Cosmic Big Microwave Background 0002

2/17/22, 3:51 AM Cosmic microwave background - Wikipedia
Cosmic microwave background

The cosmic microwave background (CMB, CMBR), in Big Bang cosmology, is electromagnetic radiation
which is a remnant from an early stage of the universe, also known as "relic radiation".[1] The CMB is faint
cosmic background radiation filling all space. It is an important source of data on the early universe because it is
the oldest electromagnetic radiation in the universe, dating to the epoch of recombination. With a traditional
optical telescope, the space between stars and galaxies (the background) is completely dark. However, a
sufficiently sensitive radio telescope shows a faint background noise, or glow, almost isotropic, that is not
associated with any star, galaxy, or other object. This glow is strongest in the microwave region of the radio
spectrum. The accidental discovery of the CMB in 1965 by American radio astronomers Arno Penzias and
Robert Wilson[2][3] was the culmination of work initiated in the 1940s, and earned the discoverers the 1978
Nobel Prize in Physics.
CMB is landmark evidence of the Big Bang origin of the universe. When the universe was young, before the
formation of stars and planets, it was denser, much hotter, and filled with an opaque fog of hydrogen plasma. As
the universe expanded the plasma grew cooler and the radiation filling it expanded to longer wavelengths.
When the temperature had dropped enough, protons and electrons combined to form neutral hydrogen atoms.
Unlike the plasma, these newly conceived atoms could not scatter the thermal radiation by Thomson scattering,
and so the universe became transparent.[4] Cosmologists refer to the time period when neutral atoms first
formed as the recombination epoch, and the event shortly afterwards when photons started to travel freely
through space is referred to as photon decoupling. The photons that existed at the time of photon decoupling
have been propagating ever since, though growing less energetic, since the expansion of space causes their
wavelength to increase over time (and wavelength is inversely proportional to energy according to Planck's
relation). This is the source of the alternative term relic radiation. The surface of last scattering refers to the
set of points in space at the right distance from us so that we are now receiving photons originally emitted from
those points at the time of photon decoupling.
Contents
Importance of precise measurement
Features
History
Relationship to the Big Bang
Primary anisotropy
Late time anisotropy
Polarization
E-modes
B-modes
Primordial gravitational waves
Gravitational lensing
Microwave background observations
Data reduction and analysis
CMBR monopole term (ℓ = 0)
CMBR dipole anisotropy (ℓ = 1)
Multipole (ℓ ≥ 2)
Other anomalies
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background 1/26
Future evolution
Timeline of prediction, discovery and interpretation
Thermal (non-microwave background) temperature predictions
Microwave background radiation predictions and measurements
In popular culture
See also
References
Further reading
External links
Importance of precise measurement

Precise measurements of the CMB are critical to cosmology, since any proposed model of the universe must
explain this radiation. The CMB has a thermal black body spectrum at a temperature of
2.725 48 ± 0.000 57 K.[5] The spectral radiance dEν/dν peaks at 160.23 GHz, in the microwave range of
frequencies, corresponding to a photon energy of about 6.626 ⋅ 10−4 eV. Alternatively, if spectral radiance is
defined as dEλ/dλ, then the peak wavelength is 1.063 mm (282 GHz, 1.168 ⋅ 10−3 eV photons). The glow is very
nearly uniform in all directions, but the tiny residual variations show a very specific pattern, the same as that
expected of a fairly uniformly distributed hot gas that has expanded to the current size of the universe. In
particular, the spectral radiance at different angles of observation in the sky contains small anisotropies, or
irregularities, which vary with the size of the region examined. They have been measured in detail, and match
what would be expected if small thermal variations, generated by quantum fluctuations of matter in a very tiny
space, had expanded to the size of the observable universe we see today. This is a very active field of study, with
scientists seeking both better data (for example, the Planck spacecraft) and better interpretations of the initial
conditions of expansion. Although many different processes might produce the general form of a black body
spectrum, no model other than the Big Bang has yet explained the fluctuations. As a result, most cosmologists
consider the Big Bang model of the universe to be the best explanation for the CMB.
The high degree of uniformity throughout the observable universe and its faint but measured anisotropy lend
strong support for the Big Bang model in general and the ΛCDM ("Lambda Cold Dark Matter") model in
particular. Moreover, the fluctuations are coherent on angular scales that are larger than the apparent
cosmological horizon at recombination. Either such coherence is acausally fine-tuned, or cosmic inflation
occurred.[6][7]
Other than the temperature and polarization anisotropy, the CMB frequency spectrum is expected to feature
tiny departures from the black-body law known as spectral distortions. These are also at the focus of an active
research effort with the hope of a first measurement within the forthcoming decades, as they contain a wealth of
information about the primordial universe and the formation of structures at late time.[8]
Features
The cosmic microwave background radiation is an emission of uniform, black body thermal energy coming from
all parts of the sky. The radiation is isotropic to roughly one part in 100,000: the root mean square variations
are only 18 μK,[10] after subtracting out a dipole anisotropy from the Doppler shift of the background radiation.
The latter is caused by the peculiar velocity of the Sun relative to the comoving cosmic rest frame as it moves at
some 369.82 ± 0.11 km/s towards the constellation Leo (galactic longitude 264.021 ± 0.011, galactic latitude
48.253 ± 0.005).[11] The CMB dipole and aberration at higher multipoles have been measured, consistent with
galactic motion.[12]
In the Big Bang model for the formation of the universe,

inflationary cosmology predicts that after about 10−37
seconds[13] the nascent universe underwent exponential growth
that smoothed out nearly all irregularities. The remaining
irregularities were caused by quantum fluctuations in the
inflation field that caused the inflation event.[14] Long before the
formation of stars and planets, the early universe was smaller,
much hotter and, starting 10−6 seconds after the Big Bang, filled
with a uniform glow from its white-hot fog of interacting plasma
of photons, electrons, and baryons.
As the universe expanded, adiabatic cooling caused the energy

density of the plasma to decrease until it became favorable for
electrons to combine with protons, forming hydrogen atoms. Graph of cosmic microwave background
This recombination event happened when the temperature was spectrum measured by the FIRAS instrument on
around 3000 K or when the universe was approximately the COBE, the most precisely measured black
379,000 years old.[15] As photons did not interact with these body spectrum in nature.[9] The error bars are too
electrically neutral atoms, the former began to travel freely small to be seen even in an enlarged image, and
through space, resulting in the decoupling of matter and it is impossible to distinguish the observed data
radiation.[16] from the theoretical curve.
The color temperature of the ensemble of decoupled photons has

continued to diminish ever since; now down to 2.7260 ± 0.0013 K,[5] it will continue to drop as the universe
expands. The intensity of the radiation corresponds to black-body radiation at 2.726 K because red-shifted
black-body radiation is just like black-body radiation at a lower temperature. According to the Big Bang model,
the radiation from the sky we measure today comes from a spherical surface called the surface of last
scattering. This represents the set of locations in space at which the decoupling event is estimated to have
occurred[17] and at a point in time such that the photons from that distance have just reached observers. Most of
the radiation energy in the universe is in the cosmic microwave background,[18] making up a fraction of roughly
6 × 10−5 of the total density of the universe.[19]
Two of the greatest successes of the Big Bang theory are its prediction of the almost perfect black body spectrum
and its detailed prediction of the anisotropies in the cosmic microwave background. The CMB spectrum has
become the most precisely measured black body spectrum in nature.[9]
The energy density of the CMB is 0.260 eV/cm3 (4.17 × 10−14 J/m3) which yields about 411 photons/cm3.[20]
History
The cosmic microwave background was first predicted in 1948 by Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman, in close
relation to work performed by Alpher's PhD advisor George Gamow.[21][22][23][24] Alpher and Herman were
able to estimate the temperature of the cosmic microwave background to be 5 K, though two years later they re-
estimated it at 28 K. This high estimate was due to a misestimate of the Hubble constant by Alfred Behr, which
could not be replicated and was later abandoned for the earlier estimate. Although there were several previous
estimates of the temperature of space, these suffered from two flaws. First, they were measurements of the
effective temperature of space and did not suggest that space was filled with a thermal Planck spectrum. Next,
they depend on our being at a special spot at the edge of the Milky Way galaxy and they did not suggest the
radiation is isotropic. The estimates would yield very different predictions if Earth happened to be located
elsewhere in the universe.[25]
The 1948 results of Alpher and Herman were discussed in many physics settings through about 1955, when both
left the Applied Physics Laboratory at Johns Hopkins University. The mainstream astronomical community,
however, was not intrigued at the time by cosmology. Alpher and Herman's prediction was rediscovered by
Yakov Zel'dovich in the early 1960s, and independently predicted by Robert Dicke at the same time. The first
published recognition of the CMB radiation as a detectable phenomenon appeared in a brief paper by Soviet
astrophysicists A. G. Doroshkevich and Igor Novikov, in the spring of

1964.[26] In 1964, David Todd Wilkinson and Peter Roll, Dicke's colleagues
at Princeton University, began constructing a Dicke radiometer to measure
the cosmic microwave background.[27] In 1964, Arno Penzias and Robert
Woodrow Wilson at the Crawford Hill location of Bell Telephone
Laboratories in nearby Holmdel Township, New Jersey had built a Dicke
radiometer that they intended to use for radio astronomy and satellite
communication experiments. On 20 May 1964 they made their first
measurement clearly showing the presence of the microwave
background,[28] with their instrument having an excess 4.2K antenna
The Holmdel Horn Antenna on
temperature which they could not account for. After receiving a telephone
which Penzias and Wilson
discovered the cosmic microwave
call from Crawford Hill, Dicke said "Boys, we've been scooped."[2][29][30] A
background. The antenna was
meeting between the Princeton and Crawford Hill groups determined that
constructed in 1959 to support
the antenna temperature was indeed due to the microwave background.
Project Echo—the National Penzias and Wilson received the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physics for their
Aeronautics and Space discovery.[31]
Administration's passive
communications satellites, which The interpretation of the cosmic microwave background was a controversial
used large earth orbiting aluminizedissue in the 1960s with some proponents of the steady state theory arguing
plastic balloons as reflectors to that the microwave background was the result of scattered starlight from
bounce radio signals from one point distant galaxies.[32] Using this model, and based on the study of narrow
on the Earth to another. absorption line features in the spectra of stars, the astronomer Andrew
McKellar wrote in 1941: "It can be calculated that the 'rotational
temperature' of interstellar space is 2 K."[33] However, during the 1970s the
consensus was established that the cosmic microwave background is a remnant of the big bang. This was largely
because new measurements at a range of frequencies showed that the spectrum was a thermal, black body
spectrum, a result that the steady state model was unable to reproduce.[34]
Harrison, Peebles, Yu and Zel'dovich realized that the early universe would have to have inhomogeneities at the
level of 10−4 or 10−5.[35][36][37] Rashid Sunyaev later calculated the observable imprint that these
inhomogeneities would have on the cosmic microwave background.[38] Increasingly stringent limits on the
anisotropy of the cosmic microwave background were set by ground-based experiments during the 1980s.
RELIKT-1, a Soviet cosmic microwave background anisotropy experiment on board the Prognoz 9 satellite
(launched 1 July 1983) gave upper limits on the large-scale anisotropy. The NASA COBE mission clearly
confirmed the primary anisotropy with the Differential Microwave Radiometer instrument, publishing their
findings in 1992.[39][40] The team received the Nobel Prize in physics for 2006 for this discovery.
Inspired by the COBE results, a series of ground and balloon-based experiments measured cosmic microwave
background anisotropies on smaller angular scales over the next decade. The primary goal of these experiments
was to measure the scale of the first acoustic peak, which COBE did not have sufficient resolution to resolve.
This peak corresponds to large scale density variations in the early universe that are created by gravitational
instabilities, resulting in acoustical oscillations in the plasma.[41] The first peak in the anisotropy was tentatively
detected by the Toco experiment and the result was confirmed by the BOOMERanG and MAXIMA
experiments.[42][43][44] These measurements demonstrated that the geometry of the universe is approximately
flat, rather than curved.[45] They ruled out cosmic strings as a major component of cosmic structure formation
and suggested cosmic inflation was the right theory of structure formation.[46]
The second peak was tentatively detected by several experiments before being definitively detected by WMAP,
which has tentatively detected the third peak.[47] As of 2010, several experiments to improve measurements of
the polarization and the microwave background on small angular scales are ongoing. These include DASI,
WMAP, BOOMERanG, QUaD, Planck spacecraft, Atacama Cosmology Telescope, South Pole Telescope and the
QUIET telescope.
Relationship to the Big Bang

The cosmic microwave background

radiation and the cosmological redshift- Nature timeline
distance relation are together regarded 0 — ← Earliest apes / humans
as the best available evidence for the Big Vertebrates ← Earliest mammals
– ← Cambrian explosion
Bang theory. Measurements of the CMB ← Earliest animals / plants
have made the inflationary Big Bang −1 — Multicellular
theory the Standard Cosmological life

– L
← Earliest fungi
Model.[48] The discovery of the CMB in i
the mid-1960s curtailed interest in −2 — f

← Sexual reproduction
alternatives such as the steady state e
– ← Atmospheric oxygen
theory.[49] Photosynthesis
−3 —
In the late 1940s Alpher and Herman
reasoned that if there was a big bang, – ← Earliest oxygen
Single-celled life
the expansion of the universe would −4 — ← Earliest known life
have stretched the high-energy radiation Water
of the very early universe into the – ← Earth / Solar System
microwave region of the −5 — Accelerated expansion
electromagnetic spectrum, and down to
a temperature of about 5 K. They were –
slightly off with their estimate, but they −6 —
had the right idea. They predicted the
CMB. It took another 15 years for – ← Alpha Centauri
Penzias and Wilson to stumble into ← NGC 188 star cluster
−7 —
discovering that the microwave
background was actually there.[50] –
−8 — Matter-dominated
The CMB gives a snapshot of the era

universe when, according to standard –
cosmology, the temperature dropped ← Milky Way spirals
−9 —
enough to allow electrons and protons
to form hydrogen atoms, thereby –
making the universe nearly transparent −10 — ← Andromeda Galaxy
to radiation because light was no longer
being scattered off free electrons. When –
it originated some 380,000 years after −11 —
the Big Bang—this time is generally
known as the "time of last scattering" or – ← Omega Centauri
the period of recombination or −12 —
decoupling—the temperature of the
universe was about 3000 K. This –
corresponds to an energy of about −13 —
0.26 eV,[51] which is much less than the Reionization ← Quasar / black hole
13.6 eV ionization energy of ← Earliest galaxy
Dark Ages ← Earliest stars
hydrogen. [52] ← Earliest Universe
(billion years ago)
Since decoupling, the color temperature
of the background radiation has dropped by an average factor of 1090[53] due to the expansion of the universe.
As the universe expands, the CMB photons are redshifted, causing them to decrease in energy. The color
temperature of this radiation stays inversely proportional to a parameter that describes the relative expansion
of the universe over time, known as the scale length. The color temperature Tr of the CMB as a function of
redshift, z, can be shown to be proportional to the color temperature of the CMB as observed in the present day
(2.725 K or 0.2348 meV):[54]
Tr = 2.725 ⋅ (1 + z)
For details about the reasoning that the radiation is evidence for the Big Bang, see Cosmic background radiation
of the Big Bang.
Primary anisotropy
The anisotropy, or directional dependency, of the cosmic

microwave background is divided into two types: primary
anisotropy, due to effects that occur at the surface of last
scattering and before; and secondary anisotropy, due to effects
such as interactions of the background radiation with
intervening hot gas or gravitational potentials, which occur
between the last scattering surface and the observer.
The structure of the cosmic microwave background anisotropies

is principally determined by two effects: acoustic oscillations and
diffusion damping (also called collisionless damping or Silk
damping). The acoustic oscillations arise because of a conflict in
the photon–baryon plasma in the early universe. The pressure of
the photons tends to erase anisotropies, whereas the The power spectrum of the cosmic microwave
gravitational attraction of the baryons, moving at speeds much background radiation temperature anisotropy in
terms of the angular scale (or multipole moment).
slower than light, makes them tend to collapse to form
The data shown comes from the WMAP (2006),
overdensities. These two effects compete to create acoustic
Acbar (2004) Boomerang (2005), CBI (2004), and
oscillations, which give the microwave background its
VSA (2004) instruments. Also shown is a
characteristic peak structure. The peaks correspond, roughly, to
theoretical model (solid line).
resonances in which the photons decouple when a particular
mode is at its peak amplitude.
The peaks contain interesting physical signatures. The angular scale of the first peak determines the curvature
of the universe (but not the topology of the universe). The next peak—ratio of the odd peaks to the even peaks—
determines the reduced baryon density.[55] The third peak can be used to get information about the dark-matter
density.[56]
The locations of the peaks give important information about the nature of the primordial density perturbations.
There are two fundamental types of density perturbations called adiabatic and isocurvature. A general density
perturbation is a mixture of both, and different theories that purport to explain the primordial density
perturbation spectrum predict different mixtures.
Adiabatic density perturbations

In an adiabatic density perturbation, the fractional additional number density of each type of particle
(baryons, photons ...) is the same. That is, if at one place there is a 1% higher number density of baryons
than average, then at that place there is a 1% higher number density of photons (and a 1% higher number
density in neutrinos) than average. Cosmic inflation predicts that the primordial perturbations are
adiabatic.
Isocurvature density perturbations
In an isocurvature density perturbation, the sum (over different types of particle) of the fractional additional
densities is zero. That is, a perturbation where at some spot there is 1% more energy in baryons than
average, 1% more energy in photons than average, and 2% less energy in neutrinos than average, would
be a pure isocurvature perturbation. Hypothetical cosmic strings would produce mostly isocurvature
primordial perturbations.
The CMB spectrum can distinguish between these two because these two types of perturbations produce
different peak locations. Isocurvature density perturbations produce a series of peaks whose angular scales ( ℓ
values of the peaks) are roughly in the ratio 1 : 3 : 5 : ..., while adiabatic density perturbations produce peaks
whose locations are in the ratio 1 : 2 : 3 : ...[57] Observations are consistent with the primordial density
perturbations being entirely adiabatic, providing key support for inflation, and ruling out many models of
structure formation involving, for example, cosmic strings.
Collisionless damping is caused by two effects, when the treatment of the primordial plasma as fluid begins to
break down:
the increasing mean free path of the photons as the primordial plasma becomes increasingly rarefied in an
expanding universe,
the finite depth of the last scattering surface (LSS), which causes the mean free path to increase rapidly
during decoupling, even while some Compton scattering is still occurring.
These effects contribute about equally to the suppression of anisotropies at small scales and give rise to the
characteristic exponential damping tail seen in the very small angular scale anisotropies.
The depth of the LSS refers to the fact that the decoupling of the photons and baryons does not happen
instantaneously, but instead requires an appreciable fraction of the age of the universe up to that era. One
method of quantifying how long this process took uses the photon visibility function (PVF). This function is
defined so that, denoting the PVF by P(t), the probability that a CMB photon last scattered between time t and
t + dt is given by P(t) dt.
The maximum of the PVF (the time when it is most likely that a given CMB photon last scattered) is known
quite precisely. The first-year WMAP results put the time at which P(t) has a maximum as 372,000 years.[58]
This is often taken as the "time" at which the CMB formed. However, to figure out how long it took the photons
and baryons to decouple, we need a measure of the width of the PVF. The WMAP team finds that the PVF is
greater than half of its maximal value (the "full width at half maximum", or FWHM) over an interval of 115,000
years. By this measure, decoupling took place over roughly 115,000 years, and when it was complete, the
universe was roughly 487,000 years old.
Late time anisotropy
Since the CMB came into existence, it has apparently been modified by several subsequent physical processes,
which are collectively referred to as late-time anisotropy, or secondary anisotropy. When the CMB photons
became free to travel unimpeded, ordinary matter in the universe was mostly in the form of neutral hydrogen
and helium atoms. However, observations of galaxies today seem to indicate that most of the volume of the
intergalactic medium (IGM) consists of ionized material (since there are few absorption lines due to hydrogen
atoms). This implies a period of reionization during which some of the material of the universe was broken into
hydrogen ions.
The CMB photons are scattered by free charges such as electrons that are not bound in atoms. In an ionized
universe, such charged particles have been liberated from neutral atoms by ionizing (ultraviolet) radiation.
Today these free charges are at sufficiently low density in most of the volume of the universe that they do not
measurably affect the CMB. However, if the IGM was ionized at very early times when the universe was still
denser, then there are two main effects on the CMB:
1. Small scale anisotropies are erased. (Just as when looking at an object through fog, details of the object
appear fuzzy.)
2. The physics of how photons are scattered by free electrons (Thomson scattering) induces polarization
anisotropies on large angular scales. This broad angle polarization is correlated with the broad angle
temperature perturbation.
Both of these effects have been observed by the WMAP spacecraft, providing evidence that the universe was
ionized at very early times, at a redshift more than 17. The detailed provenance of this early ionizing radiation is
still a matter of scientific debate. It may have included starlight from the very first population of stars
(population III stars), supernovae when these first stars reached the end of their lives, or the ionizing radiation
produced by the accretion disks of massive black holes.
The time following the emission of the cosmic microwave background—and before the observation of the first
stars—is semi-humorously referred to by cosmologists as the Dark Age, and is a period which is under intense
study by astronomers (see 21 centimeter radiation).
Two other effects which occurred between reionization and our observations of the cosmic microwave
background, and which appear to cause anisotropies, are the Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect, where a cloud of high-
energy electrons scatters the radiation, transferring some of its energy to the CMB photons, and the Sachs–
Wolfe effect, which causes photons from the Cosmic Microwave Background to be gravitationally redshifted or
blueshifted due to changing gravitational fields.
Polarization
The cosmic microwave background is polarized at the level of a few
microkelvin. There are two types of polarization, called E-modes and B-modes.
This is in analogy to electrostatics, in which the electric field (E-field) has a
vanishing curl and the magnetic field (B-field) has a vanishing divergence. The
E-modes arise naturally from Thomson scattering in a heterogeneous plasma.
The B-modes are not produced by standard scalar type perturbations. Instead
they can be created by two mechanisms: the first one is by gravitational lensing
of E-modes, which has been measured by the South Pole Telescope in 2013;[59]
the second one is from gravitational waves arising from cosmic inflation. This artist's impression shows
Detecting the B-modes is extremely difficult, particularly as the degree of how light from the early universe
foreground contamination is unknown, and the weak gravitational lensing is deflected by the gravitational
signal mixes the relatively strong E-mode signal with the B-mode signal.[60] lensing effect of massive cosmic
structures forming B-modes as it
travels across the universe.
E-modes
E-modes were first seen in 2002 by the Degree Angular Scale Interferometer (DASI).
B-modes
Cosmologists predict two types of B-modes, the first generated during cosmic inflation shortly after the big
bang,[61][62][63] and the second generated by gravitational lensing at later times.[64]
Primordial gravitational waves
Primordial gravitational waves are gravitational waves that could be observed in the polarisation of the cosmic
microwave background and having their origin in the early universe. Models of cosmic inflation predict that
such gravitational waves should appear; thus, their detection supports the theory of inflation, and their strength
can confirm and exclude different models of inflation. It is the result of three things: inflationary expansion of
space itself, reheating after inflation, and turbulent fluid mixing of matter and radiation.
[65]
On 17 March 2014 it was announced that the BICEP2 instrument had detected the first type of B-modes,
+0.07
consistent with inflation and gravitational waves in the early universe at the level of r = 0.20 −0.05, which is the
amount of power present in gravitational waves compared to the amount of power present in other scalar
density perturbations in the very early universe. Had this been confirmed it would have provided strong
evidence for cosmic inflation and the Big Bang[66][67]
[68][69]
[70][71][72] and against the ekpyrotic model of Paul
Steinhardt and Neil Turok.[73] However, on 19 June 2014, considerably lowered confidence in confirming the
findings was reported[71][74][75]
and on 19 September 2014 new results of the Planck experiment reported that
the results of BICEP2 can be fully attributed to cosmic dust.[76][77]
Gravitational lensing
The second type of B-modes was discovered in 2013 using the South Pole Telescope with help from the Herschel
Space Observatory.[78] In October 2014, a measurement of the B-mode polarization at 150 GHz was published
by the POLARBEAR experiment.[79] Compared to BICEP2, POLARBEAR focuses on a smaller patch of the sky
and is less susceptible to dust effects. The team reported that POLARBEAR's measured B-mode polarization
was of cosmological origin (and not just due to dust) at a 97.2% confidence level.[80]
Microwave background observations

Subsequent to the discovery of the CMB, hundreds of cosmic microwave background experiments have been
conducted to measure and characterize the signatures of the radiation. The most famous experiment is probably
the NASA Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite that orbited in 1989–1996 and which detected and
quantified the large scale anisotropies at the limit of its detection capabilities. Inspired by the initial COBE
results of an extremely isotropic and homogeneous background, a series of ground- and balloon-based
experiments quantified CMB anisotropies on smaller angular scales over the next decade. The primary goal of
these experiments was to measure the angular scale of the first acoustic peak, for which COBE did not have
sufficient resolution. These measurements were able to rule out cosmic strings as the leading theory of cosmic
structure formation, and suggested cosmic inflation was the right theory. During the 1990s, the first peak was
measured with increasing sensitivity and by 2000 the BOOMERanG experiment reported that the highest
power fluctuations occur at scales of approximately one degree. Together with other cosmological data, these
results implied that the geometry of the universe is flat. A number of ground-based interferometers provided
measurements of the fluctuations with higher accuracy over the next three years, including the Very Small
Array, Degree Angular Scale Interferometer (DASI), and the Cosmic Background Imager (CBI). DASI made the
first detection of the polarization of the CMB and the CBI provided the first E-mode polarization spectrum with
compelling evidence that it is out of phase with the T-mode spectrum.
All-sky mollweide map of the CMB, created from Planck spacecraft data
In June 2001, NASA launched a second CMB space mission, WMAP, to make much more precise measurements
of the large scale anisotropies over the full sky. WMAP used symmetric, rapid-multi-modulated scanning, rapid
switching radiometers to minimize non-sky signal noise.[53] The first results from this mission, disclosed in
2003, were detailed measurements of the angular power spectrum at a scale of less than one degree, tightly
constraining various cosmological parameters. The results are broadly consistent with those expected from
cosmic inflation as well as various other competing theories, and are available in detail at NASA's data bank for
Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) (see links below). Although WMAP provided very accurate
measurements of the large scale angular fluctuations in the CMB

(structures about as broad in the sky as the moon), it did not have the
angular resolution to measure the smaller scale fluctuations which had
been observed by former ground-based interferometers.
A third space mission, the ESA (European Space Agency) Planck

Surveyor, was launched in May 2009 and performed an even more
detailed investigation until it was shut down in October 2013. Planck
employed both HEMT radiometers and bolometer technology and Comparison of CMB results from
measured the CMB at a smaller scale than WMAP. Its detectors were COBE, WMAP and Planck
(March 21, 2013)

trialled in the Antarctic Viper telescope as ACBAR (Arcminute Cosmology
Bolometer Array Receiver) experiment—which has produced the most
precise measurements at small angular scales to date—and in the
Archeops balloon telescope.
On 21 March 2013, the European-led research team behind the Planck cosmology probe released the mission's
all-sky map (565x318 jpeg (https://web.archive.org/web/20131202233029/http://esacmt.esac.esa.int/science-
e-media/img/61/51553_Planck_CMB_Mollweide_565.jpg), 3600x1800 jpeg (http://www.nasa.gov/images/co
ntent/735683main_pia16873-full_full.jpg)) of the cosmic microwave background.[81][82] The map suggests the
universe is slightly older than researchers expected. According to the map, subtle fluctuations in temperature
were imprinted on the deep sky when the cosmos was about 370 000 years old. The imprint reflects ripples that
arose as early, in the existence of the universe, as the first nonillionth of a second. Apparently, these ripples gave
rise to the present vast cosmic web of galaxy clusters and dark matter. Based on the 2013 data, the universe
contains 4.9% ordinary matter, 26.8% dark matter and 68.3% dark energy. On 5 February 2015, new data was
released by the Planck mission, according to which the age of the universe is 13.799 ± 0.021 billion years old
and the Hubble constant was measured to be 67.74 ± 0.46 (km/s)/Mpc.[83]
Additional ground-based instruments such as the South Pole Telescope in Antarctica and the proposed Clover
Project, Atacama Cosmology Telescope and the QUIET telescope in Chile will provide additional data not
available from satellite observations, possibly including the B-mode polarization.
Data reduction and analysis

Raw CMBR data, even from space vehicles such as WMAP or Planck, contain foreground effects that completely
obscure the fine-scale structure of the cosmic microwave background. The fine-scale structure is superimposed
on the raw CMBR data but is too small to be seen at the scale of the raw data. The most prominent of the
foreground effects is the dipole anisotropy caused by the Sun's motion relative to the CMBR background. The
dipole anisotropy and others due to Earth's annual motion relative to the Sun and numerous microwave sources
in the galactic plane and elsewhere must be subtracted out to reveal the extremely tiny variations characterizing
the fine-scale structure of the CMBR background.
The detailed analysis of CMBR data to produce maps, an angular power spectrum, and ultimately cosmological
parameters is a complicated, computationally difficult problem. Although computing a power spectrum from a
map is in principle a simple Fourier transform, decomposing the map of the sky into spherical harmonics,[84]
where the term measures the mean temperature and term accounts for the fluctuation, where the
refers to a spherical harmonic, and ℓ is the multipole number while m is the azimuthal number.
By applying the angular correlation function, the sum can be reduced to an expression that only involves ℓ and
power spectrum term The angled brackets indicate the average with respect to all observers in
the universe; since the universe is homogenous and isotropic, therefore there is an absence of preferred
observing direction. Thus, C is independent of m. Different choices of ℓ correspond to multipole moments of

CMB.
In practice it is hard to take the effects of noise and foreground sources into account. In particular, these
foregrounds are dominated by galactic emissions such as Bremsstrahlung, synchrotron, and dust that emit in
the microwave band; in practice, the galaxy has to be removed, resulting in a CMB map that is not a full-sky
map. In addition, point sources like galaxies and clusters represent another source of foreground which must be
removed so as not to distort the short scale structure of the CMB power spectrum.
Constraints on many cosmological parameters can be obtained from their effects on the power spectrum, and
results are often calculated using Markov chain Monte Carlo sampling techniques.
CMBR monopole term (ℓ = 0)
When ℓ = 0, the term reduced to 1, and what we have left here is just the mean temperature of the CMB.
This "mean" is called CMB monopole, and it is observed to have an average temperature of about Tγ = 2.7255 ±
0.0006K[84] with one standard deviation confidence. The accuracy of this mean temperature may be impaired
by the diverse measurements done by different mapping measurements. Such measurements demand absolute
temperature devices, such as the FIRAS instrument on the COBE satellite. The measured kTγ is equivalent to
0.234 meV or 4.6 × 10−10 mec2. The photon number density of a blackbody having such temperature is
. Its energy density is , and
the ratio to the critical density is Ωγ = 5.38 × 10−5.[84]
CMBR dipole anisotropy (ℓ = 1)
CMB dipole represents the largest anisotropy, which is in the first spherical harmonic (ℓ = 1). When ℓ = 1, the
term reduces to one cosine function and thus encodes amplitude fluctuation. The amplitude of CMB
dipole is around 3.3621 ± 0.0010 mK.[84] Since the universe is presumed to be homogenous and isotropic, an
observer should see the blackbody spectrum with temperature T at every point in the sky. The spectrum of the
dipole has been confirmed to be the differential of a blackbody spectrum.
CMB dipole is frame-dependent. The CMB dipole moment could also be interpreted as the peculiar motion of
the Earth toward the CMB. Its amplitude depends on the time due to the Earth's orbit about the barycenter of
the solar system. This enables us to add a time-dependent term to the dipole expression. The modulation of this
term is 1 year,[84][85] which fits the observation done by COBE FIRAS.[85][86] The dipole moment does not
encode any primordial information.
From the CMB data, it is seen that the Sun appears to be moving at 368 ± 2 km/s relative to the reference frame
of the CMB (also called the CMB rest frame, or the frame of reference in which there is no motion through the
CMB). The Local Group — the galaxy group that includes our own Milky Way galaxy — appears to be moving at
627 ± 22 km/s in the direction of galactic longitude ℓ = 276° ± 3°, b = 30° ± 3°.[84][12] This motion results in an
anisotropy of the data (CMB appearing slightly warmer in the direction of movement than in the opposite
direction).[84] The standard interpretation of this temperature variation is a simple velocity redshift and
blueshift due to motion relative to the CMB, but alternative cosmological models can explain some fraction of
the observed dipole temperature distribution in the CMB.
Multipole (ℓ ≥ 2)
The temperature variation in the CMB temperature maps at higher multipoles, or ℓ ≥ 2, is considered to be the
result of perturbations of the density in the early Universe, before the recombination epoch. Before
recombination, the Universe consisted of a hot, dense plasma of electrons and baryons. In such a hot dense
environment, electrons and protons could not form any neutral atoms. The baryons in such early Universe
remained highly ionized and so were tightly coupled with photons through the effect of Thompson scattering.
These phenomena caused the pressure and gravitational effects to act against each other, and triggered
fluctuations in the photon-baryon plasma. Quickly after the recombination epoch, the rapid expansion of the
universe caused the plasma to cool down and these fluctuations are "frozen into" the CMB maps we observe
today. The said procedure happened at a redshift of around z ⋍ 1100.[84]
Other anomalies
With the increasingly precise data provided by WMAP, there have been a number of claims that the CMB
exhibits anomalies, such as very large scale anisotropies, anomalous alignments, and non-Gaussian
distributions.[87][88][89] The most longstanding of these is the low-ℓ multipole controversy. Even in the COBE
map, it was observed that the quadrupole ( ℓ = 2, spherical harmonic) has a low amplitude compared to the
predictions of the Big Bang. In particular, the quadrupole and octupole ( ℓ = 3) modes appear to have an
unexplained alignment with each other and with both the ecliptic plane and equinoxes.[90][91][92] A number of
groups have suggested that this could be the signature of new physics at the greatest observable scales; other
groups suspect systematic errors in the data.[93][94][95]
Ultimately, due to the foregrounds and the cosmic variance problem, the greatest modes will never be as well
measured as the small angular scale modes. The analyses were performed on two maps that have had the
foregrounds removed as far as possible: the "internal linear combination" map of the WMAP collaboration and
a similar map prepared by Max Tegmark and others.[47][53][96] Later analyses have pointed out that these are
the modes most susceptible to foreground contamination from synchrotron, dust, and Bremsstrahlung
emission, and from experimental uncertainty in the monopole and dipole.
A full Bayesian analysis of the WMAP power spectrum demonstrates that the quadrupole prediction of Lambda-
CDM cosmology is consistent with the data at the 10% level and that the observed octupole is not
remarkable.[97] Carefully accounting for the procedure used to remove the foregrounds from the full sky map
further reduces the significance of the alignment by ~5%.[98][99][100][101]
Recent observations with the Planck
telescope, which is very much more sensitive than WMAP and has a larger angular resolution, record the same
anomaly, and so instrumental error (but not foreground contamination) appears to be ruled out.[102]
Coincidence is a possible explanation, chief scientist from WMAP, Charles L. Bennett suggested coincidence
and human psychology were involved, "I do think there is a bit of a psychological effect; people want to find
unusual things."[103]
Future evolution
Assuming the universe keeps expanding and it does not suffer a Big Crunch, a Big Rip, or another similar fate,
the cosmic microwave background will continue redshifting until it will no longer be detectable,[104] and will be
superseded first by the one produced by starlight, and perhaps, later by the background radiation fields of
processes that may take place in the far future of the universe such as proton decay, evaporation of black holes,
and positronium decay.[105]
Timeline of prediction, discovery and interpretation
Thermal (non-microwave background) temperature predictions

1896 – Charles Édouard Guillaume estimates the "radiation of the stars" to be 5–6K.[106]
1926 – Sir Arthur Eddington estimates the non-thermal radiation of starlight in the galaxy "... by the formula
E = σT4 the effective temperature corresponding to this density is 3.18° absolute ... black body"[107]
1930s – Cosmologist Erich Regener calculates that the non-thermal spectrum of cosmic rays in the galaxy
has an effective temperature of 2.8 K
1931 – Term microwave first used in print: "When trials with wavelengths as low as 18 cm. were made
known, there was undisguised surprise+that the problem of the micro-wave had been solved so soon."
Telegraph & Telephone Journal XVII. 179/1
1934 – Richard Tolman shows that black-body radiation in an expanding universe cools but remains thermal
1938 – Nobel Prize winner (1920) Walther Nernst reestimates the cosmic ray temperature as 0.75K
1946 – Robert Dicke predicts "... radiation from cosmic matter" at <20 K, but did not refer to background
radiation [108]
1946 – George Gamow calculates a temperature of 50 K (assuming a 3-billion year old universe),[109]
commenting it "... is in reasonable agreement with the actual temperature of interstellar space", but does not
mention background radiation.[110]
1953 – Erwin Finlay-Freundlich in support of his tired light theory, derives a blackbody temperature for
intergalactic space of 2.3K [111] with comment from Max Born suggesting radio astronomy as the arbitrator
between expanding and infinite cosmologies.
Microwave background radiation predictions and measurements

1941 – Andrew McKellar detected the cosmic microwave background as the coldest component of the
interstellar medium by using the excitation of CN doublet lines measured by W. S. Adams in a B star, finding
an "effective temperature of space" (the average bolometric temperature) of 2.3 K[33][112]
1946 – George Gamow calculates a temperature of 50 K (assuming a 3-billion year old universe),[109]
commenting it "... is in reasonable agreement with the actual temperature of interstellar space", but does not
mention background radiation.
1948 – Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman estimate "the temperature in the universe" at 5 K. Although they
do not specifically mention microwave background radiation, it may be inferred.[113]
1949 – Ralph Alpher and Robert Herman re-re-estimate the temperature at 28 K.
1953 – George Gamow estimates 7 K.[108]
1956 – George Gamow estimates 6 K.[108]
1955 – Émile Le Roux of the Nançay Radio Observatory, in a sky survey at λ = 33 cm, reported a near-
isotropic background radiation of 3 kelvins, plus or minus 2.[108]
1957 – Tigran Shmaonov reports that "the absolute effective temperature of the radioemission background
... is 4±3 K".[114] It is noted that the "measurements showed that radiation intensity was independent of
either time or direction of observation ... it is now clear that Shmaonov did observe the cosmic microwave
background at a wavelength of 3.2 cm"[115][116]
1960s – Robert Dicke re-estimates a microwave background radiation temperature of 40 K[108][117]
1964 – A. G. Doroshkevich and Igor Dmitrievich Novikov publish a brief paper suggesting microwave
searches for the black-body radiation predicted by Gamow, Alpher, and Herman, where they name the CMB
radiation phenomenon as detectable.[118]
1964–65 – Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson measure the temperature to be approximately 3 K.
Robert Dicke, James Peebles, P. G. Roll, and D. T. Wilkinson interpret this radiation as a signature of the
big bang.
1966 – Rainer K. Sachs and Arthur M. Wolfe theoretically predict microwave background fluctuation
amplitudes created by gravitational potential variations between observers and the last scattering surface
(see Sachs-Wolfe effect)
1968 – Martin Rees and Dennis Sciama theoretically predict microwave background fluctuation amplitudes
created by photons traversing time-dependent potential wells
1969 – R. A. Sunyaev and Yakov Zel'dovich study the inverse Compton scattering of microwave
background photons by hot electrons (see Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect)
1983 – Researchers from the Cambridge Radio Astronomy Group and the Owens Valley Radio Observatory
first detect the Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect from clusters of galaxies
1983 – RELIKT-1 Soviet CMB anisotropy experiment was launched.
1990 – FIRAS on the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) satellite measures the black body form of the
CMB spectrum with exquisite precision, and shows that the microwave background has a nearly perfect
black-body spectrum and thereby strongly constrains the density of the intergalactic medium.
January 1992 – Scientists that analysed data from the RELIKT-1 report the discovery of anisotropy in the
cosmic microwave background at the Moscow astrophysical seminar.[119]
1992 – Scientists that analysed data from COBE DMR report the discovery of anisotropy in the cosmic
microwave background.[120]
1995 – The Cosmic Anisotropy Telescope performs the first high resolution observations of the cosmic
microwave background.
1999 – First measurements of acoustic oscillations in the CMB anisotropy angular power spectrum from the
TOCO, BOOMERANG, and Maxima Experiments. The BOOMERanG experiment makes higher quality
maps at intermediate resolution, and confirms that the universe is "flat".
2002 – Polarization discovered by DASI.[121]
2003 – E-mode polarization spectrum obtained by the CBI.[122] The CBI and the Very Small Array produces
yet higher quality maps at high resolution (covering small areas of the sky).
2003 – The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe spacecraft produces an even higher quality map at low
and intermediate resolution of the whole sky (WMAP provides no high-resolution data, but improves on the
intermediate resolution maps from BOOMERanG).
2004 – E-mode polarization spectrum obtained by the CBI.[123]
2004 – The Arcminute Cosmology Bolometer Array Receiver produces a higher quality map of the high
resolution structure not mapped by WMAP.
2005 – The Arcminute Microkelvin Imager and the Sunyaev–Zel'dovich Array begin the first surveys for very
high redshift clusters of galaxies using the Sunyaev–Zel'dovich effect.
2005 – Ralph A. Alpher is awarded the National Medal of Science for his groundbreaking work in
nucleosynthesis and prediction that the universe expansion leaves behind background radiation, thus
providing a model for the Big Bang theory.
2006 – The long-awaited three-year WMAP results are released, confirming previous analysis, correcting
several points, and including polarization data.
2006 – Two of COBE's principal investigators, George Smoot and John Mather, received the Nobel Prize in
Physics in 2006 for their work on precision measurement of the CMBR.
2006–2011 – Improved measurements from WMAP, new supernova surveys ESSENCE and SNLS, and
baryon acoustic oscillations from SDSS and WiggleZ, continue to be consistent with the standard Lambda-
CDM model.
2010 – The first all-sky map from the Planck telescope is released.
2013 – An improved all-sky map from the Planck telescope is released, improving the measurements of
WMAP and extending them to much smaller scales.
2014 – On March 17, 2014, astrophysicists of the BICEP2 collaboration announced the detection of
inflationary gravitational waves in the B-mode power spectrum, which if confirmed, would provide clear
experimental evidence for the theory of inflation.[66][67][68][69][71][124] However, on 19 June 2014, lowered
confidence in confirming the cosmic inflation findings was reported.[71][74][75]
2015 – On January 30, 2015, the same team of astronomers from BICEP2 withdrew the claim made on the
previous year. Based on the combined data of BICEP2 and Planck, the European Space Agency
announced that the signal can be entirely attributed to dust in the Milky Way.[125]
2018 – The final data and maps from the Planck telescope is released, with improved measurements of the
polarization on large scales.[126]
2019 – Planck telescope analyses of their final 2018 data continue to be released.[127]
In popular culture
In the Stargate Universe TV series (2009-2011), an Ancient spaceship, Destiny, was built to study patterns
in the CMBR which indicate that the universe as we know it might have been created by some form of
sentient intelligence.
In Wheelers, a novel (2000) by Ian Stewart & Jack Cohen, CMBR is explained as the encrypted
transmissions of an ancient civilization. This allows the Jovian "blimps" to have a society older than the
currently-observed age of the universe.
In The Three-Body Problem, a 2008 novel by Liu Cixin, a probe from an alien civilization compromises
instruments monitoring the CMBR in order to deceive a character into believing the civilization has the
power to manipulate the CMBR itself.
The 2017 issue of the Swiss 20 francs bill lists several astronomical objects with their distances – the CMB
is mentioned with 430 · 1015 light-seconds.
In the 2021 Marvel series WandaVision, a mysterious television broadcast is discovered within the Cosmic
Microwave Background.
See also
Computational packages for cosmologists
Cosmic neutrino background
Cosmic microwave background spectral distortions – Fluctuations in the energy spectrum of the microwave
background
Cosmological perturbation theory
Axis of evil (cosmology) – Name given to an anomaly in astronomical observations of the Cosmic
Microwave Background
Gravitational wave background
Heat death of the universe – Possible "fate" of the universe.
Horizons: Exploring the Universe
Lambda-CDM model – Model of big-bang cosmology
Observational cosmology – Study of the origin of the universe (structure and evolution)
Observation history of galaxies – Astronomical structure
Physical cosmology – Branch of cosmology which studies mathematical models of the universe
Timeline of cosmological theories – Timeline of theories about physical cosmology
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rd.edu/abs/2002Natur.420..772K). doi:10.1038/nature01269 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature01269).
PMID 12490941 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12490941). S2CID 4359884 (https://api.semanticscholar.
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123. A. Readhead et al., "Polarization observations with the Cosmic Background Imager", Science 306, 836–844
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Further reading
Balbi, Amedeo (2008). The music of the big bang : the cosmic microwave background and the new
cosmology. Berlin: Springer. ISBN 978-3540787266.
Evans, Rhodri (2015). The Cosmic Microwave Background: How It Changed Our Understanding of the
Universe. Springer. ISBN 9783319099279.
External links
Student Friendly Intro to the CMB (http://www.quantumfieldtheory.info/cmb.pdf) A pedagogic, step-by-step
introduction to the cosmic microwave background power spectrum analysis suitable for those with an
undergraduate physics background. More in depth than typical online sites. Less dense than cosmology
texts.
CMBR Theme on arxiv.org (http://xstructure.inr.ac.ru/x-bin/theme3.py?level=3&index1=87807)
Audio: Fraser Cain and Dr. Pamela Gay – Astronomy Cast. The Big Bang and Cosmic Microwave
Background – October 2006 (http://www.astronomycast.com/cosmology/the-big-bang-and-cosmic-microwav
e-background/)
Visualization of the CMB data from the Planck mission (http://thecmb.org)
Copeland, Ed. "CMBR: Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation" (http://www.sixtysymbols.com/videos/CM
BR.htm). Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.
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2/17/22, 3:51 AM Cosmic microwave background - Wikipedia

Cosmic microwave background

Importance of precise measurement

In the Big Bang model for the formation of the universe,

As the universe expanded, adiabatic cooling caused the energy

The color temperature of the ensemble of decoupled photons has

astrophysicists A. G. Doroshkevich and Igor Novikov, in the spring of

Relationship to the Big Bang

The cosmic microwave background

theory the Standard Cosmological life

the mid-1960s curtailed interest in −2 — f

The CMB gives a snapshot of the era

The anisotropy, or directional dependency, of the cosmic

The structure of the cosmic microwave background anisotropies

Adiabatic density perturbations

Late time anisotropy

Primordial gravitational waves

Microwave background observations

measurements of the large scale angular fluctuations in the CMB

A third space mission, the ESA (European Space Agency) Planck

(March 21, 2013)

Data reduction and analysis

observing direction. Thus, C is independent of m. Different choices of ℓ correspond to multipole moments of

CMBR monopole term (ℓ = 0)

CMBR dipole anisotropy (ℓ = 1)

Timeline of prediction, discovery and interpretation

Thermal (non-microwave background) temperature predictions

Microwave background radiation predictions and measurements

7. Baumann, D. (2011). "The Physics of Inflation" (https://web.archive.org/web/20180921195002/http://www.da

85. Bennett, C. "COBE Differential Microwave Radiometers: Calibration Techniques" (http://articles.adsabs.harv

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cosmic_microwave_background&oldid=1072376045"

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