EDUC 311: FACILITATING LEARNER-

CENTERED TEACHING

MODULE 3

COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES

The term Cognitive learning derives its meaning from the word cognition, defined by an electronic
dictionary, as “the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought,
experience, and the senses.” Thus learners are viewed to learn by using their brains. In the process, they are
actively engaged in mental activities involving perception, thinking, and relying on their memory as they process
new experiences. Through the connections of these old and new experiences, the acquisition of knowledge and
understanding results exist.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the lesson, the student must have:
1. Explained the meaning of cognitive learning theories;
2. Differentiated the cognitive learning theories by citing their key features
3. Cite empirical proofs of the cognitive learning theories
4. Identified the teaching implications of the cognitive learning theories

CONTENT

Lesson 1:

PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

In his theory of cognitive development, Jean Piaget argued that children’s development is influenced
by biological maturation and their interaction with the environment. Children undergo a similar order of stages of
development. Owing to varied circumstances, the children are exposed to, the rate at which children go through
the stages differ. Some children may even miss the later stages of cognitive development.
How Learning Occurs
To explain how cognitive development happens, Piaget introduced the concepts of schema, assimilation,
and accommodation. He defined schemas as “a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component
actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning” (Piaget, 1952. It is the person’s way of

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organizing knowledge. Viewed like the central processing unit of a computer, schemata (plural form) are like
individual files representing an aspect of the world like objects, actions, and concepts. Schemata guide the
person’s way of responding to a new experience. Piaget used the term adaptation to refer to the ability to adjust
to a piece of new information or experience, making it possible for the person to cope with the change. If the
person can adapt to every experience, learning happens.
Consider the story of Jayden, a boy who is no more than 2 years old, who formed the concept of “dog”
as he played very often with Starbucks, a Shih Tzu, the family dog. When introduced to a poodle, he called the
same as “dog”. One day, he saw the neighbor’s cat and shouted “dog” to get the attention of his mother.
Jayden’s schema for dogs includes having a small furry body, with four legs, a waggling tail, and barking
ability. Calling the poodle “dog” is a case of assimilation, the process of taking new information into the existing
schema. When the mother explained that dogs bark but cats meow, Jayden accommodated the new experience,
thus, his schema for “cats” was created. Accommodation involves changing or altering existing schemas owing
to the new information provided or learned. The balance between assimilation and accommodation is achieved
through a mechanism, which Piaget called equilibration. This ability is believed to be a factor in children’s ability
to move from one stage to another in cognitive development. If the person is unable to take a balance of these
two processes, disequilibrium occurs (see Figure 3).

Figure 3. Adaptive processes of schema development. Adapted from McLeod (2018).

Stages of Cognitive Development

To Piaget, cognitive development among children has four phases (see Figure 4). Children generally
move through these different stages of mental development. Each stage describes how children acquire
knowledge and the nature of intelligence.

Figure 4. Piaget’s stages of cognitive development.

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 The milestones in terms of cognitive abilities children manifest in the different stages are summarized
as follows:
Stage Milestones
Sensorimotor Learns through reflexes, senses, and movement – actions on the environment. Begins to
(0 – 2 years) imitate others and remember events; shifts to symbolic thinking. Comes to understand that
objects do not cease to exist when they are out of sight-object permanence. Moves from
reflexive actions to intentional activity.
Preoperational Begins about the time the child starts talking, to about seven years old. Develops language
(2 – 7 years) and begins to use symbols to represent objects. Has difficulty with past and future- thinks
in the present. Can think through operations logically in one direction. Has problems
understanding the point of view of another person.
Concrete Operational Begins about first grade, to early adolescence, around 11 years old. Can think logically
(7 – 11 years) about concrete (hands-on) problems. Understands conversation and organizes things into
categories and in series. Can reverse thinking to mentally “undo” actions. Understands the
past, present, and future.
Formal Operational Can think hypothetically and deductively. Thinking becomes more scientific. Solves abstract
(12 years and up) problems logically. Can consider multiple perspectives and develops concerns about social
issues, personal identity, and justice.
Adapted from Woolfolk (2016)
Sensorimotor Stage. Children at this stage think through what they see, hear, move, touch, and taste.
Two major accomplishments happen at this stage. One is object permanence, the belief that an object still exists
even if not within the sight of the child. Even when the mother leaves for work, the child is aware that the mother
comes home in the afternoon. The other major achievement children demonstrate in this stage is goal-directed
actions. Initially, children do not think about what they do these actions are instinctive and involuntary (e.g., getting
food and family attention). Later, Piaget believed that as children grow, they begin to think about what they need
to accomplish, how to do it, then act on it.
Preoperational Stage. At this stage, children have not yet mastered mental operations because they
use action schemes connected to physical manipulations, not logical reasoning. By operations, it means actions
a person carries out by thinking them through instead of performing them (Woolfolk, 2016). The case of
kindergarten learners using sticks to count illustrate this preoperational ability.
Another ability demonstrated at this stage is children’s ability to form and use symbols to represent a
physical action or reality; this is a semiotic function. A child’s ability to identify from a book the picture of a bird
illustrates this skill.
Concrete Operational Stage. Concrete operations are described by Piaget as the ability to engage in
“hands-on” thinking. A major ability at this stage is reversible thinking, thinking backward, from the end to the
beginning (Woolfolk, 2016). Reversibility involves conversation and decentration. Conservation is the belief that,
whatever the arrangement or appearance of the object, as long as there is nothing added or decreased, the
number or amount of the object would remain the same. A related skill is decentration, the children’s ability to
focus on more than one dimension of an object at a time. Children at this stage would understand that the smaller
but wider glass contains the same amount of fruit juice with the content of the tall but narrower glass. These
children not only focus on the height of the glass but also considers its width. The width of the narrow glass
compensates the shortness of its height. Figure 5 shows sample conversation tasks.

PIAGET’S CONSERVATION TASKS

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 Figure 6. Sample Piagetian conservation tasks.

Classification is another skill at this stage. It involves the ability to group similar objects in terms of color,
shape, use, etc. For example, children would group balls, wheels, marbles as round objects; that 4, 12, 36 are
numbers divisible by 4. A related skill is seriation, the ability to arrange objects according to size, like small to
smallest, far to farthest, etc. That a bull is big, the carabos is bigger, and the elephant is the biggest best illustrates
this ability.
Formal Operational Stage. At this stage, adolescents can engage in mental processes involving
abstract thinking and coordination of some variables (Woolfolk, 2016). All the earlier mental abilities have been
mastered. The adolescents can now think like a scientist, as they can give hypotheses and conjectures about the
problem, set up experiments to test them, and control extraneous variables to arrive at a valid and reliable
explanation. They are capable of giving deductions as they systematically evaluate their observations as well as
their answers. This ability is called hypothetico-deductive reasoning.
Another feature at this stage is adolescent egocentrism, the assumption that although others have
different perceptions and beliefs, every individual shares other’s thoughts, feelings, and concerns. This is opposite
to the egocentric characteristic in the earlier stages, wherein children think that what they and others think are
similar to theirs.

Teaching Implications of Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

The influence of Piaget on classroom instruction is summarized in his words, “What is desired is that the
teacher cease being a lecturer satisfied with transmitting ready-made solutions; his role should be rather that of
a mentor stimulating initiative and research”. It behooves the teacher to be creative in imparting knowledge and
skills to the students to engage them in a more active learning environment so they can construct meaning and
concepts. In addition to instruction, the classroom environment, curriculum and instructional material should
complement each other.
Berk (2013) provided a summary of teaching implications derived from Piaget’s theory of cognitive
development. These considerations include the following:
1. A focus on the process of children’s thinking, not just its products. Instead of simply checking for a correct
answer, teachers should emphasize the students’ understanding and the process they used to get the
answer.

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 2. Recognition of the crucial role of children’s self-initiative, active involvement in learning activities. In a
Piagetian classroom, children are encouraged to discover themselves through spontaneous interaction
with the environment, rather than the presentation of ready-made knowledge.
3. A de-emphasis on practices aimed at making children adult-like in their thinking. It refers to what Piaget
referred to as the “American question,” which is “How can we speed up development?” He believes that
trying to speed up and accelerate the children’s process through the stages could be worse than no
teaching at all.
4. Acceptance of individual differences in developmental progress. Piaget’s theory asserts that children go
through all the same developmental stages. However, they do so at different rates. Because of this
variation, teachers must exert a special effort to arrange classroom activities for individuals and groups
of children rather than for the whole class.
In addition, Webb (1980) recommended some considerations for teachers to ponder upon in their teaching
practices. These include the following:
 Consider the stage characteristics of the student’s thought processes in planning learning activities.
 Use a wide variety of experiences rather than drill on specific tasks to maximize cognitive development.
 Do not assume that reaching adolescence or adulthood guarantees the ability to perform formal
operations.
 Remember that each person structures each learning situation in terms of his schemata; therefore, no
two persons will derive the same meaning or benefit from a given experience.
 Individualize learning experiences so that each student is working at a level that is high enough to be
challenging and realistic enough to prevent excessive frustration.
 Provide experience necessary for the development of concepts before the use of these concepts in
language.
 Consider learning an active restructuring of thought rather than an increase in content.
 Make full use of wrong answers by helping the student analyze his or her thinking to retain the correct
elements and revise the miscomprehensions.
 Evaluate each student in terms of improving his or her performance.
 Avoid overuse of materials that so highly structured that creative thought is discouraged.
 Use social interaction in learning experiences to promote increase in both interest and comprehension.

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 EDUC 311: FACILITATING LEARNER-
CENTERED TEACHING

MODULE 3

COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES

Lesson 2:

CONTENT
VYGOTSKY’S SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Sociocultural Theory
The sociocultural theory of cognitive development was formulated by Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, a
Russian psychologist. Its major argument is that social interaction, mediated through language, is a key factor in
the child’s development. From the child’s interaction with others, concepts and social behavior are formed (social
level), and he or she later thinks internally (see Figure 6). The theory underscores his belief that children’s thinking
is affected by their knowledge of the social community, which Vygotsky considered as learned from either
technical or psychological cultural tools (Vygotsky, 1978). By cultural tools, it meant real tools (like measuring
instruments, calculators, etc.) and symbol systems (like numbers, language, etc) that allow people to
communicate, think, solve problems, and create knowledge (Woolfolk, 2016).

Figure 6. Key components of sociocultural learning.

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The Role of Social Interaction
Vygotsky emphasized the significance of social interaction in one’s thinking. Children learn from the
more knowledgeable other (MKOs), which include parents, teachers, adults, and more advanced peers. An MKO
is anyone who has a higher skill level than the learner in terms of the specific task to perform. For instance, a
child who is guided by verbal clues by the mother learns how to tear off the plastic covering of the cookies. In
another case, children playing “Chinese garter” abide by the rules that they agree with. This is called a co-
constructed process as the children negotiated to create an acceptable rule on how to play the game.

The Role of Language

Vygotsky’s theory emphasizes that language plays a central role in the theory of human cognitive
development. Language plays multiple roles, including culturally shaping the overt behavior of individuals as well
as influencing their covert behavior, such as thinking (Burkholder & Pelaez, 2000). Through language, human
cognitive development and higher mental functions are initiated from social communications. As people engage
in social activities, they are involved in mental and communicative functions (Vygotsky, 1986).
The three stages of speech development (see Figure 7) were identified by Vygotsky (Johnson, 20014).
These are as follows:

Figure 7. Stages of speech development.

1. Social or external speech. At this stage, (birth to approximately age 3), thinking is not related to speech
at all. Instead, thinking is primarily in the form of images, emotions, and impressions. Speech only occurs
on the external or social level to express a desire or to convey simple emotions such as shouting or
crying. For instance, a child would tell “Dede” or milk if hungry. At this stage, speech is merely a tool to
make things happen in the external world.
2. Egocentric speech. At this stage (approximately ages 3–7), children think out loud or talk to themselves
as they are doing something. For instance, as Paul plays with his toy car and it does not run, he tells
himself ”Sira na” or It’s destroyed”. Called egocentric speech, it is used to guide behavior and help to
solve problems. It is not important part of the transition to inner speech and more sophisticated thinking.
3. Inner speech. Inner speech is soundless speech or thought. Here, speech becomes internalized and is
used to guide thinking and behavior. It eventually leads to higher levels and more complex types of
thinking.

Zone of Proximal Development

One major feature of Vygotsky’s theory is the zone of proximal development (ZPD) as illustrated by
Wheeler (2013) in Figure 8. He argued that at any time, children find difficulties in performing tasks or problems
posed to them as they are not yet matured enough to handle them. With the guidance of the MKOs, like their
parents or elder siblings, they could perform the task. Scaffolding, the provision of cues, clues, modeling, and
demonstrations of the MKO, can assist the children in successfully performing the task. The goal of the ZPD is to
help the child move from the level of current independent performance (the competence demonstrated to a task
alone) to the level of potential performance (the competence achieved with the guidance of others).

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 Figure 8. Scaffolding as intervention to reach the zone of proximal development.
Source: Wheeler (2013)
For instance, a difficult word is used in a sentence. Asked about its meaning, the children could not
provide the meaning on their own. When the teacher reminds them that the context or the neighboring words or
phrases could reveal the meaning, the begin giving synonyms or related words to difficult word. The teacher’s
reminder scaffolded the children to arrive at the correct answer.

Teaching Implications of Vygotsky’s Theory

The theory of sociocultural learning has greatly influenced practices in facilitating learning. Vygotsky’s
theory promotes learning contexts in which students play an active role in learning. His theory requires that the
teacher and student are collaborators in the learning process, with the teacher as facilitator or guide in learner’s
construction of knowledge and development of skills. The process makes learning a reciprocal experience for
both the teacher and learners.
Citing research findings (e.g., John Steiner & Mann, 2003; Webb, 2008; Slavin, 2014), Slavin (2018)
proposed the following teaching practices for consideration by the facilitator of learning. In the use of ZPD,
teachers can organize classroom activities in the following ways:
1. Instruction can be planned to provide practice within the ZPD for individual children or groups of children.
For example, hints and prompts that helped children during a preassessment could form the basis of
instructional activities.
2. Scaffolding provides hints and prompts at different levels. In scaffolding, the adult does not simplify the
task, but the role of the learner is simplified “through the graduated intervention of the teacher”.
3. Cooperative learning activities can be planned with groups of children at different levels who can help
each other to learn.
Moreover, Karpov and Haywood (1998) recognized that for the curriculum to be developmentally
appropriate, the teacher must plan activities that encompass not only what children are capable of doing on their
own but they can learn with the help of others.

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 EDUC 311: FACILITATING LEARNER-
CENTERED TEACHING

MODULE 3

COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES

Lesson 3

CONTENT
INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

Nature of Information Processing

Developed by American psychologist George A. Miller, the information processing theory (IPT) of
cognitive development pertains to the study and analysis of what occurs in a person’s mind as he or she receives
a bit of information (Miller, 1956). Other theorists enhanced Miller’s theory, although the different theories that
followed share common assumptions (Schunk, 2012). First, information processing occurs in stages that
intervene between receiving a stimulus and producing a response. The form of information, or how it is
represented mentally, differs depending on the stage. The stages are qualitatively different from one another.
Second, information processing is analogous to computer processing. The mind receives and represents/encodes
the stimulus from the environment, processes the information, stores it, locates/retrieves it, and gives a response
to it. Learning is a change/revision in the knowledge that has been stored by the memory.
Analyzing the way persons learn something new is important as there is a fixed pattern of events that
take place in learning something new (Miller, 1956). In explaining the concept of chunking, Miller argued that a
person could only store five to nine meaningful units in the short-term memory.

Basic Components of the IPT Model

The information processing theory model has three major components, namely: sensory memory, short-
term memory, and long-term memory (see Figure 9). As seen in the figure, each has a particular function (Schunk,
2012; Woolfolk, 2016).

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 Figure 9. The Information Processing Model (lifted from tcd.ie)
Sensory memory is the state in which the stimuli sensed (heard, seen, touched, smelled, tasted) are
temporarily held in mere seconds for the information to be processed further. As a person is presented a lot of
stimuli at a given time, the sensory memory serves as a filter on what to focus on. When viewing a basketball
game, you can see one person focused on the one in possession of the ball, while another one’s attention is
centered on the guard’s action. Selective attention is the individual’s ability to choose and process information
while disregarding the other stimuli or information. Schunk (2012) cited several factors that influence attention:
1. The meaning is given by the individual to the task or information.
2. The similarity between competing tasks or source of information.
3. The difficulty or complexity of the task as influenced by prior knowledge.
4. The ability to control and sustain attention.
As the information held in the sensory memory is for about three seconds only, unattended stimuli are
forgotten. The information the person gave attention to is transferred to the short-term memory.
Short-term memory serves as a temporary memory while the information is given further processing
before it transferred to long-term memory. Information in this stage is 15-20 seconds only and can hold from 5-9
bits of information only at a given time. Before the information is transferred to long-term memory, there are two
strategies involved: rehearsal and encoding or elaboration.
Maintenance rehearsal involves repetition of the information to sustain its maintenance in the short-term
memory. The use of ABC songs and number songs serve as rehearsal strategies among children. Meanwhile,
elaborative rehearsal is the process of relating the new information to what is already known and stored in the
long-term memory to make the new information more significant. One scheme is organization, the process of
classifying and grouping bits of information into organized chunks. For instance, memorizing the mobile numbers
involves grouping the 11 numbers into sets of numbers, like XXXX – YYY – ZZZZ. Arranging information into
hierarchies is another scheme. For instance, flora and fauna are grouped into phyla/divisions, classes, orders,
families, genera, and species.
The use of mnemonic devices is also helpful. Mnemonic devices elaborate information in different ways.
For instance, learners are taught the acronym “ROYGBIV” to recall that red, orange, yellow, green, green, blue,
indigo, and violet are the rainbow colors. To differentiate stalactite and stalagmite found in caves, learners are
taught that the “g” in stalagmite tells that the calcium carbonate deposit is located on the floor (ground), whereas
the letter “c” in stalactite gives away its location (ceiling).
Imagery is a strategy that involves the memory taking what is to be learned and creating meaningful
visual, auditory, or kinesthetic imagery is associating that the left hand on the waist illustrates a less than value;
the right hand on the waist indicates a greater than value.
Information that is not rehearsed and maintained in the short-term memory is forgotten. It also involves
the relationship between the new information and what is already known.
The long-term memory is the storehouse of information transferred from short-term memory. It has
unlimited space. Varied contents of information are stored, namely:
1. Semantic memory is the memory for ideas, words, facts, and concepts that are not part of the person’s
own experiences. Individuals with good semantic memory include those who know the capital of
countries in the world, many words and their meanings, the order of planets, and other facts.

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 2. Episodic memory includes the memory of events that happened in a person’s life, connected to a specific
time and place. An example is a student who can explain the details of his or her most embarrassing
moment (who were involved, when, where, why, and how it happened).
3. Procedural memory accounts for the knowledge about how to do things. A student teacher who recalls
the step-by-step process of presenting the lesson to the class procedural memory.
4. Imagery refers to mental images of what is known. For instance, beginning readers use configuration
clues, shape, and appearance of words to help in word recognition. Associating a familiar image to the
name of a newly introduced person, like giraffe, guides one to recall the name of Gigi, a long-necked
beautiful lady.

Retrieving Information from the Long-term Memory

Retrieving information from long-term memory involves locating the information and transferring it to the
short-term memory to be used for a purpose. Studies (e.g., Bransford & Johnson, 1972), have shown that a
person remembers a lot less of the information stored in long-term memory. The quality of how the information
stored influences its access and retrieval.
Retrieval of information from the long-term memory entails bringing to mind the previously acquired
information to understand some new input or to make a response. Schunk (2012) mentioned two ways of
information retrieval. One is recalling, which is either free recall or cued recall. In free recall, the person has to
rely on the information previously learned purely by memory. In contrast, the cued recall involves the provision of
cues and clues to the person to help in the recall of the information. It is observed that whatever hints the person
used to encode the information, the same would likewise facilitate is retrieval. Elementary learners can recall the
letter in the alphabet if its image is accompanied by a picture of an object whose name begins with that letter.
Recognition is another way to retrieve information. It involves providing the letter’s with stimuli as choices
to make a decision or judgment. In a multiple-choice test item, the difficulty of retrieving the correct answer is
reduced because the examinees have options to choose from. Guided by their long-term memory, they would
eliminate those options that are not plausible, to eventually arrive at the correct answer.
Based on the primacy and recency effect principle, the information presented close to the start of the
experience, and those that are close to the end are most remembered by learners.

Forgetting
Forgetting is the loss of information, either in the sensory memory, short-term memory, or long-term
memory. Interference is the process that occurs when remembering certain information hampered by the
presence of other information (Woolfolk, 2016). At the sensory memory, there are other stimuli that bombard the
person. As one stimulus is just the focus at a time, others are forgotten. In the short-term memory, as rehearsal
and maintenance activities are made, incoming new information interferes. The same phenomenon happens in
long-term memory. When new information interferes with recalling the previous information, it is called retroactive
interference. If the old information interferes with recalling the new information, it is referred to as proactive
interference.
In addition to interference, time decay is another factor for the loss of stored information from long-term
memory. Unused information decays and is forgotten. However, some theorists argue that stored information in
the long-term memory is never lost. To illustrate, a learner who had a traumatic experience in learning a
Mathematics skill may deliberately want to forget the previous learning concepts. After several years, when those
skills are required to learn another subject, those concepts surface again if there is conscious effort to review
them.
This situation is also related to the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. It involves the failure to retrieve the
information, but the person is sure the information is known. The person feels that retrieval is imminent, but there
is difficulty to directly identify it at the moment.

Teaching Implications of the IPT

Following the concepts and principles associated with the IPT, Woolfolk (2016), Slavin (2018), and
Schunk (2012) recommend the following to be used in helping learners to understand and recall what they have
learned:

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1. Make sure you have the students’ attention. Develop a signal that tells students to stop what they are
doing and focus on you. Make sure that students respond to the signal. Practice using the signal.
2. Move around the room, use gestures, and avoid speaking in a monotone.
3. Begin a lesson by asking a question that stimulates interest in the topic.
4. Regain the attention of individual students by walking closer to them, using their names, or asking them
a question.
5. Help students to separate essential from nonessential details and focus on the most important
information. Summarize instructional objectives to indicate what students should be learning. Relate the
material you are presenting to the objectives as you teach.
6. When you make an important point, pause, repeat, ask a student to paraphrase, note the information on
the board in colored chalk, or tell students highlight the point in their notes or readings. The use of
mnemonic devices could assist learners’ retention of the information learned.
7. Help students to make connections between new information and what they already know. Review
prerequisites to help students bring to mind the information they will need to understand new material.
8. Provide for repetition and review of information. Using graphic organizers for rehearsals can help.
9. Present material in a clear and organized way. Make the purpose of the lesson very clear. Advance
organizers can help.
10. Focus on meaning, not on memorization. For instance, in teaching new words, help students to associate
the new word to a related word they already understand.

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 EDUC 311: FACILITATING LEARNER-
CENTERED TEACHING

MODULE 3

COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES

Lesson 4

CONTENT
PROBLEM SOLVING AND CREATIVITY

Problem Solving
Ana’s food catering business has been profitable, as there is no competitor. Lately, a new catering group
was put up, offering as good services similar to hers. With the presence of competitor, some clients have shifted
to the new provider. Ana inquires on how to sustain her customers’ loyalty. This situation illustrates a problem.
A problem arises when there is a difference between where you are now (e.g., the presence of Ana’s
competitor) and where you want to be (e.g., Ana’s desire to sustain customer loyalty). A distinguishing feature of
a problem is that there is a goal to be reached through some action on your part, but how to get there is not
immediately apparent. There is an obstacle or a gap between where you are now and where you want to be
(Robertson, 2015). In Ana’s case, her goal is to sustain the customer clients, but the solution is not there yet
(current state).
A necessary element of a problem is the presence of an obstacle or block toward the attainment of that
goal. For this reason, problem-solving happens when an individual strives to eliminate the obstacle that hinders
the attainment of the desired goal. “If no obstacle hinders progress toward a goal, attaining the goal is no problem”
(Reese, 1994). Figure 10 illustrates the elements of a problem scenario.

Figure 10. Elements of a problem scenario.

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 Problem solving refers to cognitive processing directed at achieving a goal for which the problem solver
does not initially know a solution method (Mayer, 2013). This definition consists of four major elements (Mayer,
1992; Mayer & Wittrock, 2006), namely:
1. Cognitive. Problem solving occurs within the problem solver’s cognitive system and can only be inferred
indirectly from the problem solver’s behavior (including biological changes, introspections, and actions
during problem solving).
2. Process. Problem solving involves mental computations in which an operation is applied to a mental
representation, sometimes resulting in the creation of new mental representation.
3. Directed. Problem solving is aimed at achieving a goal.
4. Personal. Problem solving depends on the existing knowledge of the problem solver so that what is a
problem for one problem solver may not be a problem for someone who already knows a solution
method.

Types of Problems
Problems can be classified in many ways. For one, it could either be well-defined or ill-defined problem.
Robertson (2015) described a well-defined problem as one that “provides all the information required to solve it”.
Jonassen (1997) considered it as a problem requiring the application of a definite numbers of concepts, rules,
and principles being studied to a constrained problem situation. The problem tells you everything you need to
know to solve it or whether you need to work out for yourself what you are supposed to do. Likewise, it tells you
whether or not there is only one answer or solution or there are many solutions.
For example, in the problem 4 + 3 = 7, you are certain that you are to add the two numbers and there is
only one correct answer. You also know that you are 100% right or wrong. Nevertheless, there are instances that
you have everything to know to solve the problem, but you cannot still arrive at the answer. In Mathematics, for
instance, you know the MDAS (multiplication, division, addition, and subtraction) rule, but applying them may not
be clear to you.
An ill-defined problem, meanwhile, is one where the initial state of the problem is given but what the
goal state looks like is not provided (Robertson, 2015). It is typically situated in and emergent from a specific
context, where an aspect or aspects of the problem scenario are not well specified, the problem descriptions are
not definite, or the information needed to solve it is not expressed in the problem statement (Chi & Glaser, 1985).
Because of this situation, there may be many correct answers as the learners have divergent circumstances and
experiences related to the emergent context. An example of an ill-defined problem is “You notice that the
population of your town is tremendously increasing and you are alarmed of the consequences. What could you
do?” This problem is ill-defined as it is a complex problem. The solution to the problem is multifaceted as there is
an interplay of social, political, religious, and psychological issues to consider in arriving at the solution. The
solution is one town varies to another town as their circumstances are different. Thus, there is the possibility of
getting many correct responses.

Approaches to Problem Solving

Several approaches have been advanced to explain the problem-solving of individuals (Anderson,
1996). One is the behaviorist approach, reproducing a previous behavior to solve a problem. A person faced with
a problem situation is likely to use the same solution previously used and was effective in the past. To prepare
the garden before planting, pick mattock is traditionally used because the Crop Science teacher told it so.
In contrast to the reproductive approach advocated by behaviorists, the Gestaltist approach to problem
solving is a productive process. Kohler’s experiments with apes underscored the role of insight in the restructuring
of a person’s representation of the problem. As the individual ponders upon how to solve a problem, a flash of an
idea comes to mind, which eventually provides the best solution to the problem. This situation illustrates the
Eureka moment, the “moment a person realizes or solves something”. a Science student saw a rural folk using
akapulko extract (Cassia alata Linn.), locally known as andadasi (Iloko), as an antifungal treatment. The extract
was used on his face to treat tinea flava. After three days of treatment, the extract did not only treat the main
problem, but it also peeled off dead cells in the face. The student concluded that the plant extract also has
exfoliating effect.

2
Problem-solving Cycle
Problem solving is a complex process. It is not a single skill, but rather an overlapping of some thinking
skills, as logical thinking, lateral thinking, synthesis, analysis, evaluation, sequencing, decision-making, research,
and prediction are likely to be involved (Teare, 2006). Metacognitive thinking, creativity, and transfer of learning
interplay in the process. These cognitive and metacognitive skills are expressed in the several models proposed
to undertake problem solving. The IDEAL model (Bransford & Stein, 1993) is adopted to explain the process of
problem solving. Figure 11 indicates the specific steps to solve a problem.

Figure 11. The IDEAL model of the problem-solving process.

Step 1: Identify the problem and opportunities.

Problem solving initially identifies the problem or potential problems. Determining the causes of the
problem is necessary to pinpoint the major cause to prioritize in resolving the problem. Considering problems with
a positive outlook serves as opportunities to do something creative. When problems are treated as opportunities,
the result is often an unexpected solution or invention. It can be beneficial to actively attempt to identify problems
that have gone unnoticed. People who identify important problems and treat them as opportunities are often
among the most successful in their fields.
For instance, your parents have informed you that in the next semester you will stop for the meantime
as they are financially incapable to send you to college. It is just one semester more; just the Practice Teaching
that you need to fulfill to finish your degree. The problem is how would you financially support your last semester
in school. This dilemma is the current state of the situation.
Step 2: Define goals.
The second aspect of the models require you to carefully define your goals in the problem situation. This
is different from identifying the problem. For a problem situation, a group of people could identify the existence of
a general problem and agree that it represents an opportunity but still disagree about what their goals should be.
Different goals often reflect differences in how people understand a problem. For the problem situation above,
the goal is to continue with your college education because it is just one semester before graduation. Another
student with the same problematic situation may have a different goal. Different goals can lead people to explore
very different strategies for solving a problem.
Step 3: Explore possible strategies.
This step involves looking back at your goals and finding possible strategies to solve the problem. It
entails the recall of procedural knowledge from long-term memory. As you think of alternative ways to solve the
problem, ascertain that the chosen alternative fits the goal set. Bransford and Stein (1993) argued that even when
people explicitly try to solve problems, they often fail to use appropriate strategies. Some strategies in problem
solving are very general and apply to almost any problem, whereas there are strategies that are very specific and
applicable only to a few or limited cases.
Many strategies are suggested to make problem solving easier; however, the two main strategies used
are heuristic and algorithm. Heuristic is a “rule of thumb, a mental shortcut that works for solving a problem,”

3
especially those about decision-making tasks. Although there is no 100% certainty that the strategy is successful
or adequate to solve the problem, it is most of the time effective and efficient in solving the problem. Because of
its efficiency, heuristic can lessen the time to solve and can reduce cognitive load. A student who is always late
to class may use the alarm clock in the cellphone to signal it is time to wake up. It may work effectively at times,
but if one is in deep slumber, the person may not be awakened by the alarm. In another example, a Mathematics
student may know the application of the mnemonics FOIL (First Outside – Inside Last) and can solve problems
involving simple numbers, but may not be able to answer correctly because he or she does not know the
multiplication rules of signed numbers.
Besides, Newell and Simon (1972) suggested three general problem-solving heuristics for moving from
a given state to a goal state: random trial and error, hill climbing, and means-ends analysis. Random trial and
error involves randomly selecting a legal move and applying it to create a new problem state and repeating that
process until the goal state is reached. Random trial and error may work for simple problems but is not efficient
for complex ones. Hill climbing involves selecting the legal move that moves the problem solver closer to the
goal state. Hill climbing will not work for problems in which the problem solver must take a move that temporarily
moves away from the goal as is required in many problems. The means-ends analysis involves creating goals
and seeking moves that can accomplish the goal. If a goal cannot de directly accomplished, a sub-goal is created
to remove one or more obstacles.
The second major strategy is an algorithm, the use of a series of steps to solve a problem. The elements
of an algorithm include clarity of what is to be done, defined inputs, outputs, results, and preconditions. Computer
programming is a classic example using an algorithm. The use of “If…, then…” propositions tells the precondition
for the next step to progress. If the next step does not satisfy the condition, it will not result in the expected goal.
Doing the standard algorithms for the fundamental operations in Mathematics requires doing the same steps
repeatedly with each place value column in a given problem. For instance,
3012
+ 1224
4236
In teaching origami (the art of paper folding), steps presented should be followed one at a time to arrive
at the correct art piece. When withdrawing money using the ATM card, one needs to follow the electronics cues
to succeed.
Step 4: Anticipate outcomes and act.
Once a strategy is selected, the person must anticipate what outcomes will likely be. The expectation is
the solution to the problem. When assured that the goal will be solved, the person acts or implements the planned
strategy. For example, a learner anticipates that the answer to the problem 23 x 21 is already 400. This assurance
gives the person the confidence to implement the planned strategy. When a person withdraws money through
the ATM, the anticipation is that money will be churned out by the machine. That motivates the person to follow
the steps as cued by the machine.
Step 5: Look back and learn.
What transpired after the planned strategy to solve the problem is proof of its effectiveness. In
metacognition, this step is the evaluation of the actions or solutions implemented. If the results give the correct
answer, then the strategy used is good and effective. If the answer is wrong, then metacognitively ask, “What
went wrong?” The answers could be in the details missed during the analysis of the problem, the
inappropriateness of the heuristic or algorithm strategy, or in the miscalculations. Realizing the errors committed
along the way will make the person understand the mistakes committed. Learning from the experience will make
the person more careful next time a similar task is given.
Barriers to Problem Solving
In the search for alternative strategies to solve the problem, the individual finds difficulty in coming up
with a potential solution because of varied reasons. Anderson (1996) listed some of these and they are as follows:
1. Mental set. The situation when the person becomes fixated on the use of a strategy that previously
produced the right solution, but in the new situation it is not the application. In metacognitive thinking,
this is conditional knowledge. An English language learner may be fixated on the rule that the past tense
of the verb is usually formed by adding –d, -ed to the base form. Thus, given an irregular verb like GO,
the answer given could be “goed”. Moreover, a Mathematics learner could not get the sum of three-digit
numbers that require carrying over.

4
 2. Functional fixedness. This is a phenomenon when individuals fail to recognize that objects can have
other purposes, aside from the traditional use they were made for. A learner may think that a spoon is
only used for eating. However, in instances when no bottle opener is available, a spoon is usually used
to open a bottle of soda deink.
3. Failure to distinguish relevant and irrelevant information. This happens when a situation arises
during the analysis of a problem when an individual cannot discern the relevant information needed in
planning the strategy to solve a problem. When the irrelevant information is given more emphasis in the
process, it will lead to a wrong solution to the problem. An example is a problem of what to include in a
bulletin announcement to help someone who lost a bunch of keys. Children were asked which details to
include were relevant, like where and when it was lost, how many keys were there in the keyholder,
which keys were these, who owned it, where the key holder was bought, when it was bought. Some
children may be able to identify the relevant from the irrelevant ones.
Creativity in Problem Solving
As pointed out in the earlier discussion, mental set and functional fixedness are stumbling blocks in
problem solving. These obstacles hamper the consideration of new alternative ways to solve a problem. They
illustrate the lack of creativity on the part of the person. Theorists agree that creative problem solving must be
taught and encouraged among learners.
What is creativity? Plucker et al. (2004) defined creativity as “the interaction among aptitude, process,
and the environment by which an individual or group produces a perceptible product that is both novel and useful
as defined within a social context”. The definition underscores the role of aptitude, process, product, novelty, and
use. According to Plucker et al. (2004), aptitude represents a dynamic set of characteristics (e.g., openness,
tolerance for ambiguity, flexibility in thinking, perseverance, motivation for creativity, need for self-expression), as
well as abilities pertaining to the creative process, that can be shaped by experience, learning, and training
(Grohman & Szmidt, 2013). Others call aptitude as creative attitude.
Varied theories explain how creativity is developed (Kozbelt et al., 2010). One is the developmental
theory, which advocates that develops over time (from potential to achievement). It is mediated by an interaction
of person and environment. It emphasizes the influence of the place and family structures – the role of play and
support during the transitions.
Meanwhile, the cognitive theory of creativity states that ideational thought processes are foundational
to creative persons and accomplishment. Individuals who discern remote association, and are good at
divergent/convergent thinking and conceptual combination and metacognitive processes are likely to be more
creative. The stage and componential process of creativity point out that creative expression proceeds
through a series of stages or components. The process can have linear and recursive elements. It highlights the
importance of preparation, incubation, and insight, and verification and evaluation in creative thinking.
One of the first models of creativity was advanced by Guilford (1967). He considered creativity as a
divergent thinking act. He claimed that creativity is the result of several processes: fluency, flexibility, originality,
and elaboration. Fluency is defined as the ability to produce a great number of ideas or problem solutions in a
short period. In solving problems related to solid wastes, a learner can give novel ideas on recycling a plastic
water container more than the learners, which demonstrates fluency. Flexibility is the ability to simultaneously
propose a variety of approaches to a specific problem. In recycling a water plastic container, a learner can suggest
many ways of using them. It can be used as food container, wall decoration, and insect trap, which shows that
the learner has flexibility of ideas.
Meanwhile, originality refers to the ability to produce new, original ideas, as well as products. If there is
no other learner who gave the same idea or product of another learner, that idea is original, as there is only one
learner who could think of it. Lastly, elaboration is the ability to systematize and organize the details of an idea in
one’s head and carry it out. If the learner could pick one solution to solve a problem and give specificdetails to
implement the same, he or she is manifesting elaboration.
The creative process follows certain stages (Boden, 2002; Gabora, 2002; Sadler-Smith, 2015). It
includes preparation, incubation, illumination, and verification (see Figure 12).

5
 Figure 12. Stages of the creative process.
Preparation is the initial stage of the creative process. It involves becoming passionate about an idea,
which motivates you to gather materials (read, observe, compare). The information gathered seeps into your
subconsciousness, eventually remaining there momentarily. The next step is incubation, the period where you
unconsciously continues to work on the idea, but there is no active attempt to solve the problem. The mind just
wanders until an idea takes form. In the next step, illumination, a sudden idea pops out in your mind. The
subconscious thoughts find the connection with the consciousness, resulting in the AHA and Eureka moments.
Once the idea is concretized, it needs to be verified. Verification, the final stage of the creative process, involves
working with the idea into a form that can be tested and, once proven, it could be communicated to others.
A research conducted by Calabaquib (2013) illustrates the creative problem solving. One time, she heard
from a fellow teacher about the parents’ personal experience about the potency of cat’s whiskers or balbas pusa
(Orthosiphon aristatus Linn.) as antihypertension treatment. As it sounded interesting to her, she read more about
the plant and the use of its extract. She wondered about what other studies could be made out of the plant extract.
At this stage, she was in the preparation stage.
While thinking of a novel use for the balbas pusa extract, she was informed by the fellow teacher after
two weeks that not only did her blood pressure stabilize, but she also observed that there were intestinal worms
in her stool. This phase was the incubation stage.
As Calubaquib was intrigued, a bright idea came to her mind. Balbas pusas cannot only act as
antihypertension but also be antihelminthic. This is the illumination stage as she realized about the possibility of
using the plant extract to expel internal parasites. Following that idea, she planned using swine as experimental
animals to prove the antihelminthic potency and efficacy of the plant extract, study for her master’s degree in
chemistry. This is the verification stage of the creative problem-solving process.

Transfer of Learning in Problem Solving and Creativity

Problem solving is made easier if the learner can retrieve declarative knowledge, and conditional
knowledge from the long-term memory. If the problem-solving task requires convergent answers, problem solving
can be quite easy if the learner has mastered algorithm techniques. Nevertheless, even if the problem-solving
tasks require divergent thinking, if there have been experiences in the past that enabled the learner to answer
such task, solving them could be successfully done.
The phenomenon that past experiences in solving problems are carried over or used in solving new
problems is referred to as the transfer of learning. Transfers of learning are categorized into the following:

6
 1. Near transfer and far transfer. When learners apply their knowledge and skills in situations and
contexts that are very close to those in which the learning occurred, it is near transfer. When learners
perform a skill in a context very much different from the context it was learned, it is far transfer (Johnson,
1995). Learners find it easier to add three-digit numbers after they have learned the lesson (near
transfer). However, they find difficulty employing the same skill when the task is transformed into a word
problem solving (far transfer).
2. Positive and negative transfer. When learners can use their prior knowledge or experience in solving
a new problem situation, it is a positive transfer. When the previous learning or skill obstructs the
acquisition of a new skill or the solving of a problem, it is negative transfer. Using a new model of the
same brand of Android mobile phone is easy as the features are most likely the same (positive transfer).
However, when a new phone using IOS technology is bought, there will be difficulty in using it the first
time (negative transfer).
3. Vertical transfer and lateral transfer. When learners can use their learning at a lower level to perform
a higher level of cognitive task, vertical transfer occurs. It is the goal of the spiral progression in the K to
12 curriculum. When learners use the same skill to solve a related but different problem of the
comparable level of difficulty after learning it, lateral transfer happens. For example, Ruben finds it easy
to find five-digit numbers as he mastered adding numbers with or without carrying over in the previous
grade (vertical transfer). Likewise, Ruben relies on his knowledge of finding ratios in Mathematics in
acquiring the skill of finding the seed germination rate in a Science laboratory task (lateral transfer).
4. Neutral or zero transfer. This happens when past learning or prior experience does not enhance or
hinder the acquisition of a new skill or in the solution of a problem.
In the transfer of learning, Glass and Holyoak (1986) stated that “the problem-solving process involves
several aspects from which three major facets tend to emerge: the solver’s representation of the problem, the
solver’s background experiences, and the solver’s understanding of the problem.” They explained that the learner
begins the problem-solving process as soon as enough information about the problem space is generated to gain
an understanding of the problem. The process involves associating concepts from previous experiences to solve
a similar problem. The learner is prompted by the potential answer when he or she recognizes similarities between
the previous experience and the new task.
Several theories explain how learning is transferred from one situation to another (Woolfolk, 2017). The
theory of identical elements by Thorndike maintains that the quality of transfer depends on the identical
elements that are common in both past and new situations. If the content, method, goal, and attitude in the two
situations are similar, the transfer is facilitated. The theory of generalization, developed by Judd, states that
skills learned are transferrable to other situations. It argues that if the learner has fully understood the lesson and
mastered the competency, there is a greater likelihood that such skill can be transferred to a similar situation.
Meanwhile, the theory of configuration, anchored on Gestalt psychology, emphasizes the important role of
perception in the transfer of learning. It argues that what is learned in one situation can be shifted directly to
another situation only when similarity in content, method, or attitude of the two situations is perceived by the
learner.

Classroom Applications of Cognitive Learning Theories

Teachers can benefit from the teaching principles associated with cognitive learning theories. Along with
problem solving, Woolfolk (2017) recommended the following:
1. Ask students if they understand the problem. Let them separate relevant from irrelevant information.
Test their awareness of the assumptions. Encourage them to visualize the problem by diagramming or
drawing it. Ask them to explain the problem to someone else.
2. Encourage attempts to see the problem from different angles. Suggest several different possibilities
yourself, and then ask students to offer some. Give students practice in taking and defending different
points of view on an issue.
3. Let students think; do not just hand them solutions. Offer individual problems as well as group problems,
so that each student has the chance to practice. Give partial credit if students have good reasons for
“wrong” solutions to problems. If students are stuck, resist the temptation to give too many clues. Let
them think about the issue overnight.
4. Help students to develop systematic ways of considering alternatives. Tell them to think out loud as they
solve problems. Ask: “What would happen if?” Keep a list of suggestions.
5. Teach heuristics. Encourage them to use analogies to solve problems.

In teaching creativity, Woolfolk (2017) also recommend the following strategies in teaching learners.

7
1. Accept and encourage divergent thinking. Reinforce attempts at unusual solutions to problems, even if
the final product is not perfect. Offer choices in topics for projects or modes of presentation (written, oral,
visual or graphic, using technology).
2. Tolerate dissent. Ask students to support dissenting opinions. Make sure that nonconforming students
receive an equal share of classroom privileges and rewards.
3. Encourage students to trust their judgment. When students ask questions that you think they can answer,
rephrase or clarify the questions and direct them back to the students. Give ungraded assignments from
time to time.
4. Emphasize that everyone is capable of creativity in some form. Avoid describing the feats of great artists
or inventors as if they were superhuman accomplishments. Recognize creative efforts in each student’s
work. Have a separate grade for originality on some assignments.
5. Provide time, space, and materials to support creative projects. Here are some examples: collect “found”
materials for collages and creations – buttons, stones, shells, paper, fabric, beads, seeds, drawing tools,
clay – and try flea markets and friends for donations. Have mirrors and pictures for drawing faces. Make
a well-lighted space available where children can work on projects, leave them, and come back to finish
them. Follow up on memorable occasions (field trips, news events, holidays) with opportunities to draw,
write, or make music.
6. Be a stimulus for creative thinking. Use class brainstorming sessions whenever possible. Model creative
problem solving by suggesting unusual solutions for class problems. Encourage students to delay
judging a particular suggestion for solving a problem until all the possibilities have been considered.
7. Capitalize on new technology. Ask the students to use free apps to create visual maps of ideas and
share their ideas with others.
To promote the transfer of learning, the following teaching-learning strategies are helpful (Woolfolk, 2017):
1. Keep families informed about their child’s curriculum so they can support their learning. At the beginning
of units or major projects, send a letter summarizing the key goals, a few of the major assignments, and
some common problems that students have in learning the material for that unit. Ask parents for
suggestions about how their child’s interests could be connected to the curriculum topics.
2. Give families ideas on how they might encourage their children to practice, extend, or apply what they
learn from school. This strategy promotes a near transfer of learning. Ask family members to include
their children in some projects that require school learning.
3. Show connections between learning in school and life outside of school. Ask families to talk about and
show how they use the skills their children are learning in their jobs, hobbies, or community involvement
projects.
4. Partner with families in practicing learning strategies. Focus on one learning strategy at a time. Ask
families to simply remind their children to use a particular strategy for a homework that week.

8
 EDUC 311: FACILITATING LEARNER-
CENTERED TEACHING

MODULE 7

PART III. BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORIES

As future teacher, it is imperative that you get familiar with different learning theories and recognize that
there are different methods and thoughts about how people learn. As you may have already observed, there are
students or some students in class who are difficult to manage and hard to work with. Such behaviors are usually
hard to control by the teacher. It needs extra work to get those students pay attention to the lesson and stop
distracting others. To help you go through this and make you familiar with behavioral theories, this module had
been prepared for you.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the week the student must have:
1. Analyzed learning theories under behaviorism
2. Discussed the different phenomena of learning under behaviorism
3. Cite applications of behaviorism theories to teaching

CONTENT
Some of the most popular learning theories are lodged under behaviorism. It is primarily concerned
with influencing change in one’s behavior. Hence, in this chapter, you will discover the fundamental
tenets of behaviorism and how such concepts are applied to facilitating learner-centered classroom. It is therefore
important for you to be immersed into the principles so that you can easily use them in facing the real world of
teaching.
LESSON 1: PAVLOVIAN CONDITIONING
In the parlance of psychology, behaviorism is concerned with the behavioral changes and the role of the
environment in these changes. Behaviorists claim that nurture is crucial in the process of acquiring knowledge.
One known behaviorist is John B. Watson (1982), who writes that the ultimate goal of behaviorism is to derive
laws to explain the relationships existing among antecedent conditions (stimuli), behavior (responses), and the
following conditions (rewards, punishments, or neutral effects). The theory of behaviorism may be dichotomized
into associationism and reinforcement.
The name Ivan Pavlov rings a bell within the context of the association theory in behaviorism. Pavlov
was a physiologist, who, out of serendipity, discovered classical conditioning. In 1904, he won the Nobel Prize for
his outstanding studies on the physiology of digestion. He spent the rest of his life studying reflexes of dogs, which
led him to the discovery of classical conditioning, also known as the association theory.

1
 Still recognized as an essential parcel of contemporary psychological knowledge and classical
conditioning has become the basis for many early learning theories. In his discovery, Pavlov found out that the
sight of food does not only trigger the salivation of the dog, but any other stimulus may result to such effect if
paired with the food. In another version, the salivation of the dog is influenced by associating the steps of the
attendant with the food.

PAVLOVIAN CONDITIONING IN A NUTSHELL

The theory of Pavlovian conditioning involves a set of multilayered procedures. Initially, the food is
called the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). In psychology, any environmental event that affects the organism is
called stimulus. The food is an unconditioned stimulus because it leads to an unconditioned response
(UCR) without any learning taking place. The immediate salivation of the dog is referred to as the UCR. The
UCS and UCR are considered unlearned stimulus-response units termed as reflexes.

Conditioning the dog requires recurrent presentation of neutral stimulus paired the UCS. For instance,
the buzzer was sounded repeatedly but caused no dog’s salivation at all. However, when the buzzer came with
the food, the dog salivated. Later, by just hearing the buzzer, the dog salivated. The buzzer is now called a
conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicited the salivation of the dog, now termed as a conditioned response
(CR).

When applied in the classroom, the use of pointer or stick to whip unruly learners in class may affect
other pupils. They may associate the stick with whipping, thus triggering fear. Later, merely hearing or seeing a
stick in class may elicit fear among them. This is why expert educators in the country suggest that classroom
teachers should avoid using the stick as pointers. Instead, they are advised to use their open palm to pointing
words on the chalkboard.

2
OTHER PHENOMENA IN CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

According to Buoton and Moody, when the CS is repeatedly unreinforced, that is, without the UCS, the
CR will eventually diminish in intensity and effect. This phenomenon is called extinction. when the extinction of
learning passes through time, the CR may still be restored. This recovery-after-extinction phenomenon is
termed as spontaneous recovery. This means that extinction does not completely involved unlearning of the
pairings.

Generalization is another phenomenon in Pavlovian’s classical conditioning. When the dog salivates
by just merely hearing the buzzer, it is likely to elicit similar CS when it hears a faster or a slower beat of the
buzzer or any device with a quite a similar sound. Harris, however, pointed out that the more different the new
stimulus to the CS, the lesser generalization surfaces.

WATSONIAN CONDITIONING
During the dawn of the 20th century, a psychologist, greatly influenced by Pavlov, rose and aimed to
revolutionize the status of American psychology. He was John Broadus Watson (1878-1958). According to
Watson, if Pavlov is successful in proving associationism between stimulus and response, people can also have
such ability to associating certain feelings, behaviors, instances, and even symbols. He theorized that
unlearning and relearning can occur. He also posited that humans are born with emotional responses such as
love, fear and hate.
Perhaps the most popular conditioning experiment he did was “Little Albert”. Here, Watson tried to prove
that emotions can be learned. Initially, Albert played with the white rat, thus not eliciting any fear upon seeing the
rat. After some time, Watson and his partner, Rosalie Rayner, accompanied the appearance of the white rat with
a banging sound, so Albert was conditioned to fear the rat. Later, Watson and Rayner accompanied the
presentation of the rat with other objects. They found out that Albert also feared the occurrence of the objects
even without the rat’s presence. This experiment became the anchor of Watson’s belief that learning happens by
association.

3
 Separation anxiety among kindergarten and early elementary pupils continue to persist. In using the
theories of Pavlov and Watson, teachers can diminish the recurrence of fear and anxiety by association. For
instance, before the opening of classes, teachers might want to encourage parents with prospective kindergarten
pupils to go and visit their classrooms with seats that have their names on them. Fun and calm activities must be
given in the first few weeks to condition the children that learning in school is fun, thus diminishing anxiety.
The application of classical conditioning has a wide ambit in education, including classroom
management. For example, a teacher wants to condition his or her class to pass their test papers quietly and
systematically. Before the conditioning stage, the teacher will instruct the students to move their test papers
forward. The unconditioned response will, of course, be the passing of the papers. Later, the teacher will clap 10
times. Initially, the students will not pass their papers, as instructions to pass their papers have not been disclosed.
The teacher will try to accompany the instructions of passing the papers with clapping 10 times. During the post-
conditioning stage, when the teacher claps 10 times, the students will be conditioned to pass their test papers
without verbally repeating the instructions.
Even in tertiary education or adult learning, conditioning may be applied. For instance, in a drama class,
many students, as neophyte actors, may experience jittery feelings and stage fright. Drama teachers may help to
diminish the anxiety by conditioning the students to perform in an actual stage and later opening the rehearsals
to a few audiences. Exposing the students in this type of repetition may condition them to act with ease even with
the presence of other people.

4
 EDUC 311: FACILITATING LEARNER-
CENTERED TEACHING

MODULE 7

PART III. BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORIES

As future teacher, it is imperative that you get familiar with different learning theories and recognize that
there are different methods and thoughts about how people learn. As you may have already observed, there are
students or some students in class who are difficult to manage and hard to work with. Such behaviors are usually
hard to control by the teacher. It needs extra work to get those students pay attention to the lesson and stop
distracting others. To help you go through this and make you familiar with behavioral theories, this module had
been prepared for you.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the week the student must have:
1. Analyzed learning theories under behaviorism
2. Discussed the different phenomena of learning under behaviorism
3. Cite applications of behaviorism theories to teaching

CONTENT

LESSON 2: THORNDIKE’S CONNECTIONISM

Within the first half of the 21st Century in the United States, Edward L. Thorndike was prominent because
of his laws of learning, primarily under the umbrella of associationism or connectionism. It is mainly concerned
with the connection between the stimulus and response (S-R). According to Karadut (2012), Thorndike is one
of the few psychologists who focused on education. In proving his findings, Thorndike used an experimental
approach in measuring a student’s academic achievement. Thorndike believed that forming associations or
connections between sensory experiences and neural impulses results in the prime type of learning. The neural
impulses, called responses, are behaviorally manifested. He believed that learning often occurs by trial and error
(selecting and connecting).
LAWS OF LEARNING
Thorndike’s basic ideas rest in the laws of exercise and effect. Firstly, the Law of Exercise is divided
into two parts: the law of use and the law of disuse. The law of use means that the frequent recurring of the

1
response to a stimulus strengthens their connection. Meanwhile, the law of disuses means that when a response
is not made to a stimulus, the connection’s strength is weakened or even forgotten.
Drills are vital to acquire and sustain learning. In the very words of Thorndike, bonds between stimuli
and responses are strengthened through being exercised frequently, recently and vigorously. Learners usually
learn faster when they often apply a certain skill (ex. Spelling new terms) and tend to forget when such a response
does not recur over some time. This explains why pianists, for example, repeatedly practice their pieces before
their performances. By practicing (law of use), they ensure that they will play correctly. If they do not exercise
playing their pieces (law of disuse), they may encounter difficulty in smoothly accomplishing their performances.
Thorndike later revised the Law of Exercise. He confessed that by merely practicing, one does not bring
improvement in learning. Practicing, according to Thorndike, is not sufficient. Hence, the constant practice must
be followed by some reward or satisfaction to the learner. In short, the pupil must be motivated to learn.
The LAW OF EFFECT, meanwhile, emphasizes that if a response is followed by a “satisfying” state of
affairs, the S-R connection is strengthened; if a response is followed by an “annoying” state of affairs, the S-R
connection is weakened. Thus, Thorndike posited that satisfiers and annoyers are critical to learning. This
explains why teachers give favorable comments to students who show pleasant behavior in class; when such
ego-boosting comments satisfy the learners, the higher the chance that they will repeat such behavior.
The third law of learning also has something to do with boosting human motivation. The law of readiness
states that if one is prepared to act, to do so is rewarding, and not to do so is punishing. In short, before learning
commences, one must be physically, emotionally, mentally and psychologically prepared. This law is illustrated
when a learner knows the answer to a particular question, thus raising his or her hand. Calling him or her to recite
is rewarding. However, when the teacher calls on a student who does not know the answer may be annoying on
his or her part, thus weakening the bond of stimulus and response. The law of readiness is also used in
sequencing topics. When students are ready to learn a particular action (in terms of developmental level or prior
skill acquisition), then behaviors that foster this learning will be rewarding. Meanwhile, when students are not
ready to learn or do not possess prerequisite skills, then attempting to learn is punishing and even becomes a
waste of time.

OTHER LAWS OF LEARNING

Thorndike also observed that the first thing learned has the strongest S-R bond and is almost inerasable.
He calls this as the Law of Primacy. It implies that learning a concept or skill again is more difficult than the first
time one has learned it. This explains why teachers correct students who have misconceptions in a new lesson.
The application part in a lesson plan or daily lesson log is strategically situated before generalizing a concept so
that teachers can detect the misunderstandings of the students in a certain lesson. When the misconception is
not corrected for the first time, that may lead to habit formation. In English Language Teaching, a recurring mistake
among learners is called fossilization. Relearning the correct concept later will be confusing to the students or
even time-consuming. Hence, the first (prime) learning experience should be as functional, as precise, and as
positive as possible so that it paves the way to the more comfortable learning experiences to follow.
As much as possible, teachers provide activities that come with extreme relevance to the learners. This
teaching principle is primarily rooted in Thorndike’s Law of Intensity. Thorndike believed that exciting, immediate,
or even dramatic learning within the real context of the students would tremendously facilitate learning. Hence,
the Law of Intensity implies that exposing the students in real-world applications of the skills and concepts makes
them most likely to remember the experience. The current k to 12 curriculum of the country immerses senior high
school students to a short-time real-world application called “on-the-job-training” or OJT. They receive a foretaste
of how the skills and concepts they learn in class are applied in the real workplace. In that sense, the learning
experience becomes more intense and will most likely be remembered.
The concepts or skills most recently learner are least forgotten. This is the gist of the Law of Recency.
Thus, when learners are isolated in time from learning a new concept, the more difficult it is for them to remember.
For instance, in a foreign language class (e.g. French), it is easier to recall and recite those which are learned
minutes ago than those which were taught the other month. This implies that teachers should facilitate learning
by providing the learners with a clear connection between the previous and the current learning experience.
Letting the students mention or apply the formerly learned skill or concept in the new learning experience may
refresh their memory, thus the higher the probability of forgetting.
Thorndike also mentioned that humans tend to show an almost similar response to an entirely different
stimulus if, on recurring instances, that stimulus has changes compared to the previously known one. Thorndike
coins this as the Principle of Associative Shifting. For example, to teach

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pupils to add a three-digit number, teachers let them master the adding of a one-digit number first. As they solve
increasing numbers, pupils will tend to associate the response to the previously paired S-R.
The transfer occurs when the contexts of learning have identical elements and call for similar responses.
Thorndike called it as generalization. This implies that not only skills should be taught in one isolated topic, but
also that other related subjects or topics should provide opportunities for the students to apply them. In a Social
Studies class, it is not enough to teach the students to read maps, but it is better if they are also taught to calculate
miles from inches. Later, that skill is reinforced when they will create their maps and map problems to solve.

CONTENT

LESSON 3: Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

One of the most popular behavioral theorists of all time is B.F. (Burrhus Frederic) Skinner (1904-1990).
He postulated the operant conditioning. Classical conditioning refers to the association of stimuli whereas operant
conditioning actively involves the subject’s participation. The subject operant conditioning has a choice to

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respond. In other words, operant conditioning is the type of learning whereby learning occurs as a consequence
of the learner’s behavior.
B.F. Skinner made this conclusion after experimenting on animals through his Skinner’s box device that
modified the animals’ behavior. In his experiment, he put a rat in a cox with a lever, a bowl and a closed chamber.
If the lever was pushed, the chamber opened and dispensed food. Unconscious about this mechanism, the rat
accidentally pushed the lever, and the food was dispensed. The rat learned that continuously pushing the lever
could open the food dispenser to the bowl. Skinner termed the food in such experiment as rewards.

REINFORCEMENT
Skinner’s operant conditioning is dichotomized into reinforcement and punishment. Each category is
also divided into positive or negative. Reinforcement is defined as something that strengthens behavior or is
sometimes called as the response strengthener (Schultz, 2006). Positive reinforcement is defined as the
addition of a pleasant stimulus. This is exactly what is illustrated in the Skinner’s box. The dispensed food became
a positive reinforcement that caused the rat to continually push the lever (behavior).
Positive reinforcement has many classroom applications. Preschool teachers stamp three big stars on
the hands of their pupils who may have behaved throughout the class, achieved the highest score, or become
friendly within the academic time. To maximize the use of the positive reinforcement, however teachers should
make it clear to their students why they are stamping them three stars and what the three big stars mean. In that
way, the pupils will be motivated to repeat their pleasant behavior and can eventually gain the reward – the stamp.

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 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Activity 1

Get a detailed lesson plan in your field of specialization and capture the instances where
Thorndike’s laws of learning are reflected or applied. Use the grid below.

In the Lesson Plan Thorndike’s Laws of Learning Implications

Activity 2
1. In what ways do the theories of Pavlov and Thorndike become similar and different?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
2. If you were to critique the Laws of Learning postulated by Thorndike, what may be its weakness/es?
Defend your answer.
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
3. Do you think the laws of learning can be applied to all ages and subject areas? Why are why not?
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

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 EDUC 311: FACILITATING LEARNER-
CENTERED TEACHING

MODULE 7

PART III. BEHAVIORAL LEARNING THEORIES

As future teacher, it is imperative that you get familiar with different learning theories and recognize that
there are different methods and thoughts about how people learn. As you may have already observed, there are
students or some students in class who are difficult to manage and hard to work with. Such behaviors are usually
hard to control by the teacher. It needs extra work to get those students pay attention to the lesson and stop
distracting others. To help you go through this and make you familiar with behavioral theories, this module had
been prepared for you.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the week the student must have:
1. Analyzed learning theories under behaviorism
2. Discussed the different phenomena of learning under behaviorism
3. Cite applications of behaviorism theories to teaching

CONTENT

LESSON 4: NEO-BEHAVIORISM
AS behaviorism developed, one more sub-branch came out to fill in the gap between behaviorism and
cognitive learning beliefs. It is called neo-behaviorism. Notable psychologists that contributed much in the
development of neo-behaviorism included Edward Tolman and Albert Bandura. The neo-behaviorists were
more self-consciously trying to formalize the laws of behavior. They believed that something mediating variables
into the established stimulus-response theory contribute much to learning.

TOLMAN’S PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM

Purposive learning encapsulates Edward Tolman’s theory. He insisted that all behavior is directed
because of a purpose. Hence, all behaviors are focused on achieving some goals by cognition – an intervening
variable. For Tolman, a behavior is never merely the result of mindless S-R connections. He further believed that

1
“mental processes are to be identified in terms of behaviors to which they lead”. In other words, his intervening
variables are tied to observable behaviors.
In his experiment, two groups of rats were put in mazes for 17 days. The first group of rats was fed
(rewarded) every time they found their way out. The second group of rats was non-reinforced. The rats did not
receive any foods from 1 to 10 days even if they have seen the end point. Later, it was observed that in the first
10 days, the rats developed a cognitive map. Hence, from day 11 onward, they were motivated to perform and
look for the end point faster that the first group to find food because they were hungry.
From this experiment, Tolman concluded that an organism performs a behavior because it has a purpose
or a goal. It has also led to the birth of latent learning - a form of learning that occurs without any visible
reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned. In addition, latent learning occurs every time an
organism sees a reason to perform or show it. For instance, a 4-year-old boy observed his father in using the TV
remote control. When he would be left alone and the opportunity to turn on the TV using the remote control, he
could easily demonstrate learning.
Another distinctive feature of the purposive behaviorism is the coming of the term “cognitive map”.
According to Tolman, it is a mental illustration of the layout of the environment. It is believed that everything in
our cognitive map influences our interaction with the environment. Hence, making our cognitive map more detailed
and comprehensive helps facilitate our learning.

TOLMAN’S OTHER SALIENT PRINCIPLES

1. Behavior is always purposive. By this, he meant that all behavior is ignited to accomplish a specific
goal. In its purest sense, a demonstration of learning is the outcome of possessing a purpose to show
it.
2. Behavior is cognitive. The expectations that underlie and guide behavior are cognitions. This means
that an organism is mindful of the connections between specific actions and certain outcomes (cognitive
map). Such mental map is developed by expanding the experiences, coupled with the stimuli and
rewards. Notably, Tolman considered a cognition as an abstraction or a theoretical invention. He
believed that cognitions should only be inferred from behavior, not through introspection.
3. Reinforcement establishes and confirms expectancies. Tolman also underscored the role of
reinforcement in learning. As previously stated, learning, according to Tolman, delas with connections
between stimuli and expectancies or perceptions, representations, needs, and other intervening
variables. Because expectancies develop in situations in which reinforcement is possible, the role of
reinforcement is primarily one of the confirming expectancies. The more often an expectancy is
established, the more likely it is that the stimuli (signs) associated with it will become linked with the
relevant significance (expectancy).

BANDURA’S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Under the social learning theory, learning occurs within the social context and by observing and copying
others’ behavior or imitation (Akers & Jensen, 2006). Albert Bandura is the proponent of this theory, where
modeling is a crucial component. Modeling refers to a change in one’s behavior by observing models (Rosenthal
& Bandura, 1978). Historically, modeling was equated with imitation, but modeling is a more inclusive concept
(Mussen, 1983).
Bandura’s theory is also called the social-cognitive theory because of the influence of cognition in his
theory. He is one among few behaviorists who believed that humans process information through cognition. The
term self-efficacy has bridged social learning theory and cognitive psychology. Self-efficacy is defined as one’
evaluation of his or her own ability to accomplish or perform an action in a particular context. Those with high self-
efficacy see themselves as capable, or useful, in dealing with the world and with other people.
The following are the fundamental principles of social learning theory:
1. One may learn without changing his or her behavior. This is in contrast to what other behaviorists
discussed earlier; for them, a change in behavior is always an indication of learning.
2. Learning takes place by imitating a model. That model possesses characteristics (i.e., intelligence,
physical aura, popularity, or talent) that a learner finds attractive and desirable. Admiration plays an
essential role in imitating a particular behavior of the model. This explains why speech teachers recite a
crucial sound first, then guide the learners until they can recite the sound correctly by themselves.

2
 3. An observing person will always react to the one being imitated depending on whether the model
is rewarded or punished. If the model receives rewards, the imitator copies the behavior; and if the
former is punished, the latter will most likely avoid copying the behavior.
4. Acquiring and performing behavior are different. Bandura made a demarcation line between
performing and acquiring a behavior. One can acquire the behavior by observing someone but may opt
not to perform it until the context requires so.
5. Interaction is vital for successful social learning. Social learning may occur successfully when
learners interact with their co-learners and models (Mourlam, 2013). Learning in isolation may dampen
self-efficacy. This means that copying behavior involves the guiding of one persons’ behavior by another
person, such as when an art instructor gives guidance and corrective feedback to an art student who is
attempting to draw a picture. With copying behavior, the final “copied” response is reinforced and thereby
strengthened.
6. Learning is self-regulated. Bandura noted that self-regulation occurs when individual observe, assess,
and judge their behavior against their standards, and subsequently reward and punish them.
7. Learning may be acquired vicariously. Vicarious learning is acquired from observing the
consequences of others’ behavior. For instance, when a model is given praises and rewards, the
observer may likely repeat the copied behavior he or she feels the same satisfaction, too.
8. Learning may be reinforced by the model or by others. Compliments coming from the model may
strengthen the occurrence of the behavior. Similarly, when a person is praised by his or her peers
because of a change in behavior, he or she may show an increase in that behavior.

COMPONENTS OF SUCCESSFUL MODELING

1. Attention. To meaningfully perceive relevant behaviors, one should pay attention. At any given moment,
one can attend to many activities. The characteristics of the model and the observer influence one’s
attention to models. This explains why teachers make use of bright colors or large fonts in their
instructional aids for modeling to snatch the attention of the learners.
2. Retention. Paying attention to something should result in retention that requires cognitively organizing,
rehearsing, coding and transforming modeled information for storage in memory. Rehearsal also serves
a vital role in the retention of knowledge. This is a mental review of information. Sometimes, the observer
retains the information through association and cognitive pattern. In a dance class, for instance, an
observer counts 1-2-3-4 and 5 with corresponding steps to store the dance steps in his or her memory.
Rehearsal without coding and coding without rehearsal are less effective.
3. Production. To strengthen learning through observation, one needs to translate the visual and symbolic
conceptions into observable behavior. Subsequent production of this behavior indicates an increase in
learning. Bandura noted that observers refine their skills with practice, corrective feedback, and
reteaching. Sometimes, problems in producing modeled behaviors arise not only because information is
inadequately coded but also because learners experience difficulty translating coded information in
memory into overt action. For example, child may have a basic understanding of how to tie shoelaces
but not be able to translate that knowledge into behavior. Teachers who suspect that students are having
trouble demonstrating what they have learned may need to test students in different ways.
4. Motivation. Influencing observational learning is motivation. Individuals perform actions they believe will
result in rewarding outcomes and avoid acting in ways they think will be responded negatively (Schunk,
1987). Persons also act based on their values, performing activities they value and avoiding those they
find unsatisfying, regardless of the consequences to themselves or others. Motivation is a critical process
of observational learning that teachers promote in various ways, including making learning interesting,
relating material to students’ interests, having students set goals and monitor goal progress, providing
feedback increasing competence and stressing the value of learning.

Tolman advanced that learning is goal directed. The goal is specific, but for some children, it is distant
and might be viewed as too complicated. To ensure that all students achieve the overall goal, as a teacher
later, you may set short-term goals each day by saying, “today we are going to work on these five words. By
the end of class time, I know that you will be able to spell these five words.” Children should view their daily
goals as easier to attain than the weekly goal. To further ensure goal attainment, you will make sure that the
15 words selected for mastery by Friday challenge the students but are not overly burdensome.
Self-efficacy and learning through observation are from Bandura’s social-cognitive theory. We can
merge these principles and apply them to teaching. For instance, you may select certain students to solve a
board mathematical problem. When they are successful, the peer models help elevate observers’ self-

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 efficacy for performing well. Students in the class are more likely to perceive themselves as similar in terms
of competence to at least one of the models.
Using demonstration models or demo teaching is an effective wat to facilitate student-centered learnings.
For instance, if you were a TLE teacher, you could teach your students how to insert a sleeve into a garment
through modeled demonstrations. You might begin by describing the process and then use a visual aid to
portray the procedure. You could conclude the presentation by demonstrating the process at a sewing
machine.
Compliments in the form of feedback can increase self-efficacy while learning through modeling. If you
were a drama teacher, for example, you could model various performance skills while working with students
as they practice a play. You might demonstrate desired voice inflections, mood, volume, and body
movements for each character in the play. As the students perform their parts, you may highlight their
strengths or give them a pat on their shoulders or a thumbs-up sign before telling them their points for
improvement.

Neo-behaviorism emerged to bridge the gap between behaviorism and cognitivism. It disputed the
behaviorists’ assumptions by explaining that the active cognitive processes help individuals to learn other than
just becoming a passive learner. Tolman postulated the purposive-behaviorism theory, believing that learning is
always goal oriented. Bandura, meanwhile, advanced his learning through modeling or social-theory theory. He
underscored the importance of self-efficacy and processes of learning by observation. Such theories have many
teaching applications to facilitate learner-centered classes.

SUMMARY
Learning can be explained by psychological theories, and one if these is behaviorism. It is mostly concerned with
the change of behavior by reacting to the environment. Notable early behaviorists include Thorndike, Pavlov, and
Watson. With differing views, they are lodged under behaviorism because they believe that learning is a process
of forming associations between stimuli and responses. These theories have influenced teaching. Rewards and
punishments are vital in facilitating learning and in motivating students to learn.
Non-behaviorism also emerged to contradict some of the claims of the early behaviorists. Bandura and Tolman
led the group of neo-behaviorists, who believed that learners are not passive but instead use cognition, too.
Hence, neo-behaviorism filled in the gap of the early behaviorism and cognitivism.
In facilitating learner-centered classroom and in developing 21st century learners, these theories are all vital to
apply. Teachers should be equipped with the theories and concepts so that they can use them correctly in class
to maximize the teaching and learning process.

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 EDUC 311: FACILITATING LEARNER-
CENTERED TEACHING

MODULE 8

PART IV. CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING THEORIES

The essence of creativity is figuring out how to use what you already know in order to go beyond what
you already think. –Jerome Bruner
Constructivism lies on the premise that learning is an active process. When given the proper guidance
and learning environment, learners can create representations of objective reality. Learners are not empty vessels
to be filled up, but they can construct knowledge when new information is linked to their prior knowledge.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the module, the students must have:
1. Explained the theory of constructivism
2. Discussed the implicatio9ns of constructivism to the teaching and learning process
3. Cited specific teaching practices that manifest constructivism

CONTENT

LESSON 1: JEROME BRUNER’S CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY

CONSTRUCTIVISM Defined
Coming from the works of Piaget and Vygotsky, the constructivist theory of learning posits that
learners derive meaning and form concepts out their own experiences. In the process, the learner reflects on the
experience and then creates new understanding and knowledge from a new experience. If the experience is
related to a previous one, the learner revises the knowledge and understanding and discards whatever
information is deemed irrelevant. Using questioning, exploring, and assessing, the learner constructs and
reorganizes knowledge. Therefore, the learner is an active creator of knowledge and understanding. For instance,
a small child who touches the flame of a candle soon realizes that it is hot, and that touching it hurts. From that
experience, the child learns that the flame is hot; that the flame can burn the skin. Now, the child, with this
realization, evades and no longer attempts to touch a lit candle again. These concepts are derived from the child’s
personal experience.

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BRUNER’S CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY
Jerome Bruner believes that learning is an active process where learners can create new ideas or
concepts using their current or past knowledge about things, events or situations. Learners can select information,
transform them into new ones, adds-up to them to make decisions or create new sets of understanding. When
properly guided and motivated, learners can even go beyond the information given to them. This is a time when
learners’ creativity on concept formation is made evident because they are given opportunities to make
hypotheses and tests them through further discovery. Very remarkable from Bruner is his emphasis on
categorization in learning.
“To perceive is to categorize, to conceptualize is to categorize, to learn is to form categories, to make
decisions is to categorize.”
CATEGORIZATION involves perception, conceptualization, learning, decision-making, and making
inferences. Bruner encourages teachers to allow students to discover concepts by themselves through learning
opportunities and activities that allow them to explore and experiment. The learners should never fear committing
mistakes or errors while discovering because everything that happens in between is a part of their construction
of new ideas or concepts.
Bruner (1966) emphasized four major aspects to be addresses during the teaching and learning process.
These aspects moderate the process of learning.
1. Predisposition toward learning. The child’s readiness to learn is an important aspect to
consider in learning concepts and skills. Love of learning should be emphasized at an early
age. One of the factors that can contribute to this is the parent and teacher influences on
a child. When both parents and teachers provide enjoyable opportunities for exploration
and play, the child can discover concepts in interesting ways. With the guidance of
teachers in school and the provision of appropriate learning materials, spontaneous
explorations bring about learning of new concepts.
2. How a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped
by the learners. Topics and concepts are effectively learned when details of such as
arranged and ordered in the context of the learner. Structures are usually arranged from
simple to its more complex form. Patterns are also based on what is recognizable or
familiar to the learners than to those who are very new to them.
3. The most effective sequences in which to present material. Sequencing of
presentation is a part of a teacher’s innovation in teaching. The teacher considers which
the learners need most, and can understand first and can master first as a prerequisite
knowledge or skill to the next topic or concept.
4. The nature and pacing of rewards and punishments. Rewards and punishments should
be properly selected and that whenever they are given to learners, they should know and
understand why they are rewarded or punished.

BRUNER’S PRINCIPLES OF INSTRUCTION:

1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and
able to learn(readiness)
2. Instruction must be structured so that it can easily be grasped by the students (spiral organization).
3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the
information given)

GESTALT THEORY
Gestalt came from a German term that means pattern or form. Gestalt psychology was introduced in
1912 by Max Wertheimer. He is a German psychologist who believed that a whole is more than just the totality of
its parts. The focus of this theory was on grouping.
a. SIMILARITY – elements that have the same or nearly similar features are grouped together
b. PROXIMITY – elements that are near to each other are grouped together
c. CONTINUITY – elements that define smooth lines or even curves are also grouped together
d. CLOSURE – elements that fill up missing parts to complete an entity are grouped together
When teachers present information or concepts to their learners, instructional strategies should use
these laws of grouping. The strategies a teacher uses will help the learners to discover if there are elements

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hindering them from learning new concepts. Teachers assists learners in removing these barriers to learning so
that new knowledge can be stored and effectively used in varied situations.
Gestalt theory looks into an individual’s way of problem solving. A person can solve a problem if he has
a good understanding of the overall or general structure of the problem. Understanding a problem means knowing
and seeing the whole and its parts. Gestalt also looks into how people organize their learning by looking at their
experiences both inside and outside of the classroom. When the instructions given are related to their
experiences, learning effectively takes place.
Major principles of Gestalt theory of learning.
1. The learner should be encouraged to discover the underlying nature of a topic or a
problem.
2. Gaps, incongruities, disturbances are an essential stimulus for learning.
3. Instruction should be based upon the laws of organization: similarity, proximity, continuity,
closure

SUBSUMPTION THEORY
The Subsumption Theory was developed by David Ausubel. This theory emphasizes how individuals
learn large amounts of meaningful material from both verbal and textual presentations in a school setting. The
use of advance organizers is a useful way of learning. Subsumption means to put or include something within
something larger or more comprehensive. A person learns something from what he already knows. An individual’s
cognitive structure consists of all his learning experiences that make up his knowledge of facts, concepts, and
other data. Sometimes, some of these are forgotten because they are integrated into larger structures of
knowledge.
Before a new set of knowledge can be learned, a person’s cognitive structure should be strengthened.
Using advance organizers is one way of strengthening one’s cognitive structure because they enable the learner
to see a general picture of the concept even before looking into its details or parts. Advance organizers enable a
learner to connect new information with what he or she already knows about it and also helps the learner to see
the interrelationships of concepts to each other.
The subsumption theory presents four learning processes where a piece of new knowledge is
assimilated into an existing cognitive structure.
1. Derivative subsumption: a new concept learned is an example of a concept that you
have already learned before.
2. Correlative subsumption: a new concept learned is an extension or modification of a
previously learned information
3. Superordinate subsumption: what was learned are specific examples of a new concept
4. Combinatorial subsumption: a new concept is combined with a prior known concept to
enrich both concepts.

Constructivism is a broad theory that believes on the construction of knowledge through the lumping of
experiences and reflecting on such experiences. In applying the theories under constructivism, teachers should
always ensure that their level of teaching, the kind of instructional materials, and the degree of difficulty of tasks
should always be within the level of the learners. Bruners’ enactive, iconic, and symbolic strategies can be used
to ensure smooth learning of concepts. For instance, in introducing fractions to elementary pupils, Lego blocks
can be used to illustrate the concepts first before using numbers.
The used of advanced organizers, questions for recall and stimulated illustrations can help the students
to pick their past experiences. After that, teachers may use such experiences as starting point to connect the next
lesson. For example, an English teacher can use the experiences of the students to reintroduce vocabulary and
grammar points. Mathematics teachers who categorize examples or non-examples of a certain topic (e.g.,
numbers divisible by 8) can immensely help the students to organize their concept about it, hence, a clearer
understanding of the lesson.
Exposing students to do certain procedures in a real-life context can actually enrich the learners’
experiences for transfer of learning and longer retention. In that way, students’ prior knowledge can be of help in
learning a certain related context deeper and wider. Giving feedback also plays a vital role in directing intrinsic

3
motivation, and emphasizing grades and competition is discouraged in the classroom. Bruner believed that
students need to experience both success and failure in the classroom not as a reward or punishment but as a
piece of information.
Constructivism involves enriching experiences to construct new knowledge. This implies that learning is
an active process, where learners are always involved. Some theories are lodged under constructivism,
they have specific implications to teaching and learning, which are potentially used to facilitate learner-
centered teaching. In fact, K to 12 curriculum promotes the use of constructivism instructional delivery

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 EDUC 311: FACILITATING LEARNER-
CENTERED TEACHING

MODULE 9

Part V. STUDENT DIVERSITY

We have become not a melting pot but a beautiful mosaic…different people, different beliefs, different
yearnings, different hopes, different dreams. –Jimmy Carter
One of the educational challenges that teachers face nowadays is the diverse learners inside the
classroom. This situation calls the teachers to become more innovative and creative to satisfy the varied
characteristics and needs of the 21st century learners. It is essential that future teachers like you to be more
knowledgeable, most especially on how to deal with learners’ needs and interests for you to prepare learning
activities that are more meaningful for the learners.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the module, the students must have:
1. discussed the factors that contribute to student diversity
2. analyze classroom scenario that considers students’ diversity, and
3. suggest ways on how to provide learning activities considering student diversity

CONTENT

LESSON 1: LEARNING STYLES

Ignacio Estrada’s statement that, “if learners cannot learn the way we teach them, maybe we should
teach them the way they learn,” is a clear reminder for teachers to always consider in their daily teaching the
unique style of learners. Considering the different characteristics of the learners as visual, auditory, and
kinesthetic, teachers are challenged to provide activities and materials that will correspond to their learning
preferences, especially if the learners are eclectic (a learner whose learning preference is a mixture of visual,
auditory, and kinesthetic). In 1984, a known educational psychologist, David Kolb, described learning styles as
the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Jones and Blankeship
(2017) view learning styles as the preferential way in which the students absorb, process, comprehend, and retain
information. Each learner has their way of processing information, and this situation motivates the teachers to
plan and prepare lessons that will satisfy the unique learning styles of the learners. The importance of knowing
the concept of learning styles could influence teachers’ understanding of students’ individual difference. When
teachers are critically aware of learning styles, they are likely to be very careful when designing a lesson plan,
during their teaching, and when assessing individual student.

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KOLB’S EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING CYCLE
Kolb’s experiential learning style theory is typically represented through a four-stage learning cycle.
Effective learning is seen when a learner progresses through a cycle of four stages. Kolb (1974) views learning
as an integrated process in which each stage is mutually supportive and feeding into the next part of the cycle. It
is further explained that effective learning only occurs when a learner can experience all four stages of the model.

KOLB’S LEARNING STYLES

Due to the heavy demands of improving the teaching-learning process, having knowledge of the learning
styles of the students is very important. Maddux, Ewing-Taylor and Johnson (2002) state that one way to ensure
quality education and positive student outcome is considering the relevance of student learning styles in designing
instructional methods. Kolb presented four basic learning styles accommodative, assimilative, divergent, and
convergent, and each learning style is incorporated with four learning models: concrete experiences, reflective
observation, abstract conceptualization and active experimentation. Kolb and Fry, in 1975, described four
different conducive learning environments that will accommodate different learning styles and learning modes:
affective learning environment, symbolic learning environment, perceptual learning environment, and
behavioral learning environment.
Table 5. Conceptual schematic of Kolb’s learning styles and learning modes
LEARNING STYLES LEARNING MODES
Assimilative Abstract conceptualization
Focus: logic, ideas and concepts
Strengths: Building Theoretical Models Values: conceptual systems and rigorous idea analysis
Emphasis: less on people and more on ideas and concepts
Reflective Observation
Focus: understand meaning of ideas
Values: patience, impartiality and thoughtful judgment

Accommodative Concrete experiences

Focus: involved interpersonal experiences
Strengths: doing and risk-taking Values: real-world situations
Emphasis: adapting oneself to new situation
Active experimentation
Focus: influencing people and changing situations
Values: ability to manipulate environments
Convergent Abstract conceptualization
Focus: logic, ideas, and concepts
Strengths: intelligence tests Values: conceptual systems and rigorous idea analysis
Emphasis: problem-solving and decision-making
Active experimentation
Focus: influencing people and changing situations
Values: ability to manipulate environments

Divergent Reflective observation

Focus: understand meaning of ideas
Strengths: creativity and brainstorming Values: patience, impartiality and thoughtful judgment
Emphasis: social interaction and perspective taking
Concrete experiences
Focus: involved interpersonal experiences
Values: real-world situations

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 LEARNING STYLES (KOLB, 1984)
Accommodative These types of learners excel at accomplishing tasks by following directions, meticulously
planning, and ultimately seeking new experiences. They are characterized as being opportunistic,
action driven, and risk takers. They can easily adapt to changing circumstances. They can solve
problems in an intuitive trial-and-error manner rather through careful examination of facts, and
they rely heavily on other people for information rather than on their analytic ability. The learning
mode associated with this learning style are concrete experience and active experimentation.
Assimilative These types of learners can reason inductively. They can create theoretical models in assimilating
disparate observations into an integrated explanation. They are concerned with ideas and abstract
concepts rather than with people and social interactions and are concerned with abstract logical
rather than practical aspects of theories. They incorporate the learning modes of reflective
observation and abstract conceptualization.
Divergent Divergent learners are best at tasks that require imaginative ability and awareness of meaning
and value. They can identify concrete examples of a concept and generate numerous qualities of
a concept from many perspectives. They are considered as brainstormers because they prefer to
observe rather than act, are emotionally oriented and tend to be very creative. They prefer the
learning modes concrete experiences and reflective observations.
Convergent Convergent learners’ greatest strength is the ability to efficiently solve problems, make decisions
and apply practical ideas to solve problems. These learners do well on standard conventional
intelligence tests because they can organize knowledge by hypothetical-deductive reasoning and
converge to one given answer. People with this learning styles are well adept at controlling their
emotions and prefer dealing with technical tasks and problems rather than with issues that involve
interpersonal and social interactions. Convergent learners draw from the learning modes of
abstract conceptualization and active experimentation

LEARNING MODES (KOLB, 1984)

Concrete Experience This learning mode is the characteristic of learners who desire plenty of
opportunities for direct human interpersonal interactions. They prefer to feel and
experience rather than think. They are intuitive decision makers who value
circumstances involving people in real-world situations. This learning mode is
concerned with the uniqueness and complexity of present reality as opposed to
theories and generalization. Learners who prefer this learning mode take an artistic,
intuitive approach to problem solving rather than a scientific approach
Reflective Observation This mode focuses on the ability to understand the meaning of ideas. Learners under
this mode value objective judgment, impartiality, and patience. They prefer abstract
understanding over practical applications and prefer to reflect and observe rather
than act on a situation.
Abstract Conceptualization Learners who belong to this mode typically attend to tasks that involve logical
investigation of ideas and concepts. They are characterized by a preference to
depend on cognitive rather than emotional skills. They involve themselves with and
tackle academic problems that require the ability to build general theories to come
up with a solution. They value rigorous idea analysis and well-defined conceptual
systems. This mode involves the use of systematic planning, manipulation of
abstract symbols and quantitative analysis.
Active Experimentation This mode focuses on actively influencing people and changing situations.
Individuals prefer to be involved in peer interactions that allow them to play an
integral role in the decisions made in these interactions. This mode emphasizes
practical applications or solutions rather than a reflective understanding of a
problem. Learners who belong to this mode are pragmatists and focus on doing
rather than observing, they enjoy and are especially efficient at getting the job done,
and truly value the ability to manipulate their environment to produce productive
results.

Four learning environments support the various learning styles and their associated learning modes.
Teachers must be sensitive enough to incorporate the learning environment with the learning styles and learning
modes.
LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS
Affective learning environment This learning environment emphasizes concrete experiences so that learners
experience the real thing. Affective learning tasks include activities such as practical
exercise, simulations, or field experiences. Information is usually peer-oriented and
delivered informally. Activities are non-competitive, and feedback should not be
comparative but personalized to the individual learner’s goal and needs.
Symbolic learning environment Learners are involved in trying to solve problems for which there is usually a right
answer or the best solution. Information is abstract and usually presented in
readings, data, pictures, and lecture formats. Characteristics activities may include

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 lecture, homework and theory readings. The teacher is acknowledged as the expert,
enforcer of rules, regulator of time, and taskmaster. The instruction format is typically
with a top-down, hierarchical class structure.
Perceptual learning The main goal is to identify and understand relationships among concepts.
environment Perceptual environment emphasizes the process of problem solving rather than
coming up with the best solution. Learners are required to collect relevant
information for researching questions and are expected to attack a problem situation
through different perspectives (own opinion, expert opinion, and literature) by
listening, observing, writing, discussing, and personal pondering. The teacher’s role
is to act as a facilitator of the learning process, be non-evaluative, and act as a mirror
by reflecting student observation and comments. Learning processes may include
reflective exercises such as keeping journals, writing reflective essays, or engaging
in dialogue with other students.
Behavior learning environment This learning environment emphasizes active application of knowledge or skills to a
practical problem. Activities should not be structured so that learners gain intrinsic
rewards and values. The teacher acts as a coach or guide but only when the student
initiates or solicits help. Small group work, interactive projects that apply theory to
real-world settings, and peer feedback are prime examples of student activities in
this environment. Measurement is in the form of how well something worked,
feasibility, salability, client acceptance, cost, testing result, and aesthetic quality.

It is important to note that for each learning style, there are two corresponding learning modes, and
for each learning mode, there is a corresponding learning environment. As Kolb and Fry (1975) suggested, each
of the four learning environments is supportive of a particular learning mode with its accompanying learning styles.
The Symbolic Learning Environment best supports the Abstract Conceptualization learning mode, which is part
of both the Convergent and Assimilative learning styles. The Perceptual Environment is the most effective
environment for the Reflective Observation learning mode that is part of the Divergent and Assimilative learning
styles. The Behavioral Learning Environment supports The Active Experimentation learning mode, which is part
of the Convergent and Accommodative learning styles. Finally, the Affective Learning Environment is the most
effective learning environment for the Concrete Experiences learning mode, which is part of the Divergent and
Accommodative learning styles.

Presented in the different academic studies, learners often come from varied backgrounds and
sociocultural settings, with corresponding varied learning styles (Bollinger, 2013), that is why teachers must align
their teaching styles with the learners’ learning styles. Effective teaching should be based on instructional design
and planning that will have a great impact on student learning. This design includes the know-how of incorporating
learning styles, learning modes, and learning environment principles in the daily teaching-learning process. If the
teacher notices that most of the learners demonstrate assimilative and convergent styles, then he or she will
implement a learning environment, interactive activities will be prepared to enable the students to experience and
apply the concepts or lessons. Through this activity, the knowledge gained from interactive activities will assist
the learners in applying them in their values and future experiences. In one instance, if the learning environment
is more of perceptual and an Education student is required to observe a child, he or she will write a case summary
based on the observation, and the structure of the case summary should follow the example of case studies
conducted and described by experts in the fields like psychologists and teachers.
The last example is a History teacher who will teach a lesson on WWII. He might use a darkened
classroom, artificial smoke, background sounds of gun and noises and wailing, and even encouraging students
to wear costumes for them to feel the situation. By doing these activities, the learners will be motivated to learn
more because a real scenario is to be presented and experienced by the learners.
A teaching process that considers the learning styles of the learners is promoting a conducive learning
environment. It is imperative that teachers must be well versed in identifying the learning styles, preferences,
interests and needs of their learners to prepare lessons that are meaningful for them.

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 EDUC 311: FACILITATING LEARNER-
CENTERED TEACHING

MODULE 9

Part V. STUDENT DIVERSITY

We have become not a melting pot but a beautiful mosaic…different people, different beliefs, different
yearnings, different hopes, different dreams. –Jimmy Carter
One of the educational challenges that teachers face nowadays is the diverse learners inside the
classroom. This situation calls the teachers to become more innovative and creative to satisfy the varied
characteristics and needs of the 21st century learners. It is essential that future teachers like you to be more
knowledgeable, most especially on how to deal with learners’ needs and interests for you to prepare learning
activities that are more meaningful for the learners.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the module, the students must have:
1. discussed the factors that contribute to student diversity
2. analyze classroom scenario that considers students’ diversity, and
3. suggest ways on how to provide learning activities considering student diversity

CONTENT

LESSON 2: MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES

Multiple Intelligences
Educators understand and know that learners come to school with different, varied, and unique
intellectual and information processing abilities because learners have different biological, culture, and personal
backgrounds (Ayesha & Khurshid, 2013). Learners respond to different motivation in a very special way due to
their mental capabilities that help them to process knowledge and skills using their way of operating information.
This difference is the reason of the paradigm shift from the traditional teaching-learning process to student-
centered classroom where the questions of what content to teach and how it would be taught were changed into
big questions of how do students learn and process the lesson and how can the teacher facilitate the delivery of
the lesson. This perspective in teaching has led educators to view the classroom as a place where teachers can
provide more enjoyable learning activities in which student learning is facilitated (Alrabah et al., 2018). Once the
student-centered classroom is given emphasis, the Multiple Intelligences (MI) of the students is given
consideration. In the research conducted by Reid (1998), MI has the potential to positively influence classroom
teaching. Through accommodating the MI and learning styles of the learners, learning and understanding of the

1
lesson can be maximized because the learners will be potentially more receptive to the teaching presentation and
modes of presentation. Through these practices, learners manifest varying degrees of intelligence.
Gardner (1999) presented the concept of MI based on the skills and abilities of the learners. He
debunked the century-long and traditional concept of intelligence referring only to Intelligence Quotient (IQ).
Having a high level of IQ would facilitate achieving success according to traditional concept; however, this belief
on pure intelligence measurable by a single IQ can be labeled inaccurate (Ayesha & Khurshid, 2013).
In 1983, when Howard Gardner presented his concept about intelligence through his book, Frames
of Mind, he stated that any individual has different capabilities and tendencies in different areas and that each
has several types of intelligence that are intermingled in different ways. He suggested MI as an alternative way
to traditional classroom designs that need a variety of ways people learn and understand. Learners do not have
a single intelligence, but a range of intelligence; that all people have these intelligences but, in each person, one
of them is more pronounced. His theory, there were profound innovations in new ways and methods of lesson
presentation. At present, teachers are challenged and enjoined to provide a student-centered classroom
emboldened by MI-inspired instructions.

The Nine Multiple Intelligences

While identifying the potentials of intelligence, Gardner identified eight criteria to be identified as intelligence:
a. Potential isolation by brain damage;
b. The existence of idiots, savants, prodigies, and other exceptional individuals;
c. A distinctive developmental history;
d. Evolutionary history and evolutionary plausibility;
e. Support from experiment psychological tasks;
f. Support from psychometric findings; and
g. Susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system.

From these eight criteria, Gardner described the nine intelligences as stated below:
1. Verbal-linguistic (word smart) Sensitivity to the written and spoken language. This ability
is mainly concerned with the ability to comprehend the
compose language efficaciously, both oral and written.
People who are verbal-linguistic intelligent have god
auditory skills to segment sound and even visualize words
through sensory perceptions.
2. Logical-mathematical (number smart) This is the ability to calculate and comprehend situations or
conditions systematically and logically. People are good at
exploring patterns and relationships, problem solving, and
deductive and inductive reasoning. People with logical-
mathematical intelligence can easily experiment with
cause-effect relationships, categorization, classification,
inference, generalizations, calculations, and hypothesis
testing.
3. Visual-spatial (picture smart) This is the ability to perceive, modify, create images.
People who are visual- spatial intelligent can understand
patterns of space. They are environmentally sensitive to the
potential to think in terms of physical space and three-
dimensional objects.
4. Musical-rhythmic (music smart) This is the ability to identify pitch, rhythm, and emotional
side of sound, and sensitivity capabilities toward sounds
from the environment and musical instruments. Learners
with this kind of intelligence can perceive and transform,
discriminate between and express in musical forms.
5. Bodily-kinesthetic (body smart) This refers to the use of the body for expression. It is
described as the potential in using the body and its parts in
mastering problems or the creation of products. People with
this kind of intelligence can express oneself with
movements, gestures, and facial expressions using the
coordination of brain and body, creating a product using the
whole body or a part of the whole body.
6. Intrapersonal (self-smart) This require the ability to have self-knowledge and
recognize people’s similarities and differences among

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 them. It is also manifested through the ability to understand
oneself and interpret and appreciate own feelings,
emotions, desires, strengths, and motivations. Learners
with this intelligence enable them to have self-knowledge,
with clear understanding of themselves and their inner
moods, can discipline themselves and can maintain self-
esteem, and are able to take responsibility for their own life.
7. Interpersonal (people smart) This intelligence suggests the ability to identify,
comprehend, and appreciate the emotions, intentions,
motivations, desires, and beliefs of other people. People
with this intelligence can learn best through interactions
and can win a lot of friends because of empathy for others.
8. Naturalistic (nature smart) This talk about the ability to identify and classify the natural
world around people. The naturalistic intelligent people
usually live in harmony with nature and have the ability to
recognize and research all living thing in nature and to think
on their creation and are good at categorizing natural as
well as scientific inventions.
9. Existential (life smart) People who are existential intelligent can question the
existence of human, the meaning of life, the reason for
existence, and even death. They have sensitivity and
capacity to tackle deep questions about human existence
and its meaning.

Gardner mentioned two important advantages of MI in education (Yalmanci & Gozum, 2013). First, the
MI theory gives the opportunity to plan education program to make the students desire for certain area (becoming
a musician, a statistician, an engineer). Second, it enables teachers to reach more students who are trying to
learn different disciplines and theories. Learning would be realized much easily on the condition that students are
trained by using these intelligence fields.
Teachers are expected to integrate MI in their daily lesson in which all types of learners can benefit. It is
true that when teachers recognize the significance of MI in the lesson, they effectively execute lessons involving
all learners and not just those who are good in numbers and words.

Gardner stated that instruction which is designed to help students to develop their strengths could also
trigger their confidence to develop areas in which they are not as strong. MI theory can be used for curriculum
development, planning instruction, selection of course activities, and related assessment strategies. Learners’
multiple learning preferences can be addressed when instruction includes a range of meaningful and appropriate
methods, activities, and assessments.
Through the integration of MI in different educational theories, teaching strategies, and other
pedagogical tools, the needs of varied types of learners in the classroom can be addressed better. Gardner
challenged teachers not to follow one specific theory or educational innovation in designing and executing lesson,
but instead employ customized goals and values appropriate to their teaching and student needs. One clear
example is the implementation of intelligence circle inside the classroom. A lesson in Science about Ecosystem
can be presented through a video presentation (catering to the visual-spatial, musical-rhythmic, and verbal-
linguistic intelligent people). A logical-mathematical intelligent group of learners can be asked to present data and
explain in logical flow the concepts presented in the video. Bodily-kinesthetic students might be asked to give a
dance presentation of the current situation about the ecosystem. The Intrapersonal and Existentialist will be the
one to present a reflection about the video. The Visual-spatial will be asked to come up with drawing of the
ecosystem while the verbal-linguistic will present an explanation about the drawing. The interpersonal students’
assignment is to interview people in the community on how they could better protect the ecosystem. Through this
thematic presentation of the lesson with the aid of MI, the learners’ need, interest, and intelligences will be
satisfied, thus promoting a more conductive and learner-centered learning environment.