decimal — Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic

Source code: Lib/decimal.py

The decimal module provides support for fast correctly-rounded decimal floating point arithmetic. It
offers several advantages over the float datatype:

Decimal “is based on a floating-point model which was designed with people in mind, and necessarily
has a paramount guiding principle – computers must provide an arithmetic that works in the same
way as the arithmetic that people learn at school.” – excerpt from the decimal arithmetic
specification.

Decimal numbers can be represented exactly. In contrast, numbers like 1.1 and 2.2 do not have exact
representations in binary floating point. End users typically would not expect 1.1 + 2.2 to display as
3.3000000000000003 as it does with binary floating point.

The exactness carries over into arithmetic. In decimal floating point, 0.1 + 0.1 + 0.1 - 0.3 is exactly
equal to zero. In binary floating point, the result is 5.5511151231257827e-017. While near to zero,
the differences prevent reliable equality testing and differences can accumulate. For this reason,
decimal is preferred in accounting applications which have strict equality invariants.

The decimal module incorporates a notion of significant places so that 1.30 + 1.20 is 2.50. The trailing
zero is kept to indicate significance. This is the customary presentation for monetary applications. For
multiplication, the “schoolbook” approach uses all the figures in the multiplicands. For instance, 1.3 *
1.2 gives 1.56 while 1.30 * 1.20 gives 1.5600.

Unlike hardware based binary floating point, the decimal module has a user alterable precision
(defaulting to 28 places) which can be as large as needed for a given problem:

>>>

from decimal import *

getcontext().prec = 6

Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)

Decimal('0.142857')

getcontext().prec = 28

Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)

Decimal('0.1428571428571428571428571429')
Both binary and decimal floating point are implemented in terms of published standards. While the
built-in float type exposes only a modest portion of its capabilities, the decimal module exposes all
required parts of the standard. When needed, the programmer has full control over rounding and
signal handling. This includes an option to enforce exact arithmetic by using exceptions to block any
inexact operations.

The decimal module was designed to support “without prejudice, both exact unrounded decimal
arithmetic (sometimes called fixed-point arithmetic) and rounded floating-point arithmetic.” –
excerpt from the decimal arithmetic specification.

The module design is centered around three concepts: the decimal number, the context for
arithmetic, and signals.

A decimal number is immutable. It has a sign, coefficient digits, and an exponent. To preserve
significance, the coefficient digits do not truncate trailing zeros. Decimals also include special values
such as Infinity, -Infinity, and NaN. The standard also differentiates -0 from +0.

The context for arithmetic is an environment specifying precision, rounding rules, limits on
exponents, flags indicating the results of operations, and trap enablers which determine whether
signals are treated as exceptions. Rounding options include ROUND_CEILING, ROUND_DOWN,
ROUND_FLOOR, ROUND_HALF_DOWN, ROUND_HALF_EVEN, ROUND_HALF_UP, ROUND_UP, and
ROUND_05UP.

Signals are groups of exceptional conditions arising during the course of computation. Depending on
the needs of the application, signals may be ignored, considered as informational, or treated as
exceptions. The signals in the decimal module are: Clamped, InvalidOperation, DivisionByZero,
Inexact, Rounded, Subnormal, Overflow, Underflow and FloatOperation.

For each signal there is a flag and a trap enabler. When a signal is encountered, its flag is set to one,
then, if the trap enabler is set to one, an exception is raised. Flags are sticky, so the user needs to
reset them before monitoring a calculation.

See also

IBM’s General Decimal Arithmetic Specification, The General Decimal Arithmetic Specification.

Quick-start Tutorial

The usual start to using decimals is importing the module, viewing the current context with
getcontext() and, if necessary, setting new values for precision, rounding, or enabled traps:
>>>

>>> from decimal import *

>>> getcontext()

Context(prec=28, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999,

capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[], traps=[Overflow, DivisionByZero,

InvalidOperation])

>>> getcontext().prec = 7 # Set a new precision

Decimal instances can be constructed from integers, strings, floats, or tuples. Construction from an
integer or a float performs an exact conversion of the value of that integer or float. Decimal numbers
include special values such as NaN which stands for “Not a number”, positive and negative Infinity,
and -0:

>>>

>>> getcontext().prec = 28

>>> Decimal(10)

Decimal('10')

>>> Decimal('3.14')

Decimal('3.14')

>>> Decimal(3.14)

Decimal('3.140000000000000124344978758017532527446746826171875')

>>> Decimal((0, (3, 1, 4), -2))

Decimal('3.14')

>>> Decimal(str(2.0 ** 0.5))

Decimal('1.4142135623730951')

>>> Decimal(2) ** Decimal('0.5')

Decimal('1.414213562373095048801688724')

>>> Decimal('NaN')

Decimal('NaN')

>>> Decimal('-Infinity')

Decimal('-Infinity')
If the FloatOperation signal is trapped, accidental mixing of decimals and floats in constructors or
ordering comparisons raises an exception:

>>>

>>> c = getcontext()

>>> c.traps[FloatOperation] = True

>>> Decimal(3.14)

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>

decimal.FloatOperation: [<class 'decimal.FloatOperation'>]

>>> Decimal('3.5') < 3.7

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>

decimal.FloatOperation: [<class 'decimal.FloatOperation'>]

>>> Decimal('3.5') == 3.5

True

New in version 3.3.

The significance of a new Decimal is determined solely by the number of digits input. Context
precision and rounding only come into play during arithmetic operations.

>>>

>>> getcontext().prec = 6

>>> Decimal('3.0')

Decimal('3.0')

>>> Decimal('3.1415926535')

Decimal('3.1415926535')

>>> Decimal('3.1415926535') + Decimal('2.7182818285')

Decimal('5.85987')

>>> getcontext().rounding = ROUND_UP

>>> Decimal('3.1415926535') + Decimal('2.7182818285')

Decimal('5.85988')
If the internal limits of the C version are exceeded, constructing a decimal raises InvalidOperation:

>>>

>>> Decimal("1e9999999999999999999")

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>

decimal.InvalidOperation: [<class 'decimal.InvalidOperation'>]

Changed in version 3.3.

Decimals interact well with much of the rest of Python. Here is a small decimal floating point flying
circus:

>>>

>>> data = list(map(Decimal, '1.34 1.87 3.45 2.35 1.00 0.03 9.25'.split()))

>>> max(data)

Decimal('9.25')

>>> min(data)

Decimal('0.03')

>>> sorted(data)

[Decimal('0.03'), Decimal('1.00'), Decimal('1.34'), Decimal('1.87'),

Decimal('2.35'), Decimal('3.45'), Decimal('9.25')]

>>> sum(data)

Decimal('19.29')

>>> a,b,c = data[:3]

>>> str(a)

'1.34'

>>> float(a)

1.34

>>> round(a, 1)

Decimal('1.3')

>>> int(a)
1

>>> a * 5

Decimal('6.70')

>>> a * b

Decimal('2.5058')

>>> c % a

Decimal('0.77')

And some mathematical functions are also available to Decimal:

>>>

getcontext().prec = 28

Decimal(2).sqrt()

Decimal('1.414213562373095048801688724')

Decimal(1).exp()

Decimal('2.718281828459045235360287471')

Decimal('10').ln()

Decimal('2.302585092994045684017991455')

Decimal('10').log10()

Decimal('1')

The quantize() method rounds a number to a fixed exponent. This method is useful for monetary
applications that often round results to a fixed number of places:

>>>

Decimal('7.325').quantize(Decimal('.01'), rounding=ROUND_DOWN)

Decimal('7.32')

Decimal('7.325').quantize(Decimal('1.'), rounding=ROUND_UP)

Decimal('8')

As shown above, the getcontext() function accesses the current context and allows the settings to be
changed. This approach meets the needs of most applications.

For more advanced work, it may be useful to create alternate contexts using the Context()
constructor. To make an alternate active, use the setcontext() function.
In accordance with the standard, the decimal module provides two ready to use standard contexts,
BasicContext and ExtendedContext. The former is especially useful for debugging because many of
the traps are enabled:

>>>

>>> myothercontext = Context(prec=60, rounding=ROUND_HALF_DOWN)

>>> setcontext(myothercontext)

>>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)

Decimal('0.142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857142857')

>>> ExtendedContext

Context(prec=9, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999,

capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[], traps=[])

>>> setcontext(ExtendedContext)

>>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(7)

Decimal('0.142857143')

>>> Decimal(42) / Decimal(0)

Decimal('Infinity')

>>> setcontext(BasicContext)

>>> Decimal(42) / Decimal(0)

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "<pyshell#143>", line 1, in -toplevel-

Decimal(42) / Decimal(0)

DivisionByZero: x / 0

Contexts also have signal flags for monitoring exceptional conditions encountered during
computations. The flags remain set until explicitly cleared, so it is best to clear the flags before each
set of monitored computations by using the clear_flags() method.

>>>

>>> setcontext(ExtendedContext)
>>> getcontext().clear_flags()

>>> Decimal(355) / Decimal(113)

Decimal('3.14159292')

>>> getcontext()

Context(prec=9, rounding=ROUND_HALF_EVEN, Emin=-999999, Emax=999999,

capitals=1, clamp=0, flags=[Inexact, Rounded], traps=[])

The flags entry shows that the rational approximation to Pi was rounded (digits beyond the context
precision were thrown away) and that the result is inexact (some of the discarded digits were non-
zero).

Individual traps are set using the dictionary in the traps field of a context:

>>>

>>> setcontext(ExtendedContext)

>>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(0)

Decimal('Infinity')

>>> getcontext().traps[DivisionByZero] = 1

>>> Decimal(1) / Decimal(0)

Traceback (most recent call last):

File "<pyshell#112>", line 1, in -toplevel-

Decimal(1) / Decimal(0)

DivisionByZero: x / 0

Most programs adjust the current context only once, at the beginning of the program. And, in many
applications, data is converted to Decimal with a single cast inside a loop. With context set and
decimals created, the bulk of the program manipulates the data no differently than with other
Python numeric types.

Decimal objects

class decimal.Decimal(value='0', context=None)

Construct a new Decimal object based from value.

value can be an integer, string, tuple, float, or another Decimal object. If no value is given, returns
Decimal('0'). If value is a string, it should conform to the decimal numeric string syntax after leading
and trailing whitespace characters, as well as underscores throughout, are removed:
sign ::= '+' | '-'

digit ::= '0' | '1' | '2' | '3' | '4' | '5' | '6' | '7' | '8' | '9'

indicator ::= 'e' | 'E'

digits ::= digit [digit]...

decimal-part ::= digits '.' [digits] | ['.'] digits

exponent-part ::= indicator [sign] digits

infinity ::= 'Infinity' | 'Inf'

nan ::= 'NaN' [digits] | 'sNaN' [digits]

numeric-value ::= decimal-part [exponent-part] | infinity

numeric-string ::= [sign] numeric-value | [sign] nan

Other Unicode decimal digits are also permitted where digit appears above. These include decimal
digits from various other alphabets (for example, Arabic-Indic and Devanāgarī digits) along with the
fullwidth digits '\uff10' through '\uff19'.

If value is a tuple, it should have three components, a sign (0 for positive or 1 for negative), a tuple of
digits, and an integer exponent. For example, Decimal((0, (1, 4, 1, 4), -3)) returns Decimal('1.414').

If value is a float, the binary floating point value is losslessly converted to its exact decimal
equivalent. This conversion can often require 53 or more digits of precision. For example,
Decimal(float('1.1')) converts to
Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625').

The context precision does not affect how many digits are stored. That is determined exclusively by
the number of digits in value. For example, Decimal('3.00000') records all five zeros even if the
context precision is only three.

The purpose of the context argument is determining what to do if value is a malformed string. If the
context traps InvalidOperation, an exception is raised; otherwise, the constructor returns a new
Decimal with the value of NaN.

Once constructed, Decimal objects are immutable.

Changed in version 3.2: The argument to the constructor is now permitted to be a float instance.
Changed in version 3.3: float arguments raise an exception if the FloatOperation trap is set. By
default the trap is off.

Changed in version 3.6: Underscores are allowed for grouping, as with integral and floating-point
literals in code.

Decimal floating point objects share many properties with the other built-in numeric types such as
float and int. All of the usual math operations and special methods apply. Likewise, decimal objects
can be copied, pickled, printed, used as dictionary keys, used as set elements, compared, sorted, and
coerced to another type (such as float or int).

There are some small differences between arithmetic on Decimal objects and arithmetic on integers
and floats. When the remainder operator % is applied to Decimal objects, the sign of the result is the
sign of the dividend rather than the sign of the divisor:

>>>

>>> (-7) % 4

>>> Decimal(-7) % Decimal(4)

Decimal('-3')

The integer division operator // behaves analogously, returning the integer part of the true quotient
(truncating towards zero) rather than its floor, so as to preserve the usual identity x == (x // y) * y + x
% y:

>>>

>>> -7 // 4

-2

>>> Decimal(-7) // Decimal(4)

Decimal('-1')

The % and // operators implement the remainder and divide-integer operations (respectively) as
described in the specification.

Decimal objects cannot generally be combined with floats or instances of fractions.Fraction in

arithmetic operations: an attempt to add a Decimal to a float, for example, will raise a TypeError.
However, it is possible to use Python’s comparison operators to compare a Decimal instance x with
another number y. This avoids confusing results when doing equality comparisons between numbers
of different types.

Changed in version 3.2: Mixed-type comparisons between Decimal instances and other numeric
types are now fully supported.

In addition to the standard numeric properties, decimal floating point objects also have a number of
specialized methods:

adjusted()

Return the adjusted exponent after shifting out the coefficient’s rightmost digits until only the lead
digit remains: Decimal('321e+5').adjusted() returns seven. Used for determining the position of the
most significant digit with respect to the decimal point.

as_integer_ratio()

Return a pair (n, d) of integers that represent the given Decimal instance as a fraction, in lowest
terms and with a positive denominator:

>>>

>>> Decimal('-3.14').as_integer_ratio()

(-157, 50)

The conversion is exact. Raise OverflowError on infinities and ValueError on NaNs.

New in version 3.6.

as_tuple()

Return a named tuple representation of the number: DecimalTuple(sign, digits, exponent).

canonical()

Return the canonical encoding of the argument. Currently, the encoding of a Decimal instance is
always canonical, so this operation returns its argument unchanged.

compare(other, context=None)
Compare the values of two Decimal instances. compare() returns a Decimal instance, and if either
operand is a NaN then the result is a NaN:

a or b is a NaN ==> Decimal('NaN')

a<b ==> Decimal('-1')

a == b ==> Decimal('0')

a>b ==> Decimal('1')

compare_signal(other, context=None)

This operation is identical to the compare() method, except that all NaNs signal. That is, if neither
operand is a signaling NaN then any quiet NaN operand is treated as though it were a signaling NaN.

compare_total(other, context=None)

Compare two operands using their abstract representation rather than their numerical value. Similar
to the compare() method, but the result gives a total ordering on Decimal instances. Two Decimal
instances with the same numeric value but different representations compare unequal in this
ordering:

>>>

Decimal('12.0').compare_total(Decimal('12'))

Decimal('-1')

Quiet and signaling NaNs are also included in the total ordering. The result of this function is
Decimal('0') if both operands have the same representation, Decimal('-1') if the first operand is lower
in the total order than the second, and Decimal('1') if the first operand is higher in the total order
than the second operand. See the specification for details of the total order.

This operation is unaffected by context and is quiet: no flags are changed and no rounding is
performed. As an exception, the C version may raise InvalidOperation if the second operand cannot
be converted exactly.

compare_total_mag(other, context=None)

Compare two operands using their abstract representation rather than their value as in
compare_total(), but ignoring the sign of each operand. x.compare_total_mag(y) is equivalent to
x.copy_abs().compare_total(y.copy_abs()).
This operation is unaffected by context and is quiet: no flags are changed and no rounding is
performed. As an exception, the C version may raise InvalidOperation if the second operand cannot
be converted exactly.

conjugate()

Just returns self, this method is only to comply with the Decimal Specification.

copy_abs()

Return the absolute value of the argument. This operation is unaffected by the context and is quiet:
no flags are changed and no rounding is performed.

copy_negate()

Return the negation of the argument. This operation is unaffected by the context and is quiet: no
flags are changed and no rounding is performed.

copy_sign(other, context=None)

Return a copy of the first operand with the sign set to be the same as the sign of the second operand.
For example:

>>>

Decimal('2.3').copy_sign(Decimal('-1.5'))

Decimal('-2.3')

This operation is unaffected by context and is quiet: no flags are changed and no rounding is
performed. As an exception, the C version may raise InvalidOperation if the second operand cannot
be converted exactly.

exp(context=None)

Return the value of the (natural) exponential function e**x at the given number. The result is
correctly rounded using the ROUND_HALF_EVEN rounding mode.

>>>

Decimal(1).exp()

Decimal('2.718281828459045235360287471')

Decimal(321).exp()
Decimal('2.561702493119680037517373933E+139')

from_float(f)

Classmethod that converts a float to a decimal number, exactly.

Note Decimal.from_float(0.1) is not the same as Decimal(‘0.1’). Since 0.1 is not exactly representable
in binary floating point, the value is stored as the nearest representable value which is
0x1.999999999999ap-4. That equivalent value in decimal is
0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625.

Note From Python 3.2 onwards, a Decimal instance can also be constructed directly from a float.

>>>

>>> Decimal.from_float(0.1)

Decimal('0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625')

>>> Decimal.from_float(float('nan'))

Decimal('NaN')

>>> Decimal.from_float(float('inf'))

Decimal('Infinity')

>>> Decimal.from_float(float('-inf'))

Decimal('-Infinity')

New in version 3.1.

fma(other, third, context=None)

Fused multiply-add. Return self*other+third with no rounding of the intermediate product

self*other.

>>>

Decimal(2).fma(3, 5)

Decimal('11')

is_canonical()

Return True if the argument is canonical and False otherwise. Currently, a Decimal instance is always
canonical, so this operation always returns True.

is_finite()
Return True if the argument is a finite number, and False if the argument is an infinity or a NaN.

is_infinite()

Return True if the argument is either positive or negative infinity and False otherwise.

is_nan()

Return True if the argument is a (quiet or signaling) NaN and False otherwise.

is_normal(context=None)

Return True if the argument is a normal finite number. Return False if the argument is zero,
subnormal, infinite or a NaN.

is_qnan()

Return True if the argument is a quiet NaN, and False otherwise.

is_signed()

Return True if the argument has a negative sign and False otherwise. Note that zeros and NaNs can
both carry signs.

is_snan()

Return True if the argument is a signaling NaN and False otherwise.

is_subnormal(context=None)

Return True if the argument is subnormal, and False otherwise.

is_zero()

Return True if the argument is a (positive or negative) zero and False otherwise.

ln(context=None)

Return the natural (base e) logarithm of the operand. The result is correctly rounded using the
ROUND_HALF_EVEN rounding mode.
log10(context=None)

Return the base ten logarithm of the operand. The result is correctly rounded using the
ROUND_HALF_EVEN rounding mode.

logb(context=None)

For a nonzero number, return the adjusted exponent of its operand as a Decimal instance. If the
operand is a zero then Decimal('-Infinity') is returned and the DivisionByZero flag is raised. If the
operand is an infinity then Decimal('Infinity') is returned.

logical_and(other, context=None)

logical_and() is a logical operation which takes two logical operands (see Logical operands). The
result is the digit-wise and of the two operands.

logical_invert(context=None)

logical_invert() is a logical operation. The result is the digit-wise inversion of the operand.

logical_or(other, context=None)

logical_or() is a logical operation which takes two logical operands (see Logical operands). The result
is the digit-wise or of the two operands.

logical_xor(other, context=None)

logical_xor() is a logical operation which takes two logical operands (see Logical operands). The result
is the digit-wise exclusive or of the two operands.

max(other, context=None)

Like max(self, other) except that the context rounding rule is applied before returning and that NaN
values are either signaled or ignored (depending on the context and whether they are signaling or
quiet).

max_mag(other, context=None)

Similar to the max() method, but the comparison is done using the absolute values of the operands.

min(other, context=None)
Like min(self, other) except that the context rounding rule is applied before returning and that NaN
values are either signaled or ignored (depending on the context and whether they are signaling or
quiet).

min_mag(other, context=None)

Similar to the min() method, but the comparison is done using the absolute values of the operands.

next_minus(context=None)

Return the largest number representable in the given context (or in the current thread’s context if no
context is given) that is smaller than the given operand.

next_plus(context=None)

Return the smallest number representable in the given context (or in the current thread’s context if
no context is given) that is larger than the given operand.

next_toward(other, context=None)

If the two operands are unequal, return the number closest to the first operand in the direction of
the second operand. If both operands are numerically equal, return a copy of the first operand with
the sign set to be the same as the sign of the second operand.

normalize(context=None)

Normalize the number by stripping the rightmost trailing zeros and converting any result equal to
Decimal('0') to Decimal('0e0'). Used for producing canonical values for attributes of an equivalence
class. For example, Decimal('32.100') and Decimal('0.321000e+2') both normalize to the equivalent
value Decimal('32.1').

number_class(context=None)

Return a string describing the class of the operand. The returned value is one of the following ten
strings.

"-Infinity", indicating that the operand is negative infinity.

"-Normal", indicating that the operand is a negative normal number.

"-Subnormal", indicating that the operand is negative and subnormal.

"-Zero", indicating that the operand is a negative zero.

"+Zero", indicating that the operand is a positive zero.

"+Subnormal", indicating that the operand is positive and subnormal.

"+Normal", indicating that the operand is a positive normal number.

"+Infinity", indicating that the operand is positive infinity.

"NaN", indicating that the operand is a quiet NaN (Not a Number).

"sNaN", indicating that the operand is a signaling NaN.

quantize(exp, rounding=None, context=None)

Return a value equal to the first operand after rounding and having the exponent of the second
operand.

>>>

Decimal('1.41421356').quantize(Decimal('1.000'))

Decimal('1.414')

Unlike other operations, if the length of the coefficient after the quantize operation would be greater
than precision, then an InvalidOperation is signaled. This guarantees that, unless there is an error
condition, the quantized exponent is always equal to that of the right-hand operand.

Also unlike other operations, quantize never signals Underflow, even if the result is subnormal and
inexact.

If the exponent of the second operand is larger than that of the first then rounding may be
necessary. In this case, the rounding mode is determined by the rounding argument if given, else by
the given context argument; if neither argument is given the rounding mode of the current thread’s
context is used.
An error is returned whenever the resulting exponent is greater than Emax or less than Etiny.

radix()

Return Decimal(10), the radix (base) in which the Decimal class does all its arithmetic. Included for
compatibility with the specification.

remainder_near(other, context=None)

Return the remainder from dividing self by other. This differs from self % other in that the sign of the
remainder is chosen so as to minimize its absolute value. More precisely, the return value is self - n *
other where n is the integer nearest to the exact value of self / other, and if two integers are equally
near then the even one is chosen.

If the result is zero then its sign will be the sign of self.

>>>

Decimal(18).remainder_near(Decimal(10))

Decimal('-2')

Decimal(25).remainder_near(Decimal(10))

Decimal('5')

Decimal(35).remainder_near(Decimal(10))

Decimal('-5')

rotate(other, context=None)

Return the result of rotating the digits of the first operand by an amount specified by the second
operand. The second operand must be an integer in the range -precision through precision. The
absolute value of the second operand gives the number of places to rotate. If the second operand is
positive then rotation is to the left; otherwise rotation is to the right. The coefficient of the first
operand is padded on the left with zeros to length precision if necessary. The sign and exponent of
the first operand are unchanged.

same_quantum(other, context=None)

Test whether self and other have the same exponent or whether both are NaN.

This operation is unaffected by context and is quiet: no flags are changed and no rounding is
performed. As an exception, the C version may raise InvalidOperation if the second operand cannot
be converted exactly.
scaleb(other, context=None)

Return the first operand with exponent adjusted by the second. Equivalently, return the first operand
multiplied by 10**other. The second operand must be an integer.

shift(other, context=None)

Return the result of shifting the digits of the first operand by an amount specified by the second
operand. The second operand must be an integer in the range -precision through precision. The
absolute value of the second operand gives the number of places to shift. If the second operand is
positive then the shift is to the left; otherwise the shift is to the right. Digits shifted into the
coefficient are zeros. The sign and exponent of the first operand are unchanged.

sqrt(context=None)

Return the square root of the argument to full precision.

to_eng_string(context=None)

Convert to a string, using engineering notation if an exponent is needed.

Engineering notation has an exponent which is a multiple of 3. This can leave up to 3 digits to the left
of the decimal place and may require the addition of either one or two trailing zeros.

For example, this converts Decimal('123E+1') to Decimal('1.23E+3').

to_integral(rounding=None, context=None)

Identical to the to_integral_value() method. The to_integral name has been kept for compatibility
with older versions.

to_integral_exact(rounding=None, context=None)

Round to the nearest integer, signaling Inexact or Rounded as appropriate if rounding occurs. The
rounding mode is determined by the rounding parameter if given, else by the given context. If
neither parameter is given then the rounding mode of the current context is used.

to_integral_value(rounding=None, context=None)

Round to the nearest integer without signaling Inexact or Rounded. If given, applies rounding;
otherwise, uses the rounding method in either the supplied context or the current context.
Logical operands

The logical_and(), logical_invert(), logical_or(), and logical_xor() methods expect their arguments to
be logical operands. A logical operand is a Decimal instance whose exponent and sign are both zero,
and whose digits are all either 0 or 1.

Context objects

Contexts are environments for arithmetic operations. They govern precision, set rules for rounding,
determine which signals are treated as exceptions, and limit the range for exponents.

Each thread has its own current context which is accessed or changed using the getcontext() and
setcontext() functions:

decimal.getcontext()

Return the current context for the active thread.

decimal.setcontext(c)

Set the current context for the active thread to c.

You can also use the with statement and the localcontext() function to temporarily change the active
context.

decimal.localcontext(ctx=None)

Return a context manager that will set the current context for the active thread to a copy of ctx on
entry to the with-statement and restore the previous context when exiting the with-statement. If no
context is specified, a copy of the current context is used.

For example, the following code sets the current decimal precision to 42 places, performs a
calculation, and then automatically restores the previous context:

Decimal('4.45')

>>> Decimal('3.4445') + Decimal(0) + Decimal('1.0023')

Decimal('4.44')
This method implements the to-number operation of the IBM specification. If the argument is a
string, no leading or trailing whitespace or underscores are permitted.

create_decimal_from_float(f)

Creates a new Decimal instance from a float f but rounding using self as the context. Unlike the
Decimal.from_float() class method, the context precision, rounding method, flags, and traps are
applied to the conversion.

>>>

>>> context = Context(prec=5, rounding=ROUND_DOWN)

>>> context.create_decimal_from_float(math.pi)

Decimal('3.1415')

>>> context = Context(prec=5, traps=[Inexact])

>>> context.create_decimal_from_float(math.pi)

Traceback (most recent call last):

...

decimal.Inexact: None

New in version 3.1.

Etiny()

Returns a value equal to Emin - prec + 1 which is the minimum exponent value for subnormal results.
When underflow occurs, the exponent is set to Etiny.

Etop()

Returns a value equal to Emax - prec + 1.

The usual approach to working with decimals is to create Decimal instances and then apply
arithmetic operations which take place within the current context for the active thread. An
alternative approach is to use context methods for calculating within a specific context. The methods
are similar to those for the Decimal class and are only briefly recounted here.

abs(x)

Returns the absolute value of x.

add(x, y)

Return the sum of x and y.

canonical(x)

Returns the same Decimal object x.

compare(x, y)

Compares x and y numerically.

compare_signal(x, y)

Compares the values of the two operands numerically.

compare_total(x, y)

Compares two operands using their abstract representation.

compare_total_mag(x, y)

Compares two operands using their abstract representation, ignoring sign.

copy_abs(x)

Returns a copy of x with the sign set to 0.

copy_negate(x)

Returns a copy of x with the sign inverted.

copy_sign(x, y)

Copies the sign from y to x.

divide(x, y)

Return x divided by y.

divide_int(x, y)
Return x divided by y, truncated to an integer.

divmod(x, y)

Divides two numbers and returns the integer part of the result.

exp(x)

Returns e ** x.

fma(x, y, z)

Returns x multiplied by y, plus z.

is_canonical(x)

Returns True if x is canonical; otherwise returns False.

is_finite(x)

Returns True if x is finite; otherwise returns False.

is_infinite(x)

Returns True if x is infinite; otherwise returns False.

is_nan(x)

Returns True if x is a qNaN or sNaN; otherwise returns False.

is_normal(x)

Returns True if x is a normal number; otherwise returns False.

is_qnan(x)

Returns True if x is a quiet NaN; otherwise returns False.

is_signed(x)

Returns True if x is negative; otherwise returns False.

is_snan(x)

Returns True if x is a signaling NaN; otherwise returns False.

is_subnormal(x)

Returns True if x is subnormal; otherwise returns False.

is_zero(x)

Returns True if x is a zero; otherwise returns False.

ln(x)

Returns the natural (base e) logarithm of x.

log10(x)

Returns the base 10 logarithm of x.

logb(x)

Returns the exponent of the magnitude of the operand’s MSD.

logical_and(x, y)

Applies the logical operation and between each operand’s digits.

logical_invert(x)

Invert all the digits in x.

logical_or(x, y)

Applies the logical operation or between each operand’s digits.

logical_xor(x, y)

Ap
Infinities can be constructed directly with: Decimal('Infinity'). Also, they can arise from dividing by
zero when the DivisionByZero signal is not trapped. Likewise, when the Overflow signal is not
trapped, infinity can result from rounding beyond the limits of the largest representable number.

The infinities are signed (affine) and can be used in arithmetic operations where they get treated as
very large, indeterminate numbers. For instance, adding a constant to infinity gives another infinite
result.

Some operations are indeterminate and return NaN, or if the InvalidOperation signal is trapped, raise
an exception. For example, 0/0 returns NaN which means “not a number”. This variety of NaN is
quiet and, once created, will flow through other computations always resulting in another NaN. This
behavior can be useful for a series of computations that occasionally have missing inputs — it allows
the calculation to proceed while flagging specific results as invalid.

A variant is sNaN which signals rather than remaining quiet after every operation. This is a useful
return value when an invalid result needs to interrupt a calculation for special handling.

The behavior of Python’s comparison operators can be a little surprising where a NaN is involved. A
test for equality where one of the operands is a quiet or signaling NaN always returns False (even
when doing Decimal('NaN')==Decimal('NaN')), while a test for inequality always returns True. An
attempt to compare two Decimals using any of the <, <=, > or >= operators will raise the
InvalidOperation signal if either operand is a NaN, and return False if this signal is not trapped. Note
that the General Decimal Arithmetic specification does not specify the behavior of direct
comparisons; these rules for comparisons involving a NaN were taken from the IEEE 854 standard
(see Table 3 in section 5.7). To ensure strict standards-compliance, use the compare() and compare-
signal() methods instead.

The signed zeros can result from calculations that underflow. They keep the sign that would have
resulted if the calculation had been carried out to greater precision. Since their magnitude is zero,
both positive and negative zeros are treated as equal and their sign is informational.

In addition to the two signed zeros which are distinct yet equal, there are various representations of
zero with differing precisions yet equivalent in value. This takes a bit of getting used to. For an eye
accustomed to normalized floating point representations, it is not immediately obvious that the
following calculation returns a value equal to zero:

>>>

1 / Decimal('Infinity')

Decimal('0E-1000026')
Working with threads

The getcontext() function accesses a different Context object for each thread. Having separate thread
contexts means that threads may make changes (such as getcontext().prec=10) without interfering
with other threads.

Likewise, the setcontext() function automatically assigns its target to the current thread.

If setcontext() has not been called before getcontext(), then getcontext() will automatically create a
new context for use in the current thread.

The new context is copied from a prototype context called DefaultContext. To control the defaults so
that each thread will use the same values throughout the application, directly modify the
DefaultContext object. This should be done before any threads are started so that there won’t be a
race condition between threads calling getcontext(). For example:

# Set applicationwide defaults for all threads about to be launched

DefaultContext.prec = 12

DefaultContext.rounding = ROUND_DOWN

DefaultContext.traps = ExtendedContext.traps.copy()

DefaultContext.traps[InvalidOperation] = 1

setcontext(DefaultContext)

# Afterwards, the threads can be started

t1.start()

t2.start()

t3.start()

...

Recipes

Here are a few recipes that serve as utility functions and that demonstrate ways to work with the
Decimal class:

def moneyfmt(value, places=2, curr='', sep=',', dp='.',

pos='', neg='-', trailneg=''):

"""Convert Decimal to a money formatted string.

places: required number of places after the decimal point

curr: optional currency symbol before the sign (may be blank)

sep: optional grouping separator (comma, period, space, or blank)

dp: decimal point indicator (comma or period)

only specify as blank when places is zero

pos: optional sign for positive numbers: '+', space or blank

neg: optional sign for negative numbers: '-', '(', space or blank

trailneg:optional trailing minus indicator: '-', ')', space or blank

>>> d = Decimal('-1234567.8901')

>>> moneyfmt(d, curr='$')

'-$1,234,567.89'

>>> moneyfmt(d, places=0, sep='.', dp='', neg='', trailneg='-')

'1.234.568-'

>>> moneyfmt(d, curr='$', neg='(', trailneg=')')

'($1,234,567.89)'

>>> moneyfmt(Decimal(123456789), sep=' ')

'123 456 789.00'

>>> moneyfmt(Decimal('-0.02'), neg='<', trailneg='>')

'<0.02>'

"""

q = Decimal(10) ** -places # 2 places --> '0.01'

sign, digits, exp = value.quantize(q).as_tuple()

result = []

digits = list(map(str, digits))

build, next = result.append, digits.pop

if sign:

build(trailneg)

for i in range(places):
 build(next() if digits else '0')

if places:

build(dp)

if not digits:

build('0')

i=0

while digits:

build(next())

i += 1

if i == 3 and digits:

i=0

build(sep)

build(curr)

build(neg if sign else pos)

return ''.join(reversed(result))

def pi():

"""Compute Pi to the current precision.

>>> print(pi())

3.141592653589793238462643383

"""

getcontext().prec += 2 # extra digits for intermediate steps

three = Decimal(3) # substitute "three=3.0" for regular floats

lasts, t, s, n, na, d, da = 0, three, 3, 1, 0, 0, 24

while s != lasts:

lasts = s

n, na = n+na, na+8

d, da = d+da, da+32

t = (t * n) / d
 s += t

getcontext().prec -= 2

return +s # unary plus applies the new precision

def exp(x):

"""Return e raised to the power of x. Result type matches input type.

>>> print(exp(Decimal(1)))

2.718281828459045235360287471

>>> print(exp(Decimal(2)))

7.389056098930650227230427461

>>> print(exp(2.0))

7.38905609893

>>> print(exp(2+0j))

(7.38905609893+0j)

"""

getcontext().prec += 2

i, lasts, s, fact, num = 0, 0, 1, 1, 1

while s != lasts:

lasts = s

i += 1

fact *= i

num *= x

s += num / fact

getcontext().prec -= 2

return +s

def cos(x):

"""Return the cosine of x as measured in radians.

 The Taylor series approximation works best for a small value of x.

For larger values, first compute x = x % (2 * pi).

>>> print(cos(Decimal('0.5')))

0.8775825618903727161162815826

>>> print(cos(0.5))

0.87758256189

>>> print(cos(0.5+0j))

(0.87758256189+0j)

"""

getcontext().prec += 2

i, lasts, s, fact, num, sign = 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1

while s != lasts:

lasts = s

i += 2

fact *= i * (i-1)

num *= x * x

sign *= -1

s += num / fact * sign

getcontext().prec -= 2

return +s

def sin(x):

"""Return the sine of x as measured in radians.

The Taylor series approximation works best for a small value of x.

For larger values, first compute x = x % (2 * pi).

>>> print(sin(Decimal('0.5')))

0.4794255386042030002732879352
 >>> print(sin(0.5))

0.479425538604

>>> print(sin(0.5+0j))

(0.479425538604+0j)

"""

getcontext().prec += 2

i, lasts, s, fact, num, sign = 1, 0, x, 1, x, 1

while s != lasts:

lasts = s

i += 2

fact *= i * (i-1)

num *= x * x

sign *= -1

s += num / fact * sign

getcontext().prec -= 2

return +s

Decimal FAQ

Q. It is cumbersome to type decimal.Decimal('1234.5'). Is there a way to minimize typing when using

the interactive interpreter?

A. Some users abbreviate the constructor to just a single letter:

>>>

D = decimal.Decimal

D('1.23') + D('3.45')

Decimal('4.68')

Q. In a fixed-point application with two decimal places, some inputs have many places and need to
be rounded. Others are not supposed to have excess digits and need to be validated. What methods
should be used?
A. The quantize() method rounds to a fixed number of decimal places. If the Inexact trap is set, it is
also useful for validation:

>>>

TWOPLACES = Decimal(10) ** -2 # same as Decimal('0.01')

>>>

# Round to two places

Decimal('3.214').quantize(TWOPLACES)

Decimal('3.21')

>>>

# Validate that a number does not exceed two places

Decimal('3.21').quantize(TWOPLACES, context=Context(traps=[Inexact]))

Decimal('3.21')

>>>

Decimal('3.214').quantize(TWOPLACES, context=Context(traps=[Inexact]))

Traceback (most recent call last):

...

Inexact: None

Q. Once I have valid two place inputs, how do I maintain that invariant throughout an application?

A. Some operations like addition, subtraction, and multiplication by an integer will automatically
preserve fixed point. Others operations, like division and non-integer multiplication, will change the
number of decimal places and need to be followed-up with a quantize() step:

>>>

a = Decimal('102.72') # Initial fixed-point values

b = Decimal('3.17')

a+b # Addition preserves fixed-point

Decimal('105.89')

a-b

Decimal('99.55')