MODULE 14 (24 Marks)

PROPULSION

CREDIT: ROLLS-ROYCE &EASA MODULE 15

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Syllabus

14.1 Turbine Engines 14.2 Engine Indicating Systems(Level 2)

➢(a) Constructional arrangement and ➢Exhaust gas temperature/Interstage
operation of turbojet, turbofan, turbine temperature systems;
turboshaft and turbopropeller ➢Engine speed;
engines; ➢Engine Thrust Indication: Engine
➢ Level 1 Pressure Ratio, engine turbine
➢(b) Electronic Engine control and fuel discharge pressure or jet pipe
metering systems (FADEC). pressure systems;
➢ Level 2 ➢Oil pressure and temperature;
➢Fuel pressure, temperature and flow;
➢Manifold pressure;
➢Engine torque;
➢Propeller speed.

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Syllabus
14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems 14.3 Starting and Ignition Systems
(Level 2) (Level 2)
➢Operation of engine start systems ➢Operation of Ignition systems and
and components; components;
➢Maintenance safety requirements. ➢Maintenance safety requirements.

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14.1 Turbine Engines
The propellers of aircraft powered by turboprop engines accelerate a large mass of
air at a relatively lower velocity by turning a propeller.
The same amount of thrust can be generated by accelerating a small mass of air to
a very high velocity.

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Turbine Engines
➢In the strict sense all gas turbines are gas generators.
➢Their hot gases are expanded
- either through a turbine to generate shaft power, or
- through a nozzle to create thrust.
➢Some gas generators expand their hot gases only through a nozzle to
produce thrust—turbojets.
➢Other gas turbines expand some of the hot gas through a nozzle to create
thrust and the rest of the gas is expanded through a turbine to drive a fan
—turbofans.
➢When a unit expands virtually all of its hot gases through the turbine
driving the compressor and the attached propeller and no thrust is created
from the gas exiting the exhaust nozzle—turboprop.
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Propulsion Concept

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Ram jet
➢Aero-thermodynamic-duct or
athodyd
➢Has no major rotating parts.
➢Consists of a duct with a
divergent entry and a
convergent or convergent-
divergent exit.
➢It requires forward motion
imparting to it before any thrust
is produced.
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Pulse jet
➢Use intermittent combustion
and unlike the ram jet it can be
run at a static condition.
➢The duct inlet has a series of
inlet ‘valves’ that are spring-
loaded into the open position.
➢Combustion gases pressure
close the valves.

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Turbo/Ram jet
❖ The turbo/ram jet engine combines the
turbo-jet engine (which is used for speeds
up to Mach 3) with the ram jet engine,
which has good performance at high
Mach numbers
❖ It has variable intake at the front and an
afterburning jet pipe with a variable
nozzle at the rear.

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Mechanical Arrangement of
Gas Turbine Engines

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Mechanical Arrangement of
Gas Turbine Engines

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Turbojet
❖ The turbojet is the simplest form of gas
turbine in that the hot gases generated in
the combustion process escape through
an exhaust nozzle to produce thrust.

❖ At aircraft speeds below approximately

450 miles per hour,
❖ the pure jet engine is less efficient than a
propeller-type engine,
❖ since its propulsive efficiency depends
largely on its forward speed.
❖ pure turbo-jet engine is, therefore, most
suitable for high forward speeds.

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Turbofan
❖ The turbofan combines the thrust
provided by expanding the hot gases
through a nozzle (as in the turbojet) with
the thrust provided by the fan.
❖ In this application the fan acts as a ducted
propeller.
❖ By-pass, ducted fan and propfan engines
deal with larger comparative airflows and
lower jet velocities than the pure jet
engine,
❖ thus giving a propulsive efficiency which
is comparable to that of the turbo-prop,
and
❖ exceeds that of the pure jet engine

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ROLLS – ROYCE TRENT
800 (Turbofan)

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Turbofan

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Turboshaft
❖ A turboshaft engine is optimized to
produce shaft power rather than jet
thrust.
❖ In concept, turboshaft engines are very
similar to turboprops, with a basic single
engine design provided in both forms.
❖ A turboshaft engine may be made up of
two major parts assemblies: the 'gas
generator' and the 'power section’.
❖ The gas generator consists of the
compressor, combustion chambers with
ignitors and fuel nozzles, and one or more
stages of turbine.
❖ The power section consists of additional Lycoming T-53-L9 turboshaft engine
stages of turbines, a gear reduction
system, and the shaft output.

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 INLET

Turboprop
❖ The turboprop (turbo-propeller) engine is
a combination of a gas turbine engine,
reduction gear box, and a propeller.
❖ The turbine in the turboprop engine
usually has extra stages to extract energy
to drive the propeller.
❖ The propeller efficiency decrease rapidly
above 350 miles per hour
❖ due to the disturbance of the airflow
caused by the high blade-tip speeds of
the propeller.
❖ This led to use aircraft operate at
medium speeds by the introduction of a
combination of propeller and gas turbine
engine.

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PT-6 turboprop
 Garrett TPE331 turboprop

Turboprop
❖ There are two types of multiple stage
turbine configurations in turboprop engines:
❖ gear coupled, also known as fixed turbine
and
❖ free turbine

❖ An example of a fixed turbine engine is the

Garrett TPE331 turboprop.
❖ An example of a free turbine turboprop
engine is the popular Pratt and Whitney PT6
engine.
❖ The propeller control system is divided into
two types of control: one for flight and one
for ground operation.
❖ For flight, the propeller blade angle and fuel
flow for any given power lever setting are
governed automatically according to a
predetermined schedule

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Propulsive Efficiency
Comparison of different
engines

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General Requirements – Fuel System
➢ In turbine-powered aircraft, power change is provided by varying the flow of fuel to the combustion
chambers.
➢ Turboprop engine use variable-pitch propellers;
➢ the selection of thrust is shared by two controllable variables,
➢ fuel flow, and
➢ propeller blade angle.
➢ The quantity of fuel supplied must be adjusted automatically to correct for changes in ambient temperature
or pressure.
➢ If the quantity of fuel becomes excessive in relation to mass airflow through the engine,
➢ the limiting temperature of the turbine blades can be exceeded, or
➢ it will produce compressor stall and a condition referred to as rich blowout.
➢ Rich blowout occurs
➢ when the amount of oxygen in the air supply is insufficient to support combustion and
➢ when the mixture is cooled below the combustion temperature by the excess fuel.
➢ Lean flame-out, occurs if the fuel quantity is reduced proportionally below the air quantity.
➢ The fuel nozzles form part of the fuel system and atomize or vaporize the fuel so that it ignites and burns
efficiently.

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Turbine Engine Fuel Control
➢ HMU (Hydromechanical Unit):
➢ A pure hydromechanical fuel control has no electronic interface assisting in computing or metering the fuel
flow.
➢ Once the computing section determines the correct amount of fuel flow, the metering section through cams
and servo valves delivers the fuel to the engine fuel system.
➢ The hydromechanical/electronic fuel control is a hybrid of the two types of fuel control, but can
function solely as a hydromechanical control.
➢ In the dual mode, inputs and outputs are electronic, and fuel flow is set by servo motors.
➢ In automatic mode, the EEC is in control of metering the fuel. In manual mode, the hydromechanical control
takes over.
➢ The third type, FADEC, uses electronic sensors for its inputs and controls fuel flow with electronic
outputs.
➢ The FADEC-type control gives the electronic controller (computer) complete control.
➢ The computing section of the FADEC system depends completely on sensor inputs to the electronic engine
control (EEC) to meter the fuel flow.
➢ The fuel metering device meters the fuel using only outputs from the EEC.
➢ Different inputs are power lever position, engine rpm for each spool, compressor inlet pressure and
temperature, burner pressure, compressor discharge pressure, etc.

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Electronic Engine control (EEC)
➢The EEC system consists of
➢ The hydromechanical fuel control,
➢ EFCU(Electronic Fuel Control Unit), and
➢ Aircraft mounted power lever angle potentiometer.
➢Aircraft generated control signals include
➢ Inlet pressure,
➢ Airstream differential pressure, and
➢ Inlet temperature plus pilot selection of either manual or auto mode for the EFCU operation.
➢Engine generated control signals include
➢ Fan spool speed,
➢ Gas generator spool speed,
➢ Inner turbine temperature,
➢ Fan discharge temperature, and
➢ Compressor discharge pressure.

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Electronic Fuel Control
Unit (EFCU)
• Aircraft and engine generated control signals
are directed to the EFCU where these signals
are interpreted.
• The PLA potentiometer is aircraft mounted in
the throttle quadrant.
• The PLA potentiometer transmits an electrical
signal to the EFCU,
• which represents engine thrust demand in
relation to throttle position.
• If the EFCU determines a power change is
required,
• it commands the torque motor to modulate
differential pressure at the head sensor.
• This change in differential pressure causes the
metering valve to move,
• varying fuel flow to the engine as required.
• The EFCU also receives a pilot initiated signal
(by power lever position) representing engine
thrust demand.
• The EFCU is programmed to recognize
predetermined engine operating limits and to
compute output signals such that these
operating limits are not exceeded.
• The EFCU is remotely located and airframe
mounted. An interface between the EFCU and
aircraft/engine is provided through the
branched wiring harness assembly

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 ❖ Fuel then enters a positive displacement, gear-type pump.
❖ Upon discharge from the pump, the fuel passes through a 70-micron
screen.
❖ The screen is installed at this point to filter any wear debris that might be
discharged from the pump element.
FADEC for an Auxiliary ❖ From the screen, fuel branches to the metering valve, differential
pressure valve, and the ultimate relief valve.
Power Unit ❖ Also shown at this point is a pump discharge pressure access plug, another
point where a pressure gauge might be installed.
❖ An electric boost pump may be used to
supply fuel under pressure to the fuel ❖ The differential pressure valve maintains a constant pressure drop across
control. the metering valve by bypassing fuel to the pump inlet so that metered
flow is proportional to metering valve area.
❖ The fuel usually passes through an aircraft
shutoff valve that is tied to the fire ❖ The metering valve area is modulated by the torque motor, which
detecting/ extinguishing system. receives variable current from the ECU.
❖ The ultimate relief valve opens to bypass excess fuel back to the pump
❖ An aircraft furnished in-line fuel filter may inlet whenever system pressure exceeds a predetermined pressure.
also be used.
❖ This occurs during each shutdown since all flow is stopped by the shutoff
❖ Fuel entering the fuel control unit first valve and the differential pressure valve, is unable to bypass full pump
passes through a 10-micron filter. capacity.
❖ If the filter becomes contaminated, ❖ Fuel flows from the metering valve out of the fuel control unit (FCU),
❖ the resulting pressure drop opens the filter through the solenoid shutoff valve and on to the atomizer.
bypass valve and
❖ Initial flow is through the primary nozzle tip only.
❖ unfiltered fuel then is supplied to the APU.
❖ The flow divider opens at higher pressure and adds flow through the
❖ A pump has an inlet pressure access plug so secondary path.
that a fuel pressure gauge might be
installed.

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FADEC for
an Auxiliary
Power Unit
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FADEC Fuel Control
Propulsion Engine
❑ Many large high-bypass turbofan engines
use the FADEC type of fuel control
system.
❑ The EEC is the primary component of the
FADEC engine fuel control system.
❑ The EEC is a computer that controls the
operation of the engine.
❑ The EEC housing contains two electronic
channels (two separate computers) that
are physically separated internally and
are naturally cooled by convection.
❑ The EEC is generally placed in an area of
the engine nacelle that is cool during
engine operation.
❑ It attaches to the lower-left fan case with
shock mounts.

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FADEC Fuel Control ❖ The EEC has output driver banks that supply the
control signals to engine components.
Propulsion Engine ❖ The EEC has both volatile and nonvolatile memory to
store performance and maintenance data.
❖ Power for the EEC comes from the aircraft
electrical system or the permanent magnet ➢ The EEC can control the engine thrust in two modes
alternator (PMA). which can be selected by use of a mode selection
❖ When the engine is running, the (PMA) supplies switch.
power to the EEC directly. The EEC is a two channel
computer that controls every aspect of engine ➢ In the normal mode, engine thrust is set through
operation. engine pressure ratio (EPR);
❖ Each channel, which is an independent computer, ➢ In the alternate mode, thrust is set by N1.
can completely control the operation of the
engine. ➢ When the fuel control switch is moved from run to
❖ The processor does all of the control calculations
cutoff, the EEC resets.
and supplies all the data for the control signals for ➢ During this reset, all fault data is recorded in the
the torque motors and solenoids. nonvolatile memory.
❖ The cross-talk logic compares data from channels A ➢ The EEC controls the metering valve in the fuel
and B and uses the cross-talk logic to find which
EEC channel is the best to control the output driver
metering unit to supply fuel flow for combustion.
for a torque motor or solenoid bank. ➢ The fuel metering unit (FMU), is mounted on the front
❖ The primary channel controls all of the output drivers. face of the gearbox and is attached to the front of the
❖ If the cross-talk logic finds that the other channel is better
for control of a specific bank,
fuel pump.
❖ the EEC changes control of that one bank to the other
channel.

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FADEC Fuel Control Propulsion Engine

Fuel metering unit. Fuel pump

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➢ The EEC also sends a signal to the minimum pressure and ➢ Each channel of the EEC has seven electrical connections,
shutoff valve in the fuel metering unit to start or stop fuel three on each side and one on the bottom.
flow. ➢ Both channels share the inputs of the two connections on
➢ The EEC receives position feedback for several engine the top of the EEC.
components by using ➢ These are the programming plug and test connector.
➢ rotary differential transformer, ➢ The programming plug selects the proper software in the
➢ linear variable differential transformer, and EEC for the thrust rating of the engine.
➢ thermocouples. ➢ The plug attaches to the engine fan case with a lanyard.
➢ When removing the EEC, the plug remains with the engine.
➢ These sensors feed engine parameter information from
several systems back to the EEC. ➢ Each channel of the EEC has three pneumatic connections
on the bottom of the EEC.
➢ The fuel control run cutoff switch controls the high pressure
fuel shut off valve that allows or cuts off fuel flow. ➢ Transducers inside the EEC supply the related and
opposite EEC channel with a signal in proportion to the
➢ The fuel temperature sensor thermocouple attaches to the pressure.
fuel outlet line on the rear of the fuel/oil cooler and sends ➢ The pressures that are read by the EEC are ambient
this information to the EEC. pressure, burner pressure, LPC exit pressure, and fan inlet
➢ The EEC uses a torque motor driver to control the position of the pressure.
metering valve in the fuel metering unit.
➢ Each channel has its own wire color that connects the EEC
➢ The EEC uses solenoid drivers to control the other functions to its sensors. Channel A wiring is blue and channel B
of the FMU. sensor signals are green.
➢ The EEC also controls several other subsystems of the engine, ➢ The non- EEC circuit wire is gray while the thermocouple
through torque motors and solenoids, such as fuel and air oil signals are yellow. This color coding helps simplify which
coolers, bleed valves, variable stator vanes, turbine cooling air sensors are used with each channel.
valves, and the turbine case cooling system.

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FADEC Fuel Control Propulsion Engine

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FUEL SYSTEM OPERATION
➢ The fuel pump receives fuel from the airplane fuel system.
➢ The low pressure boost stage of the pump pressurizes the fuel and sends it to the fuel/oil cooler (FOC).
➢ The fuel flows from the FOC, through the fuel pump filter element, and then to the high pressure main
stage of the pump.
➢ The high pressure main stage increases the fuel pressure and sends it to the fuel metering unit (FMU).
➢ It also supplies servo fuel to the servo fuel heater and engine components.
➢ Fuel for combustion (metered fuel) goes through the fuel flow transmitter to the distribution valve.
(Figure 11-9)
➢ The fuel distribution valve supplies metered fuel to the fuel supply manifolds. (Figure 11-10)
➢ The fuel injectors get the metered fuel from the fuel supply manifolds and spray the fuel into the
engine for combustion. (Figure 11-11)
➢ The fuel pump housing contains a disposable fuel filter element.
➢ The fuel filter differential pressure switch supplies a signal to the EEC that indicates an almost clogged
filter condition. Unfiltered fuel can then bypass the filter element if the element becomes clogged.

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14.2 Engine Indicating Systems
(Level 2)

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Pilot’s instrument
panel - turbo-jet
engines

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Diagrammatic
arrangement of engine
control and
instrumentation

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Exhaust gas
temperature/Interstage ➢TIT/ITT/EGT are all relative to the temperature of
turbine temperature the gases entering the first stage turbine inlet
guide vanes.
systems ➢Temperature is an engine operating limit and is
used to monitor the mechanical integrity of the
turbines, as well as to check engine operating
conditions.
➢Several thermocouples are usually used, that are
spaced at intervals around the perimeter of the
engine exhaust duct near the turbine exit.
➢ The EGT indicator in the flight deck shows the
average temperature measured by the individual
thermocouples.
➢The tiny thermocouple voltages are typically
amplified and used to energize a servomotor that
drives the indicator pointer.
➢ Gearing a digital drum indication off of the
pointer motion is common.

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Exhaust gas temperature/Interstage turbine temperature
systems
❖ The EGT indicator shown is a hermetically sealed unit.
❖ The instrument's scale ranges from 0 °C to 1 200 °C, with a Vernier dial in the upper right-hand corner and a power off
warning flag located in the lower portion of the dial.

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Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT)
❖ A TIT indicating system provides a visual indication at the instrument panel of the
temperature of gases entering the turbine.
❖ Numerous thermocouples can be used with the average voltage representing the TIT.
❖ Dual thermocouples exist containing two electrically independent junctions within a
single probe.
❖ One set of these thermocouples is paralleled to transmit signals to the cockpit indicator.
❖ The other set of parallel thermocouples provides temperature signals to engine monitoring and
control systems.
❖ Each circuit is electrically independent, providing dual system reliability.
➢The indicator contains a bridge circuit, a chopper circuit, a two- phase motor to drive the
pointer, and a feedback potentiometer.
➢Also included are a voltage reference circuit, an amplifier, a power-off flag, a power
supply, and an over temperature warning light.
➢Output of the amplifier energizes the variable field of the two-phase motor that
positions the indicator main pointer and a digital indicator

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Turbine Inlet Temperature (TIT)
➢The motor also drives the feedback potentiometer to provide a humming signal to stop
the drive motor when the correct pointer position, relative to the temperature signal,
has been reached.
➢The voltage reference circuit provides a closely regulated reference voltage in the bridge
circuit to preclude error from input voltage variation to the indicator power supply.
➢An over-temperature warning light in the indicator illuminates when the TIT reaches a
predetermined limit.
➢An external test switch is usually installed so that over temperature warning lights for all
the engines can be tested at the same time.
➢ When the test switch is operated, an over-temperature signal is simulated in each indicator
temperature control bridge circuit.
➢Sensor resistance and voltage values are input to the appropriate computer, where they
are adjusted, processed, monitored, and output for display on cockpit display panels.

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 ➢ Gas turbine engine speeds are measured by engine rpm.
Engine speed Indicator ➢ The rpm of each rotating spool (compressor section/ turbine
combination) is measured.
(Tachometer) ➢ Most turbofan engines have two or more spools that turn
independently at different speeds.
➢ Tachometers are usually calibrated in percent rpm so that
various types of engines can be operated on the same basis
of comparison.
➢ Turbofan engines with two spools or separate shafts, high
pressure and low pressure spools, are generally referred to as
N2 and N1, with each having their own indicator.
➢ The main purpose of the tachometer is to be able to monitor
rpm
➢ under normal conditions,
➢ during an engine start, and
➢ to indicate an overspeed condition, if one occurs.
➢ Turbine engine tachometers are typically electric or probe-
type.

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 ➢A popular electric tachometer system makes
Engine speed Indicator use of a small AC generator mounted to a
(Tachometer) reciprocating engine's gear case or the
accessory drive section of a turbine engine.
➢As the engine turns, so does the generator.
➢The frequency output of the generator is
directly proportional to the speed of the
engine.
➢It is connected via wires to a synchronous
motor in the indicator that mirrors this
output.
➢A drag cup, or drag disk link, is used to drive
the indicator as in a mechanical tachometer.

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Engine speed Indicator
(Tachometer)
❖ Turbine engines tachometer probes for rpm indication
has no moving parts in the system.
❖ They are sealed units that are mounted on a flange and
protrude into the compressor section of the engine.
❖ A magnetic field is set up inside the probe that extends
through pole pieces and out the end of the probe.
❖ A rotating gear wheel, which moves at the same speed
as the engine compressor shaft, alters the magnetic field
flux density as it moves past the pole pieces at close
proximity.
❖ This generates voltage signals in coils inside the probe.
❖ The amplitude of the EMF signals vary directly with the
speed of the engine.
❖ The tachometer probe's output signals need to be
processed in a remotely located module.
❖ They must may be amplified to drive a servo motor type
indicator in the cockpit or conditioned for digital display.

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Engine Thrust Indication
➢The thrust of an engine is shown on a thrustmeter, which will be one of two basic
types;
➢ the first measures turbine discharge or jet pipe pressure, and
➢ the second, known as an engine pressure ratio (E.P.R.) gauge.
➢ when only the turbine discharge pressure is measured, correction is necessary for variation
of inlet pressure;
➢ however, both types may require correction for variation of ambient air temperature.
➢Suitably positioned pilot tubes sense the pressure or pressures appropriate to the
type of indication being taken from the engine.
➢The pilot tubes are either directly connected to the indicator or to a pressure
transmitter that is electrically connected to the indicator.
➢An indicator that shows only the turbine discharge pressure is basically a gauge,
the dial of which may be marked in pounds per square inch (p.s.i.), inches of
mercury (in. Hg.), or a percentage of the maximum thrust.

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Engine Pressure Ratio
➢Turbine engines have a pressure indicator that relates the power being developed by the
engine.
➢ It is called the engine pressure ratio (EPR) indicator or EPR gauge.
➢This gauge compares the engine turbine discharge pressure to the pressure of the ram
air at the inlet of the engine.
➢With adjustments for temperature, altitude, and other factors, the EPR gauge presents
an indication of the thrust being developed by the engine.
➢Since the EPR gauge compares two pressures, it is a differential pressure gauge.
➢It is a remote-sensing instrument that receives its input from an engine pressure ratio
transmitter or, in digital instrument systems displays, from a computer.
➢The pressure ratio transmitter contains the bellows arrangement that compares the two
pressures and converts the ratio into an electric signal used by the gauge for indication.
➢EPR is used to set power for takeoff on many types of aircraft. It is instrumented by total
pressure pickups in the engine inlet (Pt2) and in the turbine exhaust (Pt7).

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Engine Pressure Ratio

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Engine Pressure Ratio (Advanced Info)
➢ E.P.R. can be indicated by either electromechanical or electronic transmitters.
➢ In both cases the inputs to the transmitter are engine inlet pressure(P1) and an integrated
pressure (PINT) comprised of fan outlet and turbine exhaust pressures.
➢ In some cases either fan outlet pressure or turbine exhaust pressure are used alone in place of
PINT.
➢ The electro-mechanical system indicates a change in pressure by using transducer capsules to
deflect the center shaft of the pressure transducer causing the yoke to pivot about the axis A.A.
➢ This movement is sensed by the linear variable differential transformer (L.V.D.T.) and converted to
an A.C. electrical signal which is amplified and applied to the control winding of the servo motor.
➢ The servo motor, through the gears, alters the potentiometer output voltage signal to the E.P.R.
indicator and simultaneously drives the gimbal in the same direction as the initial yoke movement
until the L.V.D.T. signal to the motor is cancelled and the system stabilizes at the new setting.
➢ The electronic E.P.R. system utilizes two vibrating cylinder pressure transducers which sense the
engine air pressures and vibrate at frequencies relative to these pressures.
➢ From these vibration frequencies electrical signals of E.P.R. are computed and are supplied to the
E.P.R. gauge and electronic engine control system.

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Electro-mechanical E.P.R.
transmitter (Advanced Info)

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 ➢ To guard against engine failure resulting from inadequate
lubrication and cooling of the various engine parts, the oil
supply to critical areas must be monitored.
➢ The oil pressure indicator usually shows the engine oil pump
discharge pressure.
➢ Some installations use a flag-type indicator, which indicates if
Oil pressure Indicator the pressure is high, normal or low; others use a dial type
gauge calibrated in pounds per square inch (p.s.i.).
➢ Oil pressure, acting on the transmitter, causes a change in the
electric current supplied to the indicator.
➢ The amount of change is proportional to the pressure applied at the
transmitter.
➢ The transmitter may be of either the direct or the differential
pressure type.
➢ The latter senses the pressure difference between engine feed and
return oil pressures, the return oil being pressurized by cooling and
sealing air from the bearings.
➢ In addition to a pressure gauge operated by a transmitter, an
oil low pressure warning switch may be provided to indicate
that a minimum pressure is available for continued safe
running of the engine.
➢ The switch is connected to a warning lamp in the flight
compartment and the lamp illuminates if the pressure falls
below an acceptable minimum.

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 ➢The ability of the engine oil to lubricate and cool
depends on the temperature of the oil, as well as
the amount of oil supplied to the critical areas.
Oil Temperature ➢An oil inlet temperature indicator frequently is
provided to show the temperature of the oil as it
Indicator enters the oil pressure pump.
➢Oil inlet temperature is also an indication of
proper operation of the engine oil cooler.
➢Oil temperature is sensed by a temperature
sensitive element fitted in the oil system.
➢A change in temperature causes a change in the
resistance value and, consequently, a
corresponding change in the current flow at the
indicator.
➢The indicator pointer is deflected by an amount
equivalent to the temperature change and this is
recorded on the gauge in degrees centigrade.

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Fuel pressure and temperature Indicators
➢The temperature and pressure of the low pressure fuel supply are
electrically transmitted to their respective indicators and
➢These show if the low pressure system is providing an adequate
supply of fuel without cavitation and at a temperature to suit the
operating conditions.
➢A fuel differential pressure switch, fitted to the low pressure fuel
filter, senses the pressure difference across the filter element.
➢The switch is connected to a warning lamp that provides indication of
partial filter blockage, with the possibility of fuel starvation.

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Fuel flow Indicator
➢Fuel-flow instruments indicate the fuel flow in pounds per hour (lbs/hr) from the
engine fuel control.
➢ Fuel flow is of interest in monitoring fuel consumption and checking engine performance.
➢The fuel flow indicating system consists of a transmitter and an indicator for each
engine.
➢The fuel flow transmitter is mounted in the engine's accessory section and
measures the fuel flow between the engine- driven fuel pump and the fuel
control device.
➢The transmitter is an electrical device that contains a turbine that turns faster as
the flow increases, which increases the electrical signal to the indicator.
➢The fuel flow transmitter is connected electrically to the indicator located on the
aircraft flight deck, or on the test cell operator's panel.

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Manifold pressure
➢Manifold pressure

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Engine torque: Torque meter (Turboprop
Engines)
➢ Less than 15 percent of the thrust produced by a turboprop engine is from propulsive force
derived from the jet thrust exiting the exhaust.
➢ Engine pressure ratio is not used as an indicator of the power produced by a turboprop engine.
➢ Turboprops are usually fitted with a torque meter that measures torque applied to a shaft turned by the gas
generator and power turbines of the turbine engine.
➢ The torque meter can be operated by engine oil pressure metered through a valve that is
controlled by a helical ring gear that moves in response to the applied torque.
➢ This gear moves against a piston that controls the opening of a valve, which controls the oil
pressure flow.
➢ This action makes the oil pressure proportional to torque being applied at the propeller shaft.
➢ Generally, transducer is used to transfer the oil pressure into an electrical signal to be read by the
flight deck instrument.
➢ The read out in the flight deck is normally in lb/ft of torque, or percent horsepower.
➢ The torque meter is very important as it is used to set power settings.
➢ This instrument must be calibrated at intervals to assure its accuracy.

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TORQUEMETER (TURBOPROP ENGINES)

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14.3 Starting Systems
(Level 2)
During the engine starting phase, the starter produces a torque which is
transmitted to the shaft of the compressor via the accessory gear box (AGB).

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Operation of engine start systems and
components
➢Three conditions are required to start a turbine engine:
1. An adequate air flow must be provided to the combustion chambers.
2. The fuel atomized in the combustion chamber must be mixed with air in a clearly
defined proportion (1:15).
3. A source of ignition must burn the fuel-air mixture.
➢The fundamental sequences of a starting phase are as follows:
1. A starter actuates the compressor, thus creating an air flow through the engine.
2. The ignition system is then activated.
3. At the same time, the fuel is injected into the combustion chambers and the
engine starts.
4. The engine accelerates up to an autonomous idling speed.
5. Ignition and starting systems are cut.

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Starting sequence

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Location of Starter
❖ Under normal operation, the shaft of the
HP compressor actuates the accessory
gear box, which drives accessories such
as a generator or a hydraulic pump.
❖ The most current starters are installed on
the accessory gear box.

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Types of Starter
➢Air starter (cold turbine) or Pneumatic Starter
➢ Suitable for turbojets requiring a high torque for compressor.
➢ It weighs only one fifth of an equivalent electric starter
➢ It uses a large volume of air under a low pressure, provided by APU (Auxiliary Power Unit) or pneumatic
starter car (ground power unit, GPU).
➢ Air after passing the starting valve (electrically controlled), air reaches the starter turbine and rotates it; this
actuates the accessory gearbox.
➢ The AGB drives the HP compressor shaft, which, as it turns, provides the combustion chambers with an air
flow sufficient for the engine to start.
➢ The rotational speed of the starters is definitely higher than that of the engine shaft (more than 50 000 RPM);
➢ A reduction gear having one or more stages reduces this speed (down to approximately 2500 RPM) while
increasing the output torque.
➢Electric starter
➢ It is used on turbine engines of low power, requiring a weak torque.
➢ It is also very often used to start the APU’s.
➢ It usually uses a “series” electric motor fed with D.C. current.

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Types of Starter
➢Generator starter
➢ It is used on jet engines of business jets. This combines a starter and a generator.
➢ After being used as a starter, the system is transformed into an electric generator.
➢ “Compound” windings in the generator has additional “series” windings that are used for the
“starting” function.
➢ As soon as starting takes place, the “series” windings are disconnected
➢Turbo-starter (hot turbine)
➢ There are two types of turbo-starters:
1. Cartridge starter:
a. a solid powder load is electrically fired;
b. This generates a significant volume of gas which rotates a turbine wheel.
c. This wheel actuates the engine compressor via a reducer and a device of disengagement.
2. Combustion starter (hot turbine starter):
▪ it is a mini-turbine engine which actuates the engine compressor via a reducer and a device of disengagement.
▪ This type of starter is still used on military aircrafts.
▪ Turbo-starters are located in the spinner not on the AGB;.

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Types of Starter
Air Starter

Electric Starter

Generator
Starter

Turbo Starter

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Starter Control
➢While a switch, the pilot allows the supply of an electro-pneumatic
valve which controls the opening and the closing of the start valve.
➢ This electro-pneumatic valve is fed with a 28 VDC current, which may be
provided by the aircraft battery.
➢The starting sequence is entirely automatic, until the jet engine
reaches an autonomous rotational speed and until the start valve
closes;
➢The pilot can always stop the starting sequence.
➢If the starting sequence is stopped, the starter should not normally be re-
activated as long as the jet engine does not stop.

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Starter Control
➢On some modern aircraft (with FADEC), the engine management electronic
computer takes this data into account and prevents the starter reset as long
as the jet engine does not stop turning or slows down sufficiently down to a
reasonable rotational speed.
➢On the engines of some recent aircraft (B777)
➢ the air starter is equipped with a speed sensor;
➢The provided information is transmitted to the engine electronic computer
which is able to modulate the start valve opening in order to synchronize the
rotational speed of the starter with the rotational speed of the driving shaft;
➢this system avoids a starter crash engagement, bound to damage the starter.

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Starter Control
• When the start valve cannot be actuated
from the cockpit, it can be opened and
closed manually, either by turning a
square drive, or by switching a lever
planned for this purpose on the valve
itself.
• The person carrying out the manual
starting must be in contact with the
cockpit via the aircraft intercom in order
to synchronize the operation.
• The start valve is normally maintained
closed by a spring; consequently, it is
necessary to maintain it open during the
phase of a manual starting, until the
signal of closing is sent by the cockpit

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Maintenance safety requirements

➢The engine starting systems have an indication specific to the cockpit: the
indicator of start valve opening; however the crew can supervise the starting
sequence.
➢If the engine is equipped with an electric starter, a voltage drop immediately after
the actuation of the starting sequence means that the starter was supplied with
electric current;
➢This must be followed by an indication about the rotational speed of the HP
compressor shaft, on the RPM indicator (Tachometer, revolution counter or Revs-
counter).
➢In the case of an air starter, a fall of air pressure in the starter supply pipe just
after the beginning of the sequence, means that the start valve opened;
➢this must be correlated by an indication of the spin-up of N2
➢ If a voltage drop or a pressure fall is not followed by a spin-up of N2, this may indicate the
shearing of the starter shear shaft: the starter turns but does not drive the AGB.

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14.3 Ignition Systems
(Level 2)

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Operation of Ignition systems and
components

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Maintenance safety requirements

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