should be of the
same size, shape and ruling and composition as the one used in questioned.

B. Requested Standards:

The following steps are aimed at minimizing, if not eliminating disguise in the writing of
the subject or person being required to furnish his handwriting specimens:

A. Questioned material must be dictated: Never allow a suspect to see the questioned
document. If dictation is not possible, a copy of the material (typewritten or in another
 person’s writing but not a photograph or similar reproduction) must be the one given to the
subject.
B. Dictated text must be carefully selected: It is not a good practice to dictate the contents
of the questioned document. Therefore, a substitute text to be devised may be a
composition or paragraph which contains all of the alphabetical letters and other writing
characters and which contain most of the words in the questioned.
C. Adequate amount of writing must be included.Some portions of dictation must be
repeated at least three times: Writings should be made on thru different sheets of paper,
each sheet being removed from the writer’s view upon completion.
D. Writing instrument and paper used should be similar to those used in the questioned
document.
E. Dictation should be interrupted at intervals so that the suspect will feel relaxed and
writes his own natural writing. Rest between dictations usually makes a writer forget about
his previous writing.
F. Normal writing condition should be arranged. If a subject must be required to give a
statement or make a written explanation, he must be required to make such statement or
explanation in his own handwriting. Disguise is eliminated in writing, as attention of the
writer is not focused in the writing act but on some other reasons that may serve as his
alibi.

The sheets of paper containing the request standard made from dictation must contain
some sort of certification made by the subject that the specimen given are his writings and
must also contain the date it was obtained and the identification marks or signature of
witnesses if possible.

CARE, HANDLING AND PRESERVATION OF DOCUMENTS

The improper or careless handling of a questioned document can lead to serious curtailment of
certain technical examination. Most frequently, this condition is brought about by ignorance of
the consequences of mishandling just the simple act of removing and replacing a letter in its
envelope repeatedly can cause noticeable deterioration.

The care, handling and preservation of documents can be discussed adequately by setting
forth certain positive rules of action in the form of “Do’s” and listening several admonitions in
the form of “Don’ts”.

“DO’S”
1. Take disputed papers to Document Examiner's Laboratory at the First Opportunity.
2. If storage is necessary, keep in dry place away from excessive heat strong light.
3. Maintain in consequential document, unfolded and in transparent plastic envelope or
evidence preserver.

“DONT’S”
1) Do not underscore, make careless markings, fold, erase, impress rubber stamps, sticker,
write on, or otherwise alter any handwriting.
2) Do not smear with fingerprints powder or chemicals.
3) Do not carry handwriting document carelessly in wallet, notebook or brief case on
grounds of interviews.
4) Do not handle disputed papers excessively or carry then in pocket for a long time.
5) Do not marked disputed documents (either by consciously writing instruments or
dividers)
6) Do not mutilate or damage by repeated refolding, creasing, cutting, tearing or punching
for filing purposes.
7) Do not allow anyone except qualified specialist to make chemical or other tests; do no
treat or dust for latent finger prints before consulting a document examiner.

The ACE – V Methodology

 The ACE – V Methodology is the scientific method in the identification of questioned
document especially in the identification of handwriting. This is derived from the scientific
application done by Mr. Roy A. Huber; Analysis, Comparison, and Evaluation. Identification
of handwriting, when it is difficult to establish the excellent agreement of identity, may
somehow be verified by other experts for the purpose of verification.

I. Analysis – properties or characteristics are observed, measured and determined.

II. Comparison – properties or characteristics of the unknown items determined thru analysis
are now compared with the familiar or recorded properties of known items.

III. Evaluation – similarities or dissimilarities in property or characteristics that have certain

value for identification is determined by its likelihood of occurrence.

IV. Verification – also known as second opinion, where numerous handwriting problems may
occur most especially when the identity is somewhat difficult to prove, the expert should
seek another expert’s opinion.

ALTERATION AND MONEY COUNTERFEITING

ALTERATION - Are the change in the writing made by the party thereto, or by one person
entitled there under after the instrument has been executed.
Such changes are made without the consent of other party interested and give the
instrument a different effect from that where it originally possessed.

KINDS OF ALTERATION

1. ERASURE - Removal of writing, typewriting or printing from a document.

a. MECHANICAL OR ABRAISIVE ERASURE - The writing is effaced by “rubbing “with

a rubber eraser or scratching out with a knife or other sharp instrument. It usually
made with a knife, rubber erasure or fine memory paper that will injure the paper.
When the paper surface is damaged the paper become porous and the ink will
penetrate the fiber.

b. CHEMICAL ERASURE - The writing is effaced by the use of liquid ink eradicator.

Chemical eradicator - are made in solution which bleach the color out of ink,
making the writing appear invisible. Frequently eradicator can be detected by the
peculiar odor removing in the paper or with litmus paper with reveal evidence of
tampering.

A chemical alteration may sometimes be detected by the appearance of pale –

yellow stains or a slight discoloration around the suspected alteration / change.

2. ADDITION - Any matter made a part of the document after its original preparation.
When there is sufficient space between the words or at the end of a sentence to permit the
insertion or addition of a single letter or word or a punctuation mark, such alteration may
change the part of the entire documents of its monetary value.

3. SUBTRACTION / CANCELLATION - Any matter out, strike out or scratched out after
its original preparations.

An alteration by cancellation is occasionally found in a document of importance

such as will, deed, or contract where the writer intends to eliminate a word, name of
 sentence without the necessity of re-writing the entire matter. The writer draws lines and
vertical or horizontal lines through the writing having the effect of cancellation.

2. INTERLINEATION / INSERTION - The term insertion and interlineation include the

addition of writing and other material between lines or paging or the addition of whole
pages to a document.

Writing between the line of an instrument for the purpose of adding a part to it or
correcting what has been written.

DECIPHERMENT - The process of making out what is illegible or what has been effaced.
– refers to the process of reading or making out the material which is illegible
without actually developing or restoring the original writing on the document itself.

MAKING OF PAPER MONEY:

a. ENGRAVING – It is the process by which the line to be printed are cut into pieces of metal
by hand or with a machine. Ink is rubbed over the plate to fill the cuts in the metal and the
extra ink wiped-off the top. The pressure of the paper on the plate causes the ink in the
holes to be lifted on the surface of the paper. The ink lines will be felt to be raised above
the surface. The engraving process is used for the production of all genuine bank notes.

b. LETTERPRESS PRINTING – is the most common form of printing books, magazine,

letterheads and the usual printing in common uses. In the process, the letters are made
on raised pieces of metal which covered with ink and then impressed upon the paper in the
same form as a rubber stamp or cliché. The serial numbers of a bank note are usually
added by this letterpress process after the note has been produced by an engraving.

c. OFFSET PRINTING – is the method a photograph is taken of the desire material and a
print is made on a specially prepared aluminum plate. The plate is kept wet with water.
When ink is applied, it sticks only these parts of the plate where printing is desired. The
aluminum plate is then put in contact with rubber roller which transfers the ink to the
papers. The offset process is quite used in small printing plants. Because it was
photographic process, it is the most common modern used by counterfeiter to make false
paper money.

BANK NOTE PAPER Paper bank notes get a lot of handling. If a good grade of paper is not
used, they would soon wear out and have to be replaced. Even with the best paper, the old
two peso bill usually wears out and has to be replaced at the end of thirty days. Government
buy the very best grade of paper they can get, in order that the paper will last as long as
possible. Special paper also makes it difficult for the counterfeiter to duplicate it. It is usually
the use of wrong paper that causes the counterfeited bank note to be detected by ultraviolet
light.

In most modern printing, papers have chemicals added to make look whiter. These chemicals
cause brilliant fluorescence under ultraviolet light. Bank notes paper does not have this filler
and does not show.

COINS These are pieces of metal stamped by government authority, for use as money or
collectively referring to metal currency.

MAKING OF COINS:

a. CASTING is the most common method of making gold coins. Plaster molds bearing an
image of gold coins are filled (within a low temperature) with alloy made with lead or tin.
Some molds are used for high temperature metal such as copper or silver alloy.
 b. STRIKING OR STAMPING is the making of an impression of a coin or metal blank by
pressure.

PERTINENT LAWS AND REGULATIONS TO PROTECT AND MAINTAIN THE INTEGRITY

OF THE CURRENCY

1. ARTICLE 163, RPC. Making and importing and uttering (issuing or circulating) false coins.
2. ARTICLE 166, RPC. Forging treasury or bank notes or other documents payable to bearer;
importing, and uttering (issuing or circulating) such false or forged notes and documents.
3. ARTICLE 168, RPC. Illegal possession and use of false treasury or bank notes and other
instruments of credit.
4. ARTICLE 176, RPC. Manufacturing and possession of instrument or implements for
falsification.
5. PD 247 – defacement, mutilation, tearing, burning or destruction of CENTRAL BANK (BSP)
notes and coins.
6. CHAPTER II, CIRCULAR 61, SERIES OF 1995. Reproduction and/or use of facsimile of
legal tender Philippine currency coins.
7. CHAPTER III, CIRCULAR 61, SERIES OF 1995. Reproduction and/or use of facsimile of
legal tender Philippine currency coins.

THE NEW GENERATION (NGC) PHILIPPINE BANK NOTES

WHAT’S NEW WITH THESE BANKNOTES?

1. More realistic portraits of former Philippine presidents and heroes.

2. Tourist destination and notable animals found in the country on the reverse.
3. New BSP logo and Republic of the Philippine Seal.
4. New euro - like design with large numbers for easy identification.
5. Security features are spruced most noticeably the serial numbers which some might
find weird and the security thread which is wider. A foil – like optically variable device
is found in the new 500 and 1,000 peso bill.
6. The paper used is “hygienically treated” or has anti – bacterial properties.

WHATS THE SAME FROM NEW DESIGN SERIES (OLD)

a. Color schemes were maintained except for the 20 peso bill which has a different
tone of orange.
b. The size of all banknotes appears to have been maintained.
c. The same paper made of abaca – cotton. The BSP considered plastic / polymer
before but they might have for seen some problems especially with the way Filipinos
crumbles, fold, crease and roll money.

THE NEW GENERATION PHILIPPINE BANKNOTES

1. EMBOSSEED PRINTS - raised prints that feel rough to touch (ex. REPUBLIKA NG
PILIPINAS) and “DALAWAMPUNG PISO”, portrait, signatures, value panels on the face of the
note.
2. SERIAL NUMBER – composed of 1 or 2 prefix and 6 or 7 asymetric (increasing in
size) digits located at the lower left and upper right corners of the face of the note.
3. SECURITY FIBERS – Red and Blue visible fibers embedded on the paper at random and
glow in two colors under ultraviolet light.
4. WATERMARK – A shadow image of the portrait and the numeral “20” seen at the blank
space of the note when viewed against the light either side of the note.
5. SEE THROUGH MARK – The word “PILIPINO” written in Baybayin (Philippine writing
system) is seen in complete form when the note is viewed against the light.
6. CONCEALED VALUE – the denominational value superimposed on the smaller version
portrait at the upper left side of the note becomes obvious when the note is rotated 45 degree
and tilted down.
7. SECURITY THREAD – An embedded thread running vertically across the note is visible
from either side of the note when viewed against the light.
8. OPTICALLY VARIABLE DEVICE- A reflective foil that bears the image of the bluenaped
Parrot and a small BSP Logo. For 500 peso bill and a South Sea Pearl inside a clam and a
small BSP Logo for 1000 Peso bill. The color of the parrot (500 peso) and the clam (1000 peso)
changes from redTo green when the note is rotated at 90 degrees.
9. OPTICALLY VARIABLE INK - Embossed “1000” denominated value at the lower right
corner of the face of the note changes color from green to blue when viewed at different angles.
10. TACTILE MARKS - tactile marks are sure to make a huge helpful difference for the
visually impaired. These horizontal bands located on the edge of each banknote—one pair for
the P50 bill, two pairs for the P100 bill, three pairs for the P200 bill, 4 pairs for the P500 bill,
and 5 pairs for the P1,000 bill—were placed specifically for folks to quickly recognize each
denomination.
11. ENHANCE VALUE PANEL - rolling bar effect with color (For 500 and 1000 peso only)

COLOR OF EACH DENOMINATION

Genuine notes have polychrome background with one predominant color for each
denomination. You should know whose portrait is/are printed on each bill.

1,000.00 - Blue - Jose Abad Santos, Josefa Llanes Escoda, Vicente Lim
500.00 - Yellow - Benigno S. Aquino
200.00 - Green (Dark in one side and light in another side) Diosdado Macapagal
- Manuel A. Roxas
50.00 - Red - Sergio Osmena
20.00 - Orange - Manuel L. Quezon

TYPEWRITING IDENTIFICATION

TYPEWRITER - A writing machine with a keyboard for reproducing letters, figures, symbols an
d other resembling printed ones; a machine that can reproduce printed characters on papers o
r that can produce printed letters and figures on paper; a machine designed to print or impress
type characters on paper, as a speedier and more legible substitute for handwriting. .

SIGNIFICANT TERMS
A. ALIGNMENT - Alignment defects include characters which write improperly in the
following respects: A twisted letter, horizontal mal-alignment, vertical mal-alignment, and a
character "Off its feet".
B. ALIGNMENT DEFECT - Include character which write improperly in the following respects:
A twisted letter, horizontal mal-alignment, vertical, mal-alignment and a character special
adjustment to the types block.
C. CARBON IMPRESSION- Any typewriting which is placed on the paper by the action
of the type faces striking thought carbon paper is classed as a carbon
impression. Generally, carbon impressions are "carbon copies", but sometime original
typewriting is made directly through a carbon ribbon.
D. CHARACTER - In connection with typewriting identification, the term "Character" is used
to include letters, symbols, numerals, or points of punctuation.
E. CLOGGED (DIRTY) TYPEFACES - With use the type faces becomes filled with lint,
dirty and ink, particularly in enclosed letters such as the o,e,p, and g.
F. DEFECTS - The term defect describes any abnormality or maladjustment in a typewriter
which is reflected in its works and which leads to its individualization or identification.
G. NATURAL VARIATIONS - These are normal or usual deviations found between repeated
specimens of any individuals handwriting or in the product of any typewriters.
H. OFF ITS FEET - The condition of a typeface printing heavier on one side or corner than
over the remainder of its outline.
I. PERMANENT DEFECT - Any identifying characteristics of a type-writer which cannot be
corrected by simply cleaning the type face or replacing the ribbon is
classified as a permanent defect.
J. PLATEN - The cylinder which serve as the backing of the paper and which absorbs the
blow on the type face is known as a platen.
K. PROPORTIONAL SPACING TYPEWRITING - A modern form of typewriting which
resembles printing in that all of the horizontal space as they do with the
conventional typewriter. For example, the "i" occupies two units. The "o" - three and the
"m" - five. A typewriter of this design is known as a proportional spacing machine.
L. REBOUND - A defect in which a character prints a double impression with the lighter one
slightly offset to the right or left.
M. RIBBON IMPRESSIONS - Typewriting which is made directly through a cloth ribbon is
called ribbon impression.
N. RIBBON CONDITION - Typewriter ribbons gradually deteriorate with use and the degree
of determination is a measure of the ribbon condition.
O. TRANSITORY DEFECT - Any identifying typewriter characteristics which can be
eliminated by cleaning the machine or replacing the ribbon is described as a transitory
defects. Clogged type is the most common defects in this class.
P. TWISTED LETTER - Each letter and character is designed to print a certain fixed angle
to the base line, due to wear, and damage to the type bars and the type block, some
letters become twisted so that they lean to the right or left of their correct slant.
Q. TYPE FACE - The printing surface of the type block is known as the type face, with most
modern typewriter this block is attached at the end of a movable arm or type bar which
propels the type face against the ribbon and paper to make the typewriter impression.
R. TYPE FACE DEFECTS - Any peculiarity of typewriting caused by actual damage to the
type face metal is known as type face defect. These defect may be actual breaks in the
outline of the letter where the metal has been chipped away sometimes referred to as
broken type, or they may be distorted outlines of the letter where the type face
metal has become bent or smashed, they can only be corrected by replacing the type
block.

CLASSES OF CHARACTERISTICS IN TYPEWRITING IDENTIFICATION

CLASS CHARACTERISTICS - Characteristics common to a group.

Example: same type face, same design and same size of the character

a. PICA - type face impression ordinarily spaced ten (10) characters to the horizontal
inch.
b. ELITE – type face impression ordinarily spaced twelve (12) characters to the
horizontal inch.

ACCIDENTAL CHARACTERISTICS - These are what we call the defects of the typewriter.
The basic classes of defects are alignment and type face defects.

a. PRINTING DEFECTS - Similar combination of defective and correctly writing

letters and characters.
b. MECHANICAL DEFECTS –

a. Irregular left margin

b. Alignment defect – characters that write improperly in the following
respects.

1. HORIZONTAL MAL- ALIGNMENT – An alignment defect in which the

character prints to the right or left of its proper position.
 2. VERTICAL MAL- ALIGNMENT – The result of the character printing
below or above of its proper position.
3. TWISTED LETTER – Each character is designed to print at a certain
fixed angle to the base line. Wear and damage to the type bars and the
type block may cause some letters to become twisted so that they lean
to the right or left of their correct slant. Alignment defects can be
corrected by special adjustments to the type bar and type block on a
type bar machine.

4. Irregular horizontal alignment due to the uneven grip of the platen.

c. TYPE FACE DEFECT – Any peculiarity in typewriting resulting from actual

damage to the typeface metal. It may be an actual break in the outline of
the letter where the metal is chipped away sometimes referred to as
broken type or distorted outline of the letter because of bent or smashed
type face metal. The defect can be corrected only by replacing the type
block or element.

1. Battered type face

2. Off-its-feet - The condition of a type face printing heavier on one
side or corner than the remainder of its outline.
3. Tilted to the right or tilted to the left
4. Rebounding – A defect in which a character prints a double
impression with the lighter one slightly offset to the right or left.
5. Missing serif
6. Uneven pressure of letters.

d. TRANSITORY DEFECT – It is an identifying typewriter characteristic that

can be eliminated by cleaning the machine or replacing the ribbon.

1. Clogged type face – with use of typefaces become filled with lint,
dirt and ink particularly in enclosed letters. If this condition is
allowed to progress without cleaning, these come a time when the
impressions actually print with the clogged areas shaded or solid
black.
2. Filling up of hollow of letters “a”, “e”, “g”, “p”, “q” from debris of
ribbon.
3. Dirty type face
4. Worn ribbon