DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

LATTICE THEORY
Cartesian product: The Cartesian product of two sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 denoted 𝐴 × 𝐵 is the set of all ordered pairs
of the form (𝑎, 𝑏) where 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵.

Binary relation: A binary relation from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is a subset of 𝐴 × 𝐵.

Reflexive relation: Let 𝑅 be a binary relation on 𝐴. 𝑅 is said to be reflexive relation if (𝑎, 𝑎) is in R for every
𝑎 ∈ 𝐴.

Symmetric relation: A binary relation 𝑅 on a set A is said to be a symmetric relation if (𝑎, 𝑏) in R implies
that (𝑏, 𝑎) is also in R.

Antisymmetric relation: Let R be a binary relation on A. R is said to be an antisymmetric relation if (𝑎, 𝑏)

in R implies that (𝑏, 𝑎) is not in R unless 𝑎 = 𝑏.

Transitive relation: Let R be a binary relation on A. R is said to be a transitive relation if (𝑎, 𝑐) is in R

whenever both (𝑎, 𝑏) and (𝑏, 𝑐) are in R.

Equivalence relation: A binary relation is said to an equivalence relation if it is reflexive, symmetric and
transitive.

Partial ordering relation: A binary relation is said to be a partial ordering relation if it is reflexive,
antisymmetric and transitive.

Partially ordered set (poset): Set A together with a partial ordering relation R on A is called a partially
ordered set and is denoted by (𝐴, ≤).

Chain: Let (𝐴, ≤) be a partially ordered set. A subset of A is called a chain if every two elements in the
subset are related.

Antichain: Let (𝐴, ≤) be a partially ordered set. A subset of A is called an antichain if no two elements in
the subset are related.

Totally ordered set: A partially ordered set (𝐴, ≤) is called a totally ordered set if A is a chain and the
binary relation is called a total ordering relation.

Maximal element: Let (𝐴, ≤) be a partially ordered set. An element 𝑎 in A is called a maximal element if
for no 𝑏 in A, 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏, 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏.

Minimal element: Let (𝐴, ≤) be a partially ordered set. An element 𝑎 in A is called a minimal element if for
no 𝑏 in A, 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏, 𝑏 ≤ 𝑎.

Upper bound: Let (𝐴, ≤) be a partially ordered set. An element = is said to be an upper bound of a and b
if 𝑎 ≤ 𝑐 and 𝑏 ≤ 𝑐. An element 𝑐 is said to be least upper bound of 𝑎 and 𝑏 if 𝑐 is an upper bound of a and
𝑏, and if there is no other upper bound 𝑑 of 𝑎 and 𝑏 such that 𝑑 ≤ 𝑐.

Universal upper bound: An element 𝑎 in a lattice (𝐴, ≤) is called a universal upper bound if for every
element 𝑏 in 𝐴, 𝑏 ≤ 𝑎. It is unique if it exists and is denoted by 1.

Lower bound: Let (𝐴, ≤) be a partially ordered set. An element c is said to be a lower bound of a and b if
𝑐 ≤ 𝑎 and 𝑐 ≤ 𝑏. An element c is said to be greatest lowerbound of a and b if c is a lower bound of a and b,
and if there is no other lower bound d of a and b such that 𝑐 ≤ 𝑑.
Universal lower bound: An element 𝑎 in a lattice (𝐴, ≤) is called a universal lower bound if for every
element 𝑏 in 𝐴, 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏. It is unique if it exists and is denoted by 0.

Lattice: A partially ordered set is said to be a lattice if every two elements in the set have a unique least
upper bound and a unique greatest lower bound.

For any 𝑎 and 𝑏 in the lattice (𝐴, ≤) , a ≤ a ⋁ b and 𝑎 ⋀ 𝑏 ≤ 𝑎

For any 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 in a lattice (𝐴, ≤), if 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 and 𝑐 ≤ 𝑑 then 𝑎 ⋁ 𝑐 ≤ 𝑏 ⋁ 𝑑 and 𝑎 ⋀ 𝑐 ≤ 𝑏 ⋀ 𝑑

Commutative property: For any 𝑎 and 𝑏 in a lattice (𝐴, ≤), 𝑎 ⋁ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ⋁ 𝑎 and 𝑎 ⋀ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ⋀ 𝑎

Associative property: For any a, b and c in a lattice (𝐴, ≤)

a⋁(𝑏 ⋁ 𝑐) = (𝑎 ⋁ 𝑏) ⋁ 𝑐 and 𝑎 ⋀(𝑏 ⋀ 𝑐) = (𝑎 ⋀ 𝑏) ⋀ 𝑐

Idempotent property: For every 𝑎 in a lattice (𝐴, ≤) 𝑎 ⋁ 𝑎 = 𝑎 and 𝑎 ⋀ 𝑎 = 𝑎.

Absorption Property: For any 𝑎 and 𝑏 in a lattice (𝐴, ≤), 𝑎 ⋁(𝑎 ⋀ 𝑏) = 𝑎 and 𝑎 ⋀(𝑎 ⋁ 𝑏) = 𝑎

Cover: Let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be two elements in a lattice. Then 𝑎 is said to cover 𝑏 if 𝑏 < 𝑎 and there is no element
𝑐 such that 𝑏 < 𝑐 < 𝑎.

Atom: An element is called as an atom if it covers the universal lower bound.

Distributive lattice: A lattice (𝐴,∨,∧) is said to be distributive if for all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐴,

𝑎 ∨ (𝑏 ∧ 𝑐) = (𝑎 ∨ 𝑏) ∧ (𝑎 ∨ 𝑐)

𝑎 ∧ (𝑏 ∨ 𝑐) = (𝑎 ∧ 𝑏) ∨ (𝑎 ∧ 𝑐).

Complement of an element: The complement of an element 𝑎 of a lattice (𝐴,∨,∧) with 0 and 1 is an element
𝑏 ∈ 𝐴 such that 𝑎 ∨ 𝑏 = 1 and 𝑎 ∧ 𝑏 = 0.

Complemented lattice: A lattice in which every element has a complement is called a complemented
lattice.

Boolean lattice: A distributive, complemented lattice is called a Boolean lattice. In a such a lattice, every
element 𝑎 has a unique complement 𝑎̅, and ̅ is a unary operation on the lattice.

Boolean algebra: The algebraic structure (𝐴,∨,∧, ̅) formed by a Boolean lattice is called a Boolean
algebra.

A Boolean expression over ({0,1},∨,∧) is said to be in disjunctive normal form if it is join of minterms.

A Boolean expression over ({0,1},∨,∧) is said to be in conjunctive normal form if it is meet of maxterms.

COMBINATORICS
Addition Principle. If there are 𝑚 ways of doing 𝐴 and 𝑛 ways of doing 𝐵, with no way of doing both
simultaneously, then the number of ways of doing 𝐴 or 𝐵 is 𝑚 + 𝑛.

Multiplication Principle. If there are 𝑚 ways of doing 𝐴 and 𝑛 ways of doing 𝐵 independently, then there
are 𝑚𝑛 ways of doing 𝐴 and 𝐵 (or 𝐴 followed by 𝐵).

Permutations and Combinations

The number of permutations of 𝑛 distinct objects is 𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) × ⋯ 3 × 2 × 1.

The number of ways of selecting and arranging 𝑟 distinct objects from a collection of 𝑛 distinct objects is
𝑛 𝑛!
𝑃𝑟 = (𝑛−𝑟)!.

The number of ways of selecting 𝑟 distinct objects from a collection of 𝑛 distinct objects is

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛! 𝑛(𝑛−1)⋯(𝑛−𝑟+1)
𝐶𝑟 or ( ) = (𝑛−𝑟)! = .
𝑟 𝑟! 𝑟!

The number of ways of selecting any number of distinct objects from a collection of 𝑛 distinct objects is 2𝑛 .

The number of permutations of 𝑛 objects where 𝑛1 of them are alike of the first kind, 𝑛2 of them are alike of
𝑛!
the second kind, …, 𝑛𝑘 of them are alike of the 𝑘th kind is .
𝑛1 !𝑛2 !⋯𝑛𝑘 !

The number of permutations of 𝑟 objects selected from 𝑛 types of objects with unlimited repetition of each
type is 𝑛𝑟 .

The number of selections of 𝑟 objects from 𝑛 types of objects with unlimited repetition of each type is
𝑛+𝑟−1 𝑛+𝑟−1
( )=( ).
𝑟 𝑛−1
Basic identities

1. 𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)!
𝑛 𝑛
2. ( ) = ( )
𝑟 𝑛−𝑟
𝑛 𝑛−1 𝑛−1
3. ( ) = ( )+( ) for 𝑛 > 𝑟 > 0
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟−1
𝑛
4. ∑𝑛𝑟=0 ( ) = 2𝑛
𝑟
Inclusion-Exclusion Principle

Let 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 be 𝑛 properties. In a collection of 𝑁 objects, let 𝑁(𝑎𝑖 ) denote the number of objects with
property 𝑎𝑖 , let 𝑁(𝑎𝑖 𝑎𝑗 ) denote the number of objects with both properties 𝑁(𝑎𝑖 𝑎𝑗 ), etc. Then the number of
objects in the collection that do not have any of the properties 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 is

𝑁(𝑎
̅̅̅1 ̅̅̅ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑁 − ∑ 𝑁(𝑎𝑖 ) + ∑ 𝑁(𝑎𝑖 𝑎𝑗 ) + ⋯ + (−1)𝑘
𝑎2 ⋯ ̅̅̅) ∑ 𝑁(𝑎𝑖1 𝑎𝑖2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑖𝑘 ) + ⋯
𝑖 𝑖<𝑗 𝑖1 <𝑖2 <⋯<𝑖𝑘
+ (−1)𝑛 𝑁(𝑎1 𝑎2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛 ).

Ordering of Permutations

Index sequence for 𝑘th permutation of 𝑛 distinct marks in lexicographical order: 𝑐𝑛−1 𝑐𝑛−2 ⋯ 𝑐1 where

𝑘 − 1 = 𝑐𝑛−1 (𝑛 − 1)! + 𝑐𝑛−2 (𝑛 − 2)! + ⋯ + 𝑐1 1!

is the factorial base representation of 𝑘 − 1.

Fike’s sequence for 𝑘th permutation of 𝑛 distinct marks: 𝑑1 𝑑2 ⋯ 𝑑𝑛−1 , where 𝑑𝑖 = 𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖 , and
𝑛! 𝑛! 𝑛!
𝑘 − 1 = 𝑐1 + 𝑐2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑛−1 .
2! 3! (𝑛 − 1)!

Generating Functions

The ordinary generating function for the number of selections of 𝑟 distinct objects out of 𝑛 distinct objects
𝑛
is (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = ∑𝑛𝑟=0 ( ) 𝑥 𝑟 .
𝑟
The ordinary generating function for the number of selections of 𝑟 objects from 𝑛 types of objects with
𝑛+𝑟−1 𝑟
unlimited repetition is (1 − 𝑥)−𝑛 = ∑∞
𝑟=0 ( )𝑥 .
𝑟
𝑥𝑛
The exponential generating function for the number of permutations of 𝑛 objects is 𝑒 𝑥 = ∑∞
𝑛=0 .
𝑛!

Partitions and Compositions

𝑛−1
The number of compositions of 𝑛 into 𝑘 positive parts is ( ).
𝑘−1
The number of compositions of 𝑛 into any number of positive parts is 2𝑛−1 .

The ordinary generating function for the number of unrestricted partitions of 𝑛 is (1 − 𝑥)−1 (1 − 𝑥 2 )−1 (1 −
𝑥 3 )−1 ⋯.

GRAPH THEORY
A graph 𝐺 consists of a finite nonempty set 𝑉 = 𝑉(𝐺) whose elements are called ‘vertices’ of 𝐺 and a set
𝐸 = 𝐸(𝐺) of unordered pairs of distinct vertices of 𝑉(𝐺) whose elements are called the ‘edges’ of 𝐺. A graph
with 𝑝 vertices and 𝑞 edges is called a (𝑝, 𝑞) graph.

The first theorem in graph theory due to Euler, popularly known as ‘Hand shaking lemma’. It states that,
“the sum of degrees of all the vertices in a graph is twice the number of edges”.

There are several types of graphs namely: complete graph, regular graph, cycle graph, path graph, tree,
bipartite graph etc.

Some of the preliminary terminologies to be noted are:

Distance: The distance 𝑑(𝑢, 𝑣) between the two vertices 𝑢 and 𝑣 in 𝐺 is the length of a shortest path joining
them if any, otherwise 𝑑(𝑢, 𝑣) = ∞. In a connected graph, distance is a metric. That is, for all the vertices
𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤

i. 𝑑(𝑢, 𝑣) ≥ 0 with 𝑑(𝑢, 𝑣) = 0 if and only if 𝑑(𝑢, 𝑢) = 0

ii. 𝑑(𝑢, 𝑣) = 𝑑(𝑣, 𝑢)
iii. 𝑑(𝑢, 𝑣) + 𝑑(𝑣, 𝑤) ≥ 𝑑(𝑢, 𝑤)

Geodesic: A shortest 𝑢-𝑣 path.

Girth: Girth 𝑔(𝐺) of a graph 𝐺 is the length of the shortest cycle (if any) in 𝐺.

Circumference: Circumference 𝑐(𝐺) of a graph 𝐺 is the length of the longest cycle (if any) in 𝐺.

Eccentricity: The eccentricity 𝑒(𝑣) of a vertex in a connected graph 𝐺 is the distance from 𝑣 to the vertex
farthest from 𝑣 in 𝐺. That is, 𝑒(𝑣) = max {𝑑(𝑣, 𝑢)}.
𝑢∈𝑉(𝐺)

Radius: The radius 𝑟(𝐺) or rad(𝐺) is the minimum eccentricity of the vertices, i.e. rad(𝐺) = min {𝑒(𝑣)}.
𝑣∈𝑉(𝐺)

Diameter: The diameter diam(𝐺) is the maximum eccentricity of the vertices. In other words, the length of
any longest geodesic. i.e., diam(𝐺) = max {𝑒(𝑣)}.
𝑣∈𝑉(𝐺)

Central vertex: A vertex 𝑣 is a central vertex if 𝑒(𝑣) = rad(𝐺). And the set of all central vertices is called
‘center’ of the graph.
GROUP THEORY
Let 𝐺 be a non-empty set and ∗: 𝐺 × 𝐺 → 𝐺 a binary operation on 𝐺. Then

1. Associativity axiom: (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑐 = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑏 ∗ 𝑐), for all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺.

2. Identity axiom: There exists an element 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑎, for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺.
3. Inverse axiom: For 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, there corresponds an element 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒.
4. Commutativity or Abelian axiom: 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎, for all 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐺.

In the above, if (𝐺,∗) satisfies 1 then (𝐺,∗) is a semigroup.

If (𝐺,∗) satisfies 1 and 2 then (𝐺,∗) is a monoid.
If (𝐺,∗) satisfies 1, 2, and 3 then (𝐺,∗) is a group.
If (𝐺,∗) satisfies 1, 2, 3, and 4 then (𝐺,∗) is a commutative or Abelian group.
Definitions
Let (𝐺,⋅) be a group.
1. A non-empty subset of 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺 is a subgroup of 𝐺 if (𝐻,⋅) itself is a group. Then we write 𝐻 ≤ 𝐺.
2. If 𝐻 ≤ 𝐺, and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, then 𝐻𝑎 = {ℎ𝑎 ∣ ℎ ∈ 𝐻}. Then 𝐻𝑎 is a right coset of 𝐻 in 𝐺. Similarly, 𝑎𝐻 =
{𝑎ℎ ∣ ℎ ∈ 𝐻} is a left coset of 𝐻 in 𝐺.
3. The number of elements in 𝐺 is the order of the group 𝐺, denoted 𝑜(𝐺) or |𝐺|.
4. Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺. The order of the element 𝑎 is the least positive integer 𝑚 such that 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑒, denoted 𝑜(𝑎)
or |𝑎|.
5. Let 𝑎 ∈ G. Then ⟨𝑎⟩ = {𝑎𝑖 ∣ 𝑖 = 0, ±1, ±2, … } is the cyclic subgroup of 𝐺 generated by 𝑎.
6. A subgroup 𝑁 of 𝐺 is a normal subgroup of 𝐺 if for every 𝑔 ∈ 𝐺 and every 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁, 𝑔𝑛𝑔−1 ∈ 𝑁.
7. The set 𝑍(𝐺) = {𝑧 ∈ 𝐺 ∣ 𝑥𝑧 = 𝑧𝑥, ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐺} is the center of 𝐺.
8. Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺. Then 𝑁(𝑎) = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 ∣ 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑥𝑎} is the normaliser of 𝑎.
9. Let (𝐻,∘) also be a group. Then a group homomorphism from 𝐺 to 𝐻 is a function 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐻 such that
for all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑓(𝑥𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∘ 𝑓(𝑦).
10. Let 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐻 be a group homomorphism. Then the image of 𝑓 is im 𝑓 = { 𝑓(𝑥) ∣ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 } ≤ 𝐻 and the
kernel of 𝑓 is ker 𝑓 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 ∣ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒𝐻 } ≤ 𝐺 where 𝑒𝐻 is the identity element of 𝐻.

Examples of Groups
1. (ℤ, +) – Group of integers under addition
2. (ℚ, +) – Group of rational numbers under addition
3. (ℝ, +) – Group of real numbers under addition
4. (ℂ, +) – Group of complex numbers under addition
5. ℚ× – Group of non-zero rational numbers under multiplication
6. ℝ× – Group of non-zero real numbers under multiplication
7. ℂ× – Group of non-zero complex numbers under multiplication
8. ℤ𝑛 = {0, 1, 2, … , 𝑛 − 1} – Group of integers modulo 𝑛 under addition modulo 𝑛
2𝑖𝜋
9. {1, 𝜔, 𝜔2 , … , 𝜔𝑛−1 }, where 𝜔 = 𝑒 𝑛 – Group of complex 𝑛th roots of unity under multiplication
10. 𝑆𝑛 – Group of all permutations of {1, 2, … , 𝑛} under composition of permutations
11. GL𝑛 (ℝ) – Group of 𝑛 × 𝑛 invertible real matrices

Basic Results
Let (𝐺,⋅) be any group.
1. Uniqueness of identity: 𝐺 has a unique identity element.
2. Uniqueness of inverses: Every element 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 has a unique inverse 𝑥 −1 ∈ 𝐺, and (𝑥 −1 )−1 = 𝑥.
3. Shoe-sock property: ∀𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺, (𝑥𝑦)−1 = 𝑦 −1 𝑥 −1.
4. Cancellation laws: Let 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺. If ∃𝑎 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎𝑦, then 𝑥 = 𝑦. If ∃𝑏 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑥𝑏 = 𝑦𝑏,
then 𝑥 = 𝑦.
5. If 𝐺 is finite of order 𝑛, then ∀𝑥 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑒.
6. If 𝑓: 𝐺 → 𝐻 is a homomorphism, then ker 𝑓 is an normal subgroup of 𝐺
7. 𝑍(𝐺) is a normal subgroup of 𝐺.

PROPOSITIONAL CALCULUS
Implications
I1: 𝑃 ∧ 𝑄 ⇒ 𝑃(Simplification) I8: ¬(𝑃 → 𝑄) ⇒ 𝑄
I2: 𝑃 ∧ 𝑄 ⇒ 𝑄(Simplification) I9: 𝑃, 𝑄 ⇒ 𝑃 ∧ 𝑄
I3: 𝑃 ⇒ 𝑃 ∨ 𝑄(Addition) I10: ¬𝑃, 𝑃 ∨ 𝑄 ⇒ 𝑄 (Disjunctive syllogism)
I4: 𝑄 ⇒ 𝑃 ∨ 𝑄(Addition) I11: 𝑃, 𝑃 → 𝑄 ⇒ 𝑄 (Modus ponens)
I5: ¬𝑃 ⇒ 𝑃 → 𝑄 I12: ¬𝑄, 𝑃 → 𝑄 ⇒ ¬𝑃 (Modus tollens)
I6: 𝑄 ⇒ 𝑃 → 𝑄 I13: 𝑃 → 𝑄, 𝑄 → 𝑅 ⇒ 𝑃 → 𝑅 (Hypothetical syllogism)
I7: ¬(𝑃 → 𝑄) ⇒ 𝑃 I14: 𝑃 ∨ 𝑄, 𝑃 → 𝑅, 𝑄 → 𝑅 ⇒ 𝑅 (Dilemma)

Equivalences

E1: ¬¬𝑃 ⇔ 𝑃 E12: 𝑅 ∨ (𝑃 ∧ ¬𝑃) ⇔ 𝑅

E2: 𝑃 ∧ 𝑄 ⇔ 𝑄 ∧ 𝑃 E13: 𝑅 ∧ (𝑃 ∨ ¬𝑃) ⇔ 𝑅
E3: 𝑃 ∨ 𝑄 ⇔ 𝑄 ∨ 𝑃 E14: 𝑅 ∨ (𝑃 ∨ ¬𝑃) ⇔ 𝐓
E4: (𝑃 ∧ 𝑄) ∧ 𝑅 ⇔ 𝑃 ∧ (𝑄 ∧ 𝑅) E15: 𝑅 ∧ (𝑃 ∧ ¬𝑃) ⇔ 𝐅
E5: (𝑃 ∨ 𝑄) ∨ 𝑅 ⇔ 𝑃 ∨ (𝑄 ∨ 𝑅) E16: 𝑃 → 𝑄 ⇔ ¬𝑃 ∨ 𝑄
E6: 𝑃 ∧ (𝑄 ∨ 𝑅) ⇔ (𝑃 ∧ 𝑄) ∨ (𝑃 ∧ 𝑅) E17: ¬(𝑃 → 𝑄) ⇔ 𝑃 ∧ ¬𝑄
E7: 𝑃 ∨ (𝑄 ∧ 𝑅) ⇔ (𝑃 ∨ 𝑄) ∧ (𝑃 ∨ 𝑅) E18: 𝑃 → 𝑄 ⇔ ¬𝑄 → ¬𝑃
E8: ¬(𝑃 ∧ 𝑄) ⇔ ¬𝑃 ∨ ¬𝑄 E19: 𝑃 → (𝑄 → 𝑅) ⇔ (𝑃 ∧ 𝑄) → 𝑅
E9: ¬(𝑃 ∨ 𝑄) ⇔ ¬𝑃 ∧ ¬𝑄 E20: ¬(𝑃 ⇄ 𝑄) ⇔ 𝑃 ⇄ ¬𝑄
E10: 𝑃 ∨ 𝑃 ⇔ 𝑃 E21: 𝑃 ⇄ 𝑄 ⇔ (𝑃 → 𝑄) ∧ (𝑄 → 𝑃)
E11: 𝑃 ∧ 𝑃 ⇔ 𝑃 E22: 𝑃 ⇄ 𝑄 ⇔ (𝑃 ∧ 𝑄) ∨ (¬𝑃 ∧ ¬𝑄)