LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE

AS301 MODULE 2

TKMCE
Basic Principles of Landscape Design
Landscaping combines elements of art and science to create a functional, aesthetically
pleasing extension of indoor living to the outdoors. One initial purpose of landscape design is
to blend man’s technology (house or building) into the natural surroundings. To work toward
a desirable landscape design, the landscape horticulturist must have a working knowledge of
art elements and design principles.

ELEMENTS OF ART

Colours

Colours can be used to visually change distance perspective. Warm colours and light tints like
red, orange, yellow and white advance an object or area toward the observer. These colours
and tints placed near the foundation of a house would make the house appear closer to the
street. Cool colours and deep shades like blue, green and black recede and can be used to
make the house appear farther from the street. Cool colours are restful while warm colours
express action and are best used in filtered light or against a green or dark background.

Colour can be used to direct attention in the landscape. Due to this strong characteristic,
colour should be used carefully. When colour is used for this purpose, consideration must be
given to year-round colour not just too seasonal colour. Consideration may also be given to
the time of day when this colour will be enjoyed. White or light tints could be used to create
interest on a patio. Dark colours would add little to family enjoyment of this area as the
daylight hours passed.

Point

 A point marks a position in space.

 Small objects can be seen as points.

Department of Architecture TKMCE College of Engineering, Kollam KTU University

(a) A point.

(b) A point of density.

(c) Crossed lines mark a point…

(d) …as do focused lines…

Many features in the landscape can be regarded as points:

(a) A church or similar object on the horizon;

(b) A point of light such as a star in the sky;

(c) The point where parallel lines appear to converge;

(d) Lines and a feature on the horizon create a focal point.

Line

• Extending a point in one direction creates a line.

• Lines can be implied by the location of points.

• Lines can be imaginary yet still exert influence.

• Edges of planes can be seen as lines.

• Lines can have their own properties.

Department of Architecture TKMCE College of Engineering, Kollam KTU University

(a) A line is formed by extending a point in one dimension.

(b) A simple line thus formed.

(c) The boundary between two shapes or planes is a line.

(d) The edges of planes laid end to end can create a continuous line as the eye runs along
the contiguous edge.

• Natural lines are common and important in the landscape.

• Man-made lines are also numerous.

• Lines as boundaries are used extensively.

• Lines can act as defining elements in architecture.

Imaginary lines such as contour lines linking points of common elevation can have an effect.
For instance the tree line in mountainous country (a combination of elevation and climate),
the constraints placed on road gradients, or the creation of level construction or cultivation
terraces can all be determined by their relation to contour levels.

Department of Architecture TKMCE College of Engineering, Kollam KTU University

Line is related to eye movement or flow. The concept and creation of line depends upon the
purpose of the design and existing patterns. In the overall landscape, line is inferred by bed
arrangement and the way these beds fit or flow together. Line is also created vertically by
changes in plant height and the height of tree and shrub canopies.

Line in a small area such as an entrance or privacy garden is created by branching habits of
plants, arrangement of leaves and/or sequence of plant materials. Straight lines tend to be
forceful, structural and stable and direct the observer’s eye to a point faster than curved lines.
Curved or free-flowing lines are sometimes described as smooth, graceful or gentle and create
a relaxing, progressive, moving and natural feeling.

Plane

• A one-dimensional line is extended to produce a two-dimensional plane.

• Planes can be flat, curved or twisted.

• Planes can be implied as well as real.

• Planes in different positions may enclose space.

• Naturally perfect planes are few.

• Faces of built forms are planes.

• Planes can be used as media for other treatment.

• Planes can be used for their inherent qualities such as reflection.

Often the surface of a three-dimensional object seen close to is perceived as a plane. Planes
can be simple, curved, flat or twisted. They need not be continuous nor need they be real—
they may be implied as is the ‘picture plane’. Where planes enclose space they may assume
a specific function such as a floor, wall or roof planes.

Department of Architecture TKMCE College of Engineering, Kollam KTU University

Volume

• Volume is the three-dimensional extension of a two-dimensional plane.

• Volume can be solid or open.

• Solid volumes can be geometric or irregular.

• Buildings, landforms, trees and woods are all solid volumes —mass in space.

• Open volumes are defined by planes or other solid volumes to create enclosed space.

• Interiors of buildings, deep valleys and the space beneath the forest canopy are all open
volumes.

Department of Architecture TKMCE College of Engineering, Kollam KTU University

Form

Form and line are closely related. Line is considered usually in terms of the outline or edge of
objects, whereas form is more encompassing. The concept of form is related also to the size
of an object or area. Form can be discussed in terms of individual plant growth habits or as
the planting arrangement in a landscape.

Plant forms include upright, oval, columnar, spreading, broad spreading, weeping, etc. Form
is basically the shape and structure of a plant or mass of plants. Structures also have form and
should be considered as such when designing the area around them.

Texture

Texture describes the surface quality of an object that can be seen or felt. Surfaces in the
landscape includes buildings, walks, patios, groundcovers and plants. The texture of plants
differs as the relationships between the leaves, twigs and branches differ. Coarse, medium or
fine could be used to describe texture but so could smooth, rough, glossy or dull.

Scale

Scale refers to the size of an object or objects in relation to the surroundings. Size refers to
definite measurements while scale describes the size relationship between adjacent objects.
The size of plantings and buildings compared on the human scale must be considered

Department of Architecture TKMCE College of Engineering, Kollam KTU University

Combinations of elements

• It is rare for one basic element to exist in isolation.

• Distinctions between elements may be blurred.

• Distance may change the perception of which element is present.

Department of Architecture TKMCE College of Engineering, Kollam KTU University

It is rare for one element to exist in isolation. Normally they are found in combination.
Moreover, it is possible for the distinctions between them to be quite blurred and ambiguous.
A number of points may appear as a line or plane while at different distances planes may be
seen as points or lines (edges) and faces of solid or open volumes. This changeability provides
stimulation as we behold a scene or composition. This shift as we move from one scale to
another has important connotations for our ability to understand patterns over different
distances or from shifting observer positions

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN
Colour, line, form, texture and scale are tools which are used in combinations to adjust design
principles. Design principles include unity, balance, transition, focalization, proportion,
rhythm, repetition and simplicity. All these principles interact to yield the intended design.

Unity: is obtained by the effective use of components in a design to express a main idea
through consistent style. Unity is emphasized by consistency of character between units in
the landscape. Use of elements to express a specific theme within units creates harmony.
Unity can be achieved by using mass planting and repetition.

Unity means that all parts of the composition or landscape go together; they fit. A natural
feeling evolves when each activity area belongs to and blends with the entire landscape.
Everything selected for a landscape must complement the central scheme and must, above
all, serve some functional purpose.

Balance: in design refers to the equilibrium or equality of visual attraction. Symmetrical

balance is achieved when one side of the design is a mirror image of the other side. There is
a distinct dividing line between the two sides. Equal lines, forms, textures or colours are on
each side of a symmetrical design.

Department of Architecture TKMCE College of Engineering, Kollam KTU University

Asymmetrical balance uses different forms, colours and textures to obtain balance of visual
attraction. These opposing compositions on either side of the central axis create equal
attraction. For example, mass may be opposed by colon or linear dimension by height.

The landscape designer must skilfully manipulate the design elements to create asymmetrical
balance. The central axis must be predetermined and then developed by the elements of art
and other principles of design discussed in this publication.

Transition: is gradual change. Transition in colour can be illustrated by the radial sequence on
the colour wheel (monochromatic colour scheme) previously discussed. Transition can be
obtained by the arrangement of objects with varying textures, forms, or sizes in a logical
sequential order.

For example, coarse to medium to fine textures, round to oval to linear structural forms, or
cylindrical to globular to prostrate plants. An unlimited number of schemes exist by combining
elements of various size, form, texture and colour to create transition. Remember, transition
refers to the 3-dimensional perspective of composition, not just the flat or facial view.

Department of Architecture TKMCE College of Engineering, Kollam KTU University

It is possible to use transition to extend visual dimensions beyond actual dimensions. For
example, radical lines in the private area of the landscape can be used to frame and/or
focalize a lake scene. Transition of plant materials along these lines can make the scene
become a part of the landscape. Transition from taller to shorter plants with textural changes
from course to fine along focal lines emphasizes the beauty of a lake scene.

Transition from shorter to taller plants and from fine to coarse textures would frame the
scene and make it appear closer, like a painting on a wall. Generally, transition assists in the
gradual movement of a viewer’s eye to the design and within it.

Proportion: refers to the size of parts of the design in relation to each other and to the design
as a whole. One large towering oak may compliment an office building but would probably
dwarf a single story residence. A three-foot pool would be lost in a large open lawn but would
fit beautifully into a small private area. And of course, a colossal fountain would dominate a
private garden but could enhance a large city plaza.

Department of Architecture TKMCE College of Engineering, Kollam KTU University

Proportion in landscape design usually relates to people and their activities. The desired size
relationships of components in a design should pose little problem for the designer who
considers this principle routinely in systematic thought processes.

Rhythm: is achieved when the elements of a design create a feeling of motion which leads
the viewer’s eye through or even beyond the designed area. Tools like colour schemes, line
and form can be repeated to attain rhythm in landscape design. Rhythm reduces confusion in
the design.

Focalization: involves the leading of visual observation toward a feature by placement of this
feature at the vanishing point between radial or approaching lines. Straight radial lines as in
create a strong focalization when compared to curved lines. The viewer’s eye is quickly forced
along straight lines to a focal point.

Generally, weaker or flowing lines of focalization are desirable in the residential landscape.
Transition of plants or other objects along these lines can strengthen or weaken the
focalization. Curved lines are stronger when curved toward each other than when curved

Department of Architecture TKMCE College of Engineering, Kollam KTU University

outward. Indirect focalization is created by lines curved in the same direction. Focalization
can be adjusted by plant materials along the lines to create symmetrical or asymmetrical
focalization. Asymmetrical focalization is indirect while symmetrical focalization is more
direct, creating stronger focalization.

Since focalization can be used to direct attention to a point, traffic in an area is usually
directed to that point. Therefore, focalization could be used to direct traffic in a garden area.
Guidance of view toward features of commercial, aesthetic or cultural value may attract the
eye of the unaware without conscious effort.

Repetition: refers to the repeated use of features like plants with identical shape, line, form,
texture and/or colour. Too much repetition creates monotony but when used effectively can
lead to rhythm, focalization or emphasis. Unity can be achieved better by no other means
than repetition. Think of repetition as not having too much variety in the design which creates
a cluttered or busy appearance.

Simplicity: goes hand-in-hand with repetition and can be achieved by elimination of

unnecessary detail. Too much variety or detail creates confusion of perception. Simplicity is
the reduction of a design to its simplest, functional form, which avoids unnecessary cost and
maintenance.

Choosing Plant Combinations

Before choosing plants, consider your design theme and the types of plants that are
characteristic of the theme. The theme will help identify the feel that you want in the space.
For example, a tropical theme might have more extroverts—bold, coarse, and energetic
plants—while a contemplation garden might have many more introverts— quiet, calm plants.
A composition of plant material works the same way a painting composition works. Features
are arranged to create a dominant area that is the focal point, and the rest of the composition
serves as the background.

When choosing plants for the composition, consider form and size first, then texture, and
finally colour. Consider the space where the plant will be located and note the following: size
of the space, colour of the walls and hardscape, texture of the hardscape, and surrounding
views. Always remember to consider the size of the plants at maturity and provide ample
space for growth.

Department of Architecture TKMCE College of Engineering, Kollam KTU University

 STEPS IN DEVELOPING A LANDSCAPE DESIGN
The benefits of an organized system in developing a landscape design are tremendous. As
with most endeavours, the level of efficiency relative to time input is greatly increased with
an organized approach. The game plan for the landscape designer should follow a sequence
such as the one presented here:

Steps in Design

1. Develop a plot plan.

2. Conduct a site analysis.

3. Assess family needs and desires.

4. Locate activity areas.

5. Design activity areas.

6. Plant selection and placement.

Landscape + visual sensitivity

Local public viewpoints – people who live there, including views from and to settlements,
roads, walks and viewpoints, maybe from within forest

Iconic views – important landmark features, well publicised public views

Visitor viewpoints – visitor attractions, public roads, access routes, forest walks, mountain
tops

‘Design viewpoints’ – views which show the setting of the woodland, key characteristics, or
an issue you want to tackle in your design.

Selecting viewpoints

There is a further layer of visual sensitivity - which is the type of view

Understanding what is important about a viewpoint may influence the selection of key
viewpoints, and help explain your choice to others.

Department of Architecture TKMCE College of Engineering, Kollam KTU University

Light

• We need light in order to perceive the environment.

• Light sources can be natural or artificial.

• The amount, quality and direction of light are important.

• Natural light contains all visible wavelengths.

• Light can be ambient or direct.

• Colour is dependent on light.

• Light quality involves the strength of the light and clarity of the atmosphere and is one
important variable.

• Lighting direction is the other variable, whether side, back, front or top lit.

• Artificial light gives complete control over any desired effects.

Natural light, usually sunlight but at night also including moonlight, which is reflected sunlight,
contains the complete range of visible wavelengths. Ambient light refers to the general all-
pervasive outdoor light present even on dull days when the sun is obscured behind thick
cloud. It casts no shadows and is fairly flat and even. Direct light from the sun or an artificial
light source is usually brighter and casts shadows, thus giving form to three-dimensional
objects.

The colours used in particular areas, for example on houses, often bear a relationship to the
light quality. Muted tones of low Chroma are more appropriate in areas subjected to softer,
muted light such as Scotland or Ireland, whereas strong, bright colours suit Mediterranean or
tropical lands such as Spain or Greece, Brazil or India.

Department of Architecture TKMCE College of Engineering, Kollam KTU University

Visual force

• Sensations of movement can be present in static images or objects.

• The position of elements and their shapes can suggest an illusion of visual movement or
force.

• The action of visual forces can be contradictory or complementary.

• Visual forces are ever-present in landforms—running down ridges and convexities and up
valleys and concavities.

• Shapes or lines superimposed on the landscape interact with visual forces in the landform.

• Compatible shapes corresponding to visual force will produce a more resolved, unified
result.

The phenomenon of visual force is an illusion or sensation of movement created by a static

image, object or the juxtaposition of a number of elements in a composition or landscape.
Strong visual forces are the basis of such optical illusions as the moiré effect, where often
visually disturbing images appear to pulsate, vibrate or cause straight lines to appear to bend.

Visual forces can be generated in several ways. The position of a point can create a visual
force; so can shapes, especially if they have directional qualities. Arrows and chevrons on road
signs are familiar and powerful examples of this. Lines can suggest movement which, when
combined with direction, can produce different sensations of speed.

This rock outcrop appears to be pushing the rows of planted trees out and to the right.

Department of Architecture TKMCE College of Engineering, Kollam KTU University

Visual inertia

• Certain objects may not show visual force: they may suggest inertness.

• Heavy, ultra-stable, horizontal forms seem most inert.

Although most forms exhibit visual force, it is possible for certain objects to appear more or
less inert. This is usually a feature of solid volumes whose form and sometimes colour causes
them to seem heavy, ground-hugging and extremely stable. A pyramid of shallow angle, a
cube on a flat horizontal plane, a low dome or a low, flat building are examples of visually
inert elements. Even then there may be minor visual forces running down the ridgelines of
the form but the object itself still seems very inert requiring strong external visual forces to
create any tension.

The need for inertia may arise in order to maintain a calm and quiet appearance in a
composition or landscape to counteract visual energy and movement elsewhere. The use of
a squat form and dark colour for a mundane and utilitarian building may help to avoid
attention being drawn to it in a landscape of competing attractions. In a flat landscape devoid
of vertical forms, a low building of horizontal emphasis may be easier to unify.

Department of Architecture TKMCE College of Engineering, Kollam KTU University

A large power station which has been painted a soft blue-grey to try to dilute the mass seen
against the sky in this coastal location. The result is quite successful in weather similar to that
present when the photograph was taken. A darker colour would emphasize the silhouette
while a lighter one would be too reflective and cause the building to seem even larger. The
simple design means that the true size of the building is difficult to judge

Time

• All objects or landscapes change over time.

• Time is marked in relation to natural cycles, the universe and our lives.

• Time can be registered as cyclical or progressive.

• Change occurs over variable time intervals.

• Seasons are one of the more important ways of dividing time.

• The life spans of humans, animals and plants are other registers of time.

• Time is also involved in motion and a moving observer’s position.

So far we have examined basic elements in terms of their static physical attributes. All real
objects change over time, the fourth dimension. We often judge the rate of change over time
according to the various rhythms of the natural world, of the universe and in relation to the
length of our own life span.

Department of Architecture TKMCE College of Engineering, Kollam KTU University

Time can be registered as being cyclical, for example the continuity with which the seasons
follow one another year after year, or the predictable cycles of day and night. Time can also
be progressive as it moves inexorably from the past, through the present to the future. This
can be registered in the landscape as birth, growth, decay and death, perhaps related back to
the cycles of life with rebirth. Thus the cyclical nature operates within this linear progression.
Time is also related to motion, as speed or velocity.

There are monthly changes accompanied by the wax and wane of the moon. The weather
may change, we may respond with different rhythms of activity or lethargy and each month
brings subtle developments in growing plants, less obvious, perhaps than the main seasonal
divisions. Traditionally, months have also been endowed with different characters of weather,
plant growth or agricultural activities that mark the passing of time. Such relationships to the
natural cycles have largely been lost in the urbanized world.

Intangible and tangible landscapes:

The relationship between landscape and culture, or landscape and memory, is a developing
discourse in anthropological and other cross-disciplinary fields in recent years. During the late
nineties, tangible and intangible aspects in culture also became more prominent in
anthropological discussions. There is currently a global movement towards a unified vision of
landscape, focussing on the integration of culture and nature and incorporating the
conservation of the identities of people and places. Intangible values of meaning, memory,
lived experience and attachment, in relation to people’s connection to locality and landscape,
were then traced back to the tangible fabric of place.

 Memory
 Landscape
 Landscape architecture
 Anthropology

Memory & Mnemotechnics

“All cognition is embedded in interpretation. All landscapes are interpretations when seen as
something, by somebody. Landscapes are semiotic entities, signs. The iconic quality of the
landscape as a sign is obvious and appreciated, and often exploited in landscape research
which addresses the communication of landscape change to observers”

(Arnesen 1998:42)

Department of Architecture TKMCE College of Engineering, Kollam KTU University

 Guidelines
Accommodate level changes

Terracing the property may become necessary in some cases to create level areas. Where
required, a series of smaller terraces are encouraged as opposed to one large cut. The slope
of the site may be used to create interest through level changes. Please refer to the design
manual with regards to building height, retaining height and retaining measures.

Protect Views

Properties situated higher on the site will in some cases look down onto those situated
below it. This should be taken into account, avoiding reflective materials. When planting
trees it is encouraged to speak to the neighbours and ensure views from the adjacent
property are not negatively affected. Trees are to be planted to frame a view rather than
obscure the view. Future pruning of the trees to be done to encourage growth to create a
foliar frame.

Department of Architecture TKMCE College of Engineering, Kollam KTU University

Natural treatment of water, storm water and use of water features on site.

How water moves and drains over the site should be carefully considered in order to avoid
erosion and other problems related with storm water management. A soft approach to this
design is encouraged.

Water should be seen and appreciated as a scarce resource. As a result, it should be used
sparingly in the landscape, carefully designed for maximum impact. If water features are to
be used, they should be designed to minimize water loss (through leakage and evaporation)
and improve the immediate micro climate.

Use natural screening to create privacy

Screening may help to create privacy from neighbours, planting presents a soft and cost
effective solution to improve privacy. A list of suitable screen planting shrubs and trees may
be selected from the plant palette. While it may be necessary to create and improve privacy,
it should not negatively affect the adjacent properties (eg. cause deep shade on the adjacent
property.) A hard landscape approach to screening should be softened with planting if it is
higher than 1,5m. Softening of boundary walls and fences are encouraged, for example by
integrating fencing within hedging, or encouraging creepers to grow on boundary walls.

Department of Architecture TKMCE College of Engineering, Kollam KTU University

Maintenance

Home owners are responsible for maintaining their private property, including the landscape
servitude and all areas visible from the road and central open space to a high standard. This
includes but is not limited to the mowing of lawn, weeding and pruning.

Garden Furniture

Garden furniture includes but not limited to ornamental objects placed in the garden, seating
elements, tables, ponds or other structures. These elements need to correspond with the
architectural style of the estate.

Sustainable Landscape Architecture

Sustainable landscape architecture creates ecological designs for the outdoor and urban
environment. It begins with appropriate systems which address function, cost, energy
efficiency, beauty, and environment. Broadly speaking, sustainable landscape architecture is
the integration of ecological, social, cultural, and economic factors in designing landscapes to
help protect habitat, contribute to storm water management, conserve water, among other
objectives. The current trend in the practice of landscape architecture is to find the balance
of “aesthetics and function” required for successful sustainable design.

Department of Architecture TKMCE College of Engineering, Kollam KTU University

A sustainable site should protect and enhance these services. The specified ecosystem
services are:

1. Global climate regulation

2. Local climate regulation
3. Air and water cleansing
4. Water supply and regulation
5. Erosion and sediment control
6. Hazard mitigation
7. Pollination
8. Habitat functions
9. Waste decomposition and treatment
10. Food and renewable non-food products
11. Culture benefits

Constructed Wetlands

Natural wetlands are sometimes called “earth’s kidneys” because they serve to filter out
contaminants in the water of our ecosystems. Wetlands slow the flow of water, allowing
sediments to fall out. In addition, wetlands host a variety of plants and microorganisms that
can serve to improve water quality. Constructed wetlands have the potential benefits of
having lower construction maintenance costs, being more aesthetically pleasing, and
producing less odour than traditional treatment facilities.

The relationship between ecology, sustainability and design

Department of Architecture TKMCE College of Engineering, Kollam KTU University

Ecology, sustainability and design are different fields, but they have been merged together in
recent years. This is because human lifestyle is having an increasingly negative impact on the
surrounding environments. Ecology, in the 100 years since its inception, has increasingly
provided the scientific foundation for understanding natural processes, managing
environmental resources and achieving sustainable development. By the 1960s, ecology's
association with the environmental movement popularized the science and introduced it to
the design professions (e.g. landscape architecture, urban design and architecture)

The following is a palette of terms that in some way define or refer to sustainable design:

1. Design for environment,

2. Ecological design (eco-design),
3. Environmental design,
4. Environmentally oriented design,
5. Ecologically oriented design,
6. Environmentally responsible design,
7. Socially responsible design,
8. Environmentally sensitive product design,
9. Sustainable product development,
10. Green design,
11. Life-cycle design,
12. Dematerialization,
13. Eco-efficiency design,
14. Energy efficient design, and
15. Bio-design

Department of Architecture TKMCE College of Engineering, Kollam KTU University