Program : B.

Tech
Subject Name: Basic Civil Engineering & Mechanics
Subject Code: BT-204
Semester: 2nd
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Subject Name: Basic Civil Engineering & Engineering Mechanics Subject Code: BT-2004

UNIT-02

SURVEYING AND POSITIONING

1. Linear measurements: Chain and Tape Surveying, Errors, Obstacles, Booking and Plotting,
Calculation of Areas.
. A gular Measure e ts: Beari g, Pris ati Co pass, Lo al Attra tio , Bo dit h’s Rule of
correction, traverse open and closed, plotting of traverse, accuracy and precision.
3. Levelling: Types of Levels, Levelling Staff, Measurements, recording, curvature and
Refraction correction, reciprocal levelling, sensitivity of level.
4. Contours: Properties, uses, plotting of contours, measurement of drainage and volume of
reservoir.
5. Measurement of area by Planimeter.

Surveying is the science of making measurements to determine the positions of points or

stations, above, on or beneath the surface of the earth. The process of surveying is carried
out in land, water and also in space. The measurements involved in surveying are mainly
distances (both horizontal and vertical) and directions. The data procurement phase in
surveying is called field work and the analysis of data is called as office computations.
Classification of surveys:
A. Classification based on the location of survey as:
a. Land surveys.
b. Hydrographic surveys.
c. Astronomical surveys.
B. Classification based on the purpose of survey as:
a. Topographical survey.
b. Land survey.
c. Engineering survey.
d. Geodetic survey.
C. Classification based on the instruments or method employed as:
a. Chain and tape survey.
b. Compass and Theodolite survey.
c. Plane table survey.
d. Triangulation survey.
e. Tacheometric survey.
f. Hydrographical survey.
g. Photographical and aerial survey.

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h. Astronomical survey.

Geodetic survey:
In this survey the area to be surveyed is considerably large to include the curvature of the
earth. Geodetic surveying involves extremely accurate measurements of distances and
angles. Adequate recognition is given to the spheroidal shape of the earth and in the
computations provisions are made for convergency of the true meridians, and for correcting
the lengths of base lines to the equivalent length projected on the mean sea level.
Plane surveying:
This branch of surveying considers the surface of the earth under survey to be plane.
Curvature of earth is ignored and all calculations are made by using formulae of plane
trigonometry. All meridians are taken as parallel. All plumb lines are taken as parallel. Plane
surveying principles are followed for small areas.
Topographical survey:
This is a survey undertaken to establish on a map the topography or the natural features of
the area, like rivers, canals, lakes, roads, railways, towns, etc.
Land surveys:
This is a survey done to fix property lines, calculation of land areas and transfer of real
property from one owner to the other.
Engineering Surveys:
These consists of operations of obtaining data required to plan and design an engineering
project and providing the proper position and dimensional control at the site so that the
building or the project or the highway etc. is constructed in the proper place and as designed.

Basic principle of surveying:

The following two basic principles should be considered while determining relative position
of points on the surface of earth:-
1. Determining suitable method for locating a point: - it is always practicable to select two
points in the field to measure the distance between them. These can be represented on
paper by two points placed in a convenient position.
2. Working from whole to the part: - in surveying an area, it is essential to establish first of all
a system of control points with great precision. Minor control points can then be established
by less precise method and the details can be located afterwards by method of triangulation
or traversing between control points.

Chain surveying

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Chain surveying is a method of surveying in which only linear measurements are directly
made in the field. The main instruments used are chain, tape, offset rods, cross staff, optical
square. This is the simplest method of surveying which is resorted in the following cases:
1. For small areas.
2. To prepare large scale maps and to locate boundaries very accurately.
3. The site is an open ground without complicated undulating profiles, obstacles etc.
4. The ground is fairly level.
Principle of chain surveying:
The plot is divided into a number of well conditioned (nearly equilateral) triangles. This
triangle is surveyed. The area within each primary triangle can be divided into minor or
secondary triangles which are all surveyed for their exact location within each primary
triangle. This process is based on working from whole to part and the accumulation of errors
is avoided.
Instruments used in chain surveying:
The chain: A chain is a unit of length. It measures 66 feet, or 22 yards, or 100 links, or 4 rods
(20.1168 m). In 1620, the clergyman Edmund Gunter developed a method of surveying land
accurately with low technology equipment, using what became known as Gunter's chain; this
was 66 feet long and from the practice of using his chain, the word transferred to the actual
measured unit. His chain had 100 links, and the link is used as a subdivision of the chain as a
unit of length. The chain also survives as the length of a cricket pitch, being the distance
between the wickets. The chain is composed of one hundred links, connected each to each by
two rings, and furnished with a tally mark at the end of every ten links. A link in
measurement includes a ring at each end, and is seven and ninety two one hundredths inches
long. In all the chains which we make the rings are oval and are sawed and well closed, the
ends of the wore forming the hook being also filed and bent close to the link, to avoid
kinking. The oval rings are about one third stronger than round ones.
Handles - The handles are of brass and form part of the end links, to which they are
connected by a short link and jam nuts, by which the length of the chain is adjusted.
Tallies - The tallies are of brass, and have one, two, three or four notches, as they mark ten,
twenty, thirty or forty links from either end. The fiftieth link is marked by a rounded tally to
distinguish it from the others.

Following are the various types of chain in common use:

1) Metric chains
2) Gunter` s chain or surveyors chain
3) Engineers chain
4) Revenue chain

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5) Steel band or Band chain

Figure 1: Chains
Metric chain: Metric chains are made in lengths 20m and 30m. Tallies are fixed at every five-
meter length and brass rings are provided at every meter length except where tallies are
attached
Engineers' Chains - Engineers' chains differ from surveyors' chains, in that a link including a
ring at each end is one foot long, and the wire is of steel Nos. 8, 10 and 12. They are either
fifty or one hundred feet long, and are furnished with swivel handles and tallies like those
just described.
Tapes
Tapes are used in surveying to measure horizontal, vertical, and slope distances. They may be
made of a ribbon or a band of steel, an alloy of steel, cloth reinforced with metal or synthetic
materials. Tapes are issued in various lengths and widths and graduated in a variety of ways.
The following are the various types of tapes
i. Cloth tape
ii. Metallic tape
iii. Steel tape
iv. Invar tape
Among the above, metallic tapes are widely used in surveying. A metallic tape is made of
varnished strip of waterproof line interwoven with small brass, copper or bronze wires. These
are light in weight and flexible and are made 2m, 5m 10m, 20m, 30m, and 50m.

Metallic Tapes: A metallic tape is made of high-grade synthetic material with strong metallic.
Strands (bronze-brass- copper wire) woven in the warped face of the tape and coated with a
tough plastic for durability. Standard lengths are 50 and 100 ft. Metallic tapes are generally
used for rough measurements, such as cross-sectional work, road-work slope staking, side

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shots in topographic surveys, and many others in the same category. Nonmetallic tapes
woven from synthetic yarn, such as nylon, and coated with plastic are available; some
surveyors prefer to use tapes of this type. Nonmetallic tapes are of special value to power
and utility field personnel, especially when they are working in the vicinity of high-voltage
circuits.
Steel Tapes
For direct linear measurements of ordinary or more accurate precision, a steel tape is
required. The most commonly used length is 100 ft, but tapes are also available in 50-, 200-,
300-, and 500-ft lengths.
Various types of surveying tapes are shown in figure 2. View A shows a metallic tape; view B,
a steel tape on an open reel; view C, a steel tape or, a closed reel. View D shows a special
type of low-expansion steel tape used in high-order work; it is generally called an Invar tape
or Lovar tape.

Figure 2: Surveying tapes.

Invar Tapes
Nickel-steel alloy tapes, known as Invar, Nilvar, or Lovar, have a coefficient of thermal
expansion of about one-tenth to one-thirtieth (as low as 0.0000002 per 10 F) that of steel.
These tapes are used primarily in high-precision taping. These tapes must be handled in
exactly the same manner as other precise surveying instruments.
Arrows
Arrows are made of good quality hardened steel wire of 4 mm diameter. The arrows are
made 400 mm in length, are pointed at one and the other end is bent into a loop or circle.
Figure 3 shows the details of arrow.

Ranging rods
Ranging rods are used to range some intermediate points in the survey line. The length of the
ranging rod is either 2m or 3m (Refer Figure 4). They are shod at bottom with a heavy iron
point. Ranging rods are divided into equal parts 0.2m long and they are painted alternately

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black and white or red and white or red, white and black. When they are at considerable
distance, red and white or white and yellow flags about 25 cm square should be fastened at
the top.

Figure 3: Arrows Figure 4: Ranging rods Figure 5: Plumb Bob

Plumb-bob
A plumb-bob or a plummet is a weight, usually with a pointed tip on the bottom that is
suspended from a string and used as a vertical reference line, or plumb-line. It is essentially
the y-axis equivalent of a "water level". They are used with a variety of instruments
(including levels, theodolites, and steel tapes) to set the instrument exactly over a fixed
survey marker, or to transcribe positions onto the ground for placing a marker (Refer Figure
5).
Pegs
These are rods made from hard timber and tapered at one end, generally 25mm or 30mm
square and 150mm long wooden pegs are used to mark the position of the station on.
Cross staff
The simplest instrument used for setting out a right angle. The common forms of cross staff
are shown in Figure 6.

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Figure 6: Metal cross staff Optical Square Wooden cross staff.

Calculations of Field Area: By this method of survey, the field as divided in to right angled
triangles and trapezoids are calculated as under:
Area of right -angled triangle = ½ base x Height.
Area of trapezoid= sum of parallel sides/2 x Height.
Add the areas of all the triangles & trapezoids and sum is equal to the total of a field.
The computations for area should be written in a tabular from as given below.

Sl. Figure Chainage Base in M. Offset in Mean offset Area in m2 =

No. in m. M. in m. Col 4 x Col 6

Ranging out Survey Line

In measuring the length of a survey line called chain line, it is necessary that the chain should
be laid out on the ground in a straight line between the end stations.
Ra gi g: The pro ess of esta lishi g i ter ediate poi t o a straight li e et ee t o e d
poi ts is k o as ra gi g . Ra gi g ust e do e efore a sur ey li e is hai ed. It may be
necessary to establish a number of intermediate points prior to chaining when chain line is
much longer. Ranging may be done by direct observation by the naked eye or by line ranger
or by Theodolite. Generally, ranging is done by naked eye with the help of three ranging rods.
Ranging is of two kinds:
1. Direct Ranging
2. Indirect or reciprocal ranging

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1. Direct Ranging: When intermediate ranging rods are fixed on a straight line by direct
observation from end stations, the process is known as direct ranging. Direct ranging is
possible when the end stations are intervisible.
Assume that A and B two end stations of chain line (Refer Figure 7), where two ranging rods
are already fixed. Suppose it is required to fix a ranging rod at the intermediate point P on the
chain line in such a way that the points A, P & B are in same straight line. The surveyor stands
about two meters behind the ranging rod at A by looking towards line AB. The assistant holds
ranging rod at P vertically at arms length the rod should be held tightly by the thumb and
forefinger. Now the surveyor direct the assistant to move the ranging rod to the left or right
until the three ranging rods come exactly the same straight line. The ranging will be perfect,
when the three ranging rods coincide and appear as a single rod. When the surveyor is
satisfied that the ranging is prefect, he signals the assistant to fix the ranging rod on the
ground. By following the same procedure, the other ranging rods may be fixed on the line.

Figure 7: Direct Ranging

2. Indirect or Reciprocal Ranging: Indirect ranging is used when the end stations are not
intervisible due to high ground or a hill or if the ends are too long. In such cases, intermediate
points can be fixed on the survey line by a process known as reciprocal ranging.
Let A & B be the two stations with rising ground or a hill (Refer Figure 8). Let two chainmen
with ranging rods take up positions at M and P, such that, chainmen at M1 can see both rods
at P1 and B and the chainmen at P1 can see the ranging rods at M1 and A. The chainmen at
P1 directs the chainmen at M1 to shift the ranging rod at M2 in line with A and then
chainman at M2 directs the chainmen at P1 to shift the ranging rod to P2 in line with B, by
successively directing each other to be in line with the end points. Their positions will be
changed until finally they are both in line with A & B exactly on line AB. Now the four ranging
rods at A M P & B are on same straight line. This method may also be used in ranging a line
across a valley or river.

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Figure 8: Indirect or Reciprocal Ranging

Survey Station
Survey stations are of two kinds
1. Main Stations
2. Subsidiary or tie
Main Stations: Main stations are the end of the lines, which command the boundaries of the
survey, and the lines joining the main stations re called the main survey line or the chain
lines.
Subsidiary or the tie stations: Subsidiary or the tie stations are the point selected on the main
survey lines, where it is necessary to locate the interior detail such as fences, hedges, building
etc.
Tie or subsidiary lines: A tie line joints two fixed points on the main survey lines. It helps to
checking the accuracy of surveying and to locate the interior details. The position of each tie
line should be close to some features, such as paths, building etc.
Base Lines: It is main and longest line, which passes approximately through the centre of the
field. All the other measurements to show the details of the work are taken with respect of
this line.
Check Line: A check line also termed as a proof line is a line joining the apex of a triangle to
some fixed points on any two sides of a triangle. A check line is measured to check the
accuracy of the framework. The length of a check line, as measured on the ground should
agree with its length on the plan.
Offsets:
These are the lateral measurements from the base line to fix the positions of the different
objects of the work with respect to base line. These are generally set at right angle offsets. It
can also be drawn with the help of a tape. There are two kinds of offsets:

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1) Perpendicular offsets, and

2) Oblique offsets.
The measurements are taken at right angle to the survey line called perpendicular or right
angled offsets. The measurements which are not made at right angles to the survey line are
called oblique offsets or tie line offsets.
Plane Table Surveying
A plane table is a device used in surveying and related disciplines to provide a solid and level
surface on which to make field drawings, charts and maps. It is a graphical method of
surveying in which field work and plotting are done simultaneously in the field. It is very
effective method of surveying for preparing small or medium size topographical plans. It is
not as accurate as the other survey methods and results. It is particularly adopting in small
mapping. Plane table surveying is used for locating the field computation of area of field.

Merits:
1. It is one of the most rapid methods of surveying.
2. Field notes are not required, and thus the possibility of mistakes in booking is
eliminated.
3. Measuring of lines and angles is mostly dispensed with since they are obtained
graphically.
4. Since the maps are plotted in the field, there is no chance of omitting necessary
measurements.
5. The surveyor is fully confident about the true representation of the area since he can
always compare his work with actual features on the ground and cannot, therefore,
outlook any essential detail.
6. The surveyor can check the accuracy of his work more frequently and from any
position he may desire, thus eliminating all the error at the spot.
7. It is particularly suitable for filling in details in hilly areas and in magnetic areas where
chain and compass surveys are not suitable.
8. Contours and other irregular objects may be accurately represented on the map since
the tract is in view.
9. It is less costly than Theodolite survey.
10. No great skill is required in making a satisfactory map and the work can be entrusted
even to a subordinate.

Demerits:
a. Plane Table Essentially a tropical instruments.
b. It is not suitable to work in wet climate.

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c. There are several accessories to be carried out and therefore they are likely to be lost.
d. It is not suitable for accurate work.

Plane table construction

A plane table consists of a smooth table surface mounted on the tripod. The mount allows
the table to be leveled. The connection between the table top and the base permits one to
level the table precisely, using bubble levels, in a horizontal plane. The base, a tripod, is
designed to support the table over a specific point on land. By adjusting the length of the
legs, one can bring the table level regardless of the roughness of the terrain.

Parts of plane Table:

Plane table essentially consists of Drawing board mounted on tripod and Alidade.
1. Drawing board mounted on tripod: A sheet of drawing paper, called plane table sheet is
fastened to the board. Board is made up of well seasoned wood such as teak of size 40x30 to
75x60cm. It had plane and smooth top. It is mounted on a tripod in manner that it can be
leveled. Leveling up of the table is done by shifting the legs of tripod. Some tripod provided
with leveling screw or by ball and socket head for accurate leveling.
2. Alidade: Alidade consists of two vertical sight vane fitted at end the end of straightedge.
The straight edge ruler usually made of brass or teak wood graduated beloved edge. One of
the sight veins is provided with narrow slit and the other with a central vertical wire or hair.
Beveled working edge alidade is called fiducial edge.
Accessories:
a. A trough campus for marking the direction magnetic meridian on paper.
b. Sprit level for leveling the table.
c. Forked plumb for centering the table.
d. Water proof cover to protect the sheet from rain.

Centering: It is the process of keeping the table over the station that the point on the paper
representing the station being occupied is vertically over the point on the ground. It is done
by forked plumb bob.
Orientation: When the table has to be set up at more than one station it is necessary that it is
be oriented so that the lines on the paper remain parallel to the lie which they represent on
the grou d. “o orie tatio is the pro ess of keepi g the ta le to the positio hi h is
o upied at the first statio .
Orientation is done by two methods:
a. By use of the magnetic needle.
b. Orientation by back sighting.

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a. Orientation by the magnetic needle: To orient the table at any subsequent station, the
through compass(or circular box compass) is placed along the line representing the
magnetic meridian which has been drawn on the paper at the first station, and the
board is then turned until the ends of the needle o\are opposite the zeros of the
scale. The board is then clamped in position. It is suitable for rough small scale
mapping.
b. Orientation by back sighting: This is the most accurate method of orientation and is
always be preferred. Suppose a table is set up over station Q on the line PQ which ahs
been previously drowned as PQ from station p. The alidade is placed along the line QP
and board then turned until the line of sight bisects the ranging rod at P. Board is then
properly clamped.

Figure 9: Plane table mounted on a tripod and Telescopic Alidade

Use of a plane table
In use, a plane table is set over a point and brought to precise horizontal level. A drawing
sheet is attached to the surface and an alidade is used to sight objects of interest. The
alidade, in modern examples of the instrument a rule with a telescopic sight, can then be
used to construct a line on the drawing that is in the direction of the object of interest.
By using the alidade as a surveying level, information on the topography of the site can be
directly recorded on the drawing as elevations. Distances to the objects can be measured
directly or by the use of stadia marks in the telescope of the alidade.
Methods of Plane Table
1. Radiation
2. Intersection
3. Traversing
4. Resection
1. Radiation: This method is useful in surveying small areas which can be commanded
from one station. From a station, the suitable is selected. Rays are drawn to various
objects. The distance of the object from the station are measured and marked off on the
ray.

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2. Intersection: In this method, the positions of the object on the plan are fixed by the
intersection of rays drawn from two instrument stations. The line joining these
instrument stations are called baseline.
3. Traversing: This method is used for running survey lines for close or open traverse. This
is the main method of plane table and is similar to compass or theodolite traversing.
This method consists in running a traverse with a plane table; locating details by taking
offsets in usual manner.
4. Resection: This method is used for establishing instrument station on a plan with
reference to two points already plotted on the plan. The procedure adopted is as
follows:
a. Select the traverse stations say A, B, C etc.
b. Set up the table over one of them say A. select the point A suitably on the sheet.
Level and centre the table over A.
c. Mark the direction of magnetic meridian on the top corner to the sheet by means of
trough compass.
d. With the alidade touching A, sight B and draw the ray.
e. Measure the distance AB and scale off AB, thus fixing the position of B on the sheet
which represents their station B on the ground.
f. Shift the table and set up at B with b over B and orient it by placing. The alidade along
BA, turning the table until the line of sight strikes A, and then clamp it.
g. With the alidade touching B sight C and draw a ray.
h. Measure the line BC and cut off BC to scale. Proceed similarly at other stations, in each
case orienting by back side before taking forward sight until all the remaining stations
are plotted.

Electronic Distance Measuring Instruments (EDM)

In surveying, the standard measurement device for many years remained the steel tape
measure. Newer electronic measuring devices, however, have begun to take the place of the
tape. In surveying applications, surveyors can take electronic distance measurements from
helicopters covering distances and terrain that would have been near impossible with older
methods. Laser distance meters in carpentry can measure any of the things carpenters used
to use a tape measure for, and can send the measurements directly to a computer removing
the possibility of forgotten or transposed numbers.

A distance measuring instrument is provided for simple field wise mapping of an area. The
instrument comprises an electronic distance meter, a unit for determining a vertical angle for
aligning the instrument with a measuring point, and a unit for obtaining a horizontal angle for

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the alignment of the instrument with a measuring point. The horizontal angle unit comprises
a terrestrial magnetic-field detector which comprises at least two detector units fixedly
mounted in the instrument. The units are directed in mutually different directions so that at
least two components of the magnetic flux in an instrument-based coordinate system are
obtained by the units. A calculating unit is arranged to convert the coordinates of the
components of the terrestrial magnetic field from the instrument-based coordinate system to
an earth-based coordinate system. The vertical angle obtained from the vertical angle unit is
used for this conversion. The calculating unit is arranged to calculate the direction of the
terrestrial magnetic field in a horizontal plane and determine the horizontal angle relative to
a reference direction.

Figure 10: EDM Figure 11: Total station

Total station
A total station is an electronic/optical instrument used in modern surveying. The total
station is an electronic theodolite (transit) integrated with an electronic distance meter
(EDM) to read slope distances from the instrument to a particular point ref Figure 11).
Robotic total stations allow the operator to control the instrument from a distance via
remote control. This eliminates the need for an assistant staff member as the operator holds
the reflector and controls the total station from the observed point.
Coordinate measurement: Coordinates of an unknown point relative to a known coordinate
can be determined using the total station as long as a direct line of sight can be established
between the two points. Angles and distances are measured from the total station to points
under survey, and the coordinates (X, Y, and Z or easting, northing and elevation) of surveyed
points relative to the total station position are calculated using trigonometry and
triangulation. To determine an absolute location a Total Station requires line of sight

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observations and must be set up over a known point or with line of sight to 2 or more points
with known location.
For this reason, some total stations also have a Global Navigation Satellite System receiver
and do not require a direct line of sight to determine coordinates. However, GNSS
measurements may require longer occupation periods and offer relatively poor accuracy in
the vertical axis.
Angle measurement: Most modern total station instruments measure angles by means of
electro-optical scanning of extremely precise digital bar-codes etched on rotating glass
cylinders or discs within the instrument. The best quality total stations are capable of
measuring angles to 0.5 arc-second. Inexpensive "construction grade" total stations can
generally measure angles to 5 or 10 arc-seconds.
Distance measurement: Measurement of distance is accomplished with a modulated
microwave or infrared carrier signal, generated by a small solid-state emitter within the
instrument's optical path, and reflected by a prism reflector or the object under survey. The
modulation pattern in the returning signal is read and interpreted by the computer in the
total station. The distance is determined by emitting and receiving multiple frequencies, and
determining the integer number of wavelengths to the target for each frequency. Most total
stations use purpose-built glass corner cube prism reflectors for the EDM signal. A typical
total station can measure distances with an accuracy of about 1.5 mm + 2 parts per million
over a distance of up to 1,500 m. Reflector less total stations can measure distances to any
object that is reasonably light in color, up to a few hundred meters.
Data processing: Some models include internal electronic data storage to record distance,
horizontal angle, and vertical angle measured, while other models are equipped to write
these measurements to an external data collector, such as a hand-held computer.
When data is downloaded from a total station onto a computer, application software can be
used to compute results and generate a map of the surveyed area. The new generation of
total stations can also show the map on the touch-screen of the instrument right after
measuring the points.
Applications:
a. Total stations are mainly used by land surveyors and Civil Engineers, either to record
features as in Topographic Surveying or to set out features (such as roads, houses or
boundaries).
b. They are also used by archaeologists to record excavations and by police, crime scene
investigators, private accident reconstructions and insurance companies to take
measurements of scenes.
c. Mining: Total stations are the primary survey instrument used in mining surveying.

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d. A total station is used to record the absolute location of the tunnel walls (stopes),
ceilings (backs), and floors as the drifts of an underground mine are driven. The
recorded data are then downloaded into a CAD program, and compared to the
designed layout of the tunnel. The survey party installs control stations at regular
intervals. These are small steel plugs installed in pairs in holes drilled into walls or the
back. For wall stations, two plugs are installed in opposite walls, forming a line
perpendicular to the drift. For back stations, two plugs are installed in the back,
forming a line parallel to the drift. A set of plugs can be used to locate the total station
set up in a drift or tunnel by processing measurements to the plugs by intersection
and resection.

COMPASS SURVEY

Figure 12: Surveyors Compass Figure 13: Prismatic Compass

A compass is a navigational instrument that shows directions in a frame of reference that is
stationary relative to the surface of the earth. The frame of reference defines the four
cardinal directions (or points) – north, south, east, and west. Intermediate directions are also
defined. North corresponds to zero degrees, and the angles increase clockwise, so east is 90
degrees, south is 180, and west is 270.

1. Compass survey is a method of surveying by taking bearings and linear distances to

produce plan.
2. Bearing is measured using prismatic compass, while the linear distance is measured
using measuring tape.
3. Bearing in compass surveying means angle is made by chain line or survey line by
referring it to magnetic meridian or magnetic north.

DEFINITION OF FEW COMPASS TERMS

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MERIDIAN – it is the fixed direction in which the bearings of survey lines are expressed
BEARING – it is horizontal angle between the reference meridian and the survey line
measured in clockwise or anticlockwise direction
TRUE MERIDIAN – The true meridian passing through a point on the earth surface is the line
in which a plane passing through and the north and south poles, intersects the surface of the
earth.
TRUE BEARING – The horizontal angle measured clockwise between the true meridian and
the line is called true bearing of the line.
MAGNETIC MERIDIAN – the direction indicated by a freely suspended and balanced magnetic
needle unaffected by local attractive forces
MAGNETIC BEARING – The horizontal angle which a line makes with the magnetic meridian.

DESIGNATION OF BEARINGS
The bearing is expressed in the following two ways:
1. Whole circle bearings
2. Quadrant bearings
WHOLE CIRCLE BEARING
The angle thus measured between the reference meridian and the line. It will have values
between 0º and 360º
QUADRANTAL BEARING
The horizontal angle which a line makes with the north or south direction of the meridian
whichever is nearer the line measured in the clockwise or counter clockwise direction. It will
have value up to 90º.
TYPES OF COMPASS
There are two forms of compass in common use
1. The prismatic compass
2. The sur eyor’s o pass
The prismatic compass is very valuable instrument and is commonly used for rough surveys
where speed and not the accuracy is main consideration. The sur eyor’s o pass as
formerly much used for land surveys but now-a-days, it is little used.
Differences between Prismatic compass and Surveyors compass:
Prismatic Compass (Refer Figure 13): The sighting of an object and reading of the bearing are
done simultaneously. The graduated ring remains stationary as it is attached to magnetic
needle. While the compass needle and the eye sight vane can be rotated. The graduations are
made in such a way that 0 or 360 is at the south, 180 at north, 90 at south and 270 at east.
Sighting of the object and the taking of reading is done simultaneously. Prismatic compass
can be used without a tripod.

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“ur eyor’s Co pass (Refer Figure 14): An object is sighted first and the bearing is then read
by going vertically over the middle point. The graduated ring being attached to the compass
moves with sights. But needle remains stationary when box is rotated. The graduations are
made as 00 at north & south 900 at east and west. The east and west positions are
interchanged in order to read the bearing in quadrantal bearing system. Sighting the object is
done first. Then the reading is to be taken with naked eye by looking above the needle point
Surveyor's compass cannot be used without a tripod.

LOCAL ATTRACTION

Detection of local attraction: Local attraction at a place can be detected by observing

bearings. If the fore and back bearings of the line differ exactly by 180°, there is no local
attraction at either station provided instrumental and observational errors are eliminated.
But if this difference is not equal to 180°, then local attraction exists there either at one or at
both ends of the line. The list of materials which cause local attraction are:
(i) Magnetic rock or iron ore,
(ii) Steel structures, iron poles, rails, electric poles and wires,
(iii) Key bunch, knife, iron buttons, steel rimmed spectacles, and
(iv) Chain, arrows, hammer, clearing axe etc.
Surveyor is expected to take care to avoid local attractions listed in (iii) and (iv) above.

Correcting Observed Bearings:

If local attraction is detected in a compass survey observed bearings may be corrected by any
one of the following two methods:
Method I: It may be noted that the included angle is not influenced by local attraction as both
readings are equally affected. Hence, first calculate included angles at each station,
commencing from the unaffected line and using included angles, the corrected bearings of all
lines may be calculated.
Method II: In this method, errors due to local attraction at each of the affected station is
found starting from the bearing of a unaffected local attraction, the bearing of the successive
lines are adjusted.
LEVELING
Leveling is the operation required in the determination or the comparison of heights of points
on the surface of the earth. Leveling also is the procedure used when one is determining
differences in elevation between points that are remote from each other. An elevation is a

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vertical distance above or below a reference datum. In land surveying, the reference datum is
mean sea level (MSL).
Parts of Level (Refer Figure 15)
Objective lens - compound lens used to magnify object
Reticle - a pair of perpendicular reference lines that defines the line of sight, commonly called
cross hairs
Negative lens - located between objective lens and reticle is used to bring object into focus on
reticle plane
Eyepiece lens - Used to focus cross hairs (i.e. bring focus on cross hair plane)

Figure 15: Parts of Level

Important: Lack of proper focus in object and eyepiece results in parallax, apparent shifting
of object caused by motion of eye. Focus eyepiece and then object - check for parallax.
Discuss this with your lab instructor.
Leveling screws - used to bring level instrument. Once leveled, the instrument's line of sight
with scribe out a horizontal plane.
Circular level bubble - (aka bull's eye bubble) - 10' bubble used to bring automatic
compensator into working range.
Level Vials: Level vials are used to orient surveying instruments with respect to the direction
of gravity. Tube level vial is manufactured so that the inside of the glass lies along a sphere.
The radius of curvature of this sphere determines the vial sensitivity. Longer radii are more
sensitive and precise than shorter radii vials. Alternatively, it takes more time to center a
bubble in a sensitive vial.

Rise and Fall Method

For the same set up of an instrument, Staff reading is more at a lower point and less for a
higher point. Thus, staff readings provide information regarding relative rise and fall of

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terrain points. This provides the basics behind rise and fall method for finding out elevation
of unknown points.
With reference to Table when the instrument is at I1, the staff reading at A (2.365m) is more
than that at S1 which indicates that there is a rise from station A to S 1 and accordingly the
difference between them (1.130m) is entered under the rise column in Table 1. To find the
elevation of S1 (101.130m), the rise (1.130m) has been added to the elevation of A (100.0m).
For instrument set up at I2 , S1 has been treated as a point of known elevation and considered
for back sight (having reading 0.685m) . Foresight is taken at S 2 and read as 3.570m i.e., S2 is
at lower than S1. Thus, there is a fall from S1 and S2 and there difference (2.885m) is entered
under the fall column in Table 13.1. To find the elevation of S 2 (98.245m), the fall (2.885m)
has been subtracted from the elevation of S 1 (101.130m). In this way, elevations of points are
calculated by Rise and fall method.
Level book note for Rise and Fall method
Staff Reading Difference in Elevation Elevation
Points B.S (m) F.S.(m) Rise (m) Fall (m) R.L (m) Remark
A 2.365 100.000 B.M.
S1 0.685 1.235 1.130 101.130 T.P.1
S2 1.745 3.570 2.885 98.245 T.P. 2
B 2.340 0.595 97.650
Arithmetic Check for Reduction of Level
In case of Rise and Fall method for Reduction of level, following arithmetic checks are applied
to verify calculations.
∑ B.“. - ∑ F.“. = ∑ Rise - ∑ Fall = Last R.L. - First R.L.
With reference to Table 13.1:
∑ B.“. - ∑ F.“. = . - 7.145 = - 2.350
∑ Rise - ∑ Fall. = . - 3.480 = - 2.350
Last R.L. - First R.L. = 97.650 - 100.000 = -2.350

Height of Instrument Method

In any particular set up of an instrument height of instrument, which is the elevation of the
line of sight, is constant. The elevation of unknown points can be obtained by subtracting the
staff readings at the desired points from the height of instrument. This is the basic behind the
height of instrument method for reduction of level.
With reference to Table 2, when the instrument is at I1, the staff reading observed at A is
2.365m. The elevation of the line of sight i.e., the height of instrument is 102.365m obtained
by adding the elevation of A (100.0m) with the staff reading observed at A (2.365m). The

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elevation of S1 (101.130m) is determined by subtracting its foresight reading (1.235m) from

the height of instrument (102.365m) when the instrument is at I 1. Next, the instrument is set
up at I2. S1 is considered as a point of known elevation and back sight reading (0.685m) is
taken. The height of the instrument (101.815 m) is then calculated by adding back sight
reading (0.685m) with the elevation (R.L.) of point S 1 (101.130m). Foresight is taken at S2 and
its elevation (98.245m) is determined by subtracting the foresight (3.570m) from the height
of the instrument (101.815 m). In this way, elevations of points are calculated by Height of
instrument method.
Level book note for Height of instrument method
Staff Reading Height of
R.L. (m) Remarks
Points B.S (m) F.S.(m) Instrument (m)
A 2.365 102.365 100.000 B.M.
S1 0.685 1.235 101.815 101.130 T.P.1
S2 1.745 3.570 98.245 T.P.2
B 2.340 97.650

Arithmetic Check for Reduction of Level

In case of Height of instrument method for Reduction of level, following arithmetic checks are
applied to verify calculations.
∑ B.“. - ∑ F.“. = Last R.L. - First R.L.
With reference to Table 13.2:
∑ B.“. - ∑ F.“. = . - 7.145 = - 2.350
Last R.L. - First R.L. = 97.650 - 100.000 = -2.350

Example 2: Data from a differential leveling have been found in the order of B.S., F.S..... etc.
starting with the initial reading on B.M. (elevation 150.485 m) are as follows : 1.205, 1.860,
0.125, 1.915, 0.395, 2.615, 0.880, 1.760, 1.960, 0.920, 2.595, 0.915, 2.255, 0.515, 2.305, 1.170.
The final reading closes on B.M. Put the data in a complete field note form and carryout
reduction of level by Rise and fall method. All units are in meters.
Solution :
Level book note for Rise and Fall method
B.S. (m) F.S. (m) Rise (m) Fall (m) Elevation (m) Remark
1.205 150.485 B.M.
0.125 1.860 0.655 149.830
0.395 1.915 1.7290 148.040

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0.880 2.615 2.220 145.820

1.960 1.760 0.880 144.940
2.595 0.920 1.040 145.980
2.255 0.915 1.680 147.660
2.305 0.515 1.740 149.450
1.170 1.135 150.535 B.M.

Arithmetic Check for Reduction of Level

∑ B.S. = 11.720 m; ∑ F.S. = 11.670 m
Therefore ∑ B.S - ∑ F.S. = 0.050 m
∑ Rise = 5.595 m; ∑ Fall = 5.545 m
Therefore ∑ Rise - ∑ Fall = 0.050 m
Last R.L. - First R.L. = 150.535 - 150.485 = 0.050 m.
∑ B.S - ∑ F.S. = ∑ Rise - ∑ Fall = Last R.L. - First R.L.

Example 3: Data from a differential leveling have been found in the order of B.S., F.S..... etc.
starting with the initial reading on B.M. (elevation 150.485 m) are as follows : 1.205, 1.860,
0.125, 1.915, 0.395, 2.615, 0.880, 1.760, 1.960, 0.920, 2.595, 0.915, 2.255, 0.515, 2.305, 1.170.
The final reading closes on B.M. Put the data in a complete field note form and carry out
reduction of level by Height of instrument method. All units are in meters.

Level book note for Height of instrument method

Staff Reading Height of
R.L. (m) Remarks
Points B.S (m) F.S.(m) Instrument (m)
A 1.205 151.690 150.485 B.M.
S1 0.125 1.860 149.955 149.830 T.P.1
S2 0.395 1.915 148.435 148.040 T.P.2
B 0.880 2.615 146.700 145.820
1.960 1.760 146.900 144.940
2.595 0.920 148.575 145.980
2.255 0.915 149.915 147.660
2.305 0.515 151.705 149.400
1.170 150.535

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Arithmetic Check for Reduction of Level

∑ B.“. = . ; ∑ F.“. = .
Therefore ∑ B.“ - ∑ F.“. = .
Last R.L. - First R.L. = 150.535 - 150.485 = 0.050 m.
∑ B.“ - ∑ F.“. = Last R.L. - First R.L.
Example 4: A Leveling work is carried out from the point A to B and the readings are listed
below. The instrument is shifted after 6 th and 13th reading. Calculate the level difference
between A and B. The RL of bench mark is 47.195, the first reading is taken to BM, the second
reading is at A and the last reading is at B.
By Height of Instrument method:
Level book note for Height of instrument method
Staff Reading Height of
R.L. (m) Remarks
B.S (m) I.S.(m) F.S.(m) Instrument (m)
1.575 48.770 47.195 BM
1.250 47.520 A
0.850 47.920
1.330 47.440
1.580 47.190
2.550 1.450 49.870 47.320 CP1
1.980 47.890
1.760 48.110
1.710 48.160
1.840 48.030
1.920 47.950
1.830 3.250 48.450 46.620 CP2
2.260 46.190 B
Level difference between A and B = 47.195 – 46.190 = 1.005.

Arithmetic Check for Reduction of Level

∑ B.“. = . ; ∑ F.“. = 6.960 m
Therefore ∑ B.“ - ∑ F.“. = -1.005 m
Last R.L. - First R.L. = 46.190 – 47.195 = -1.005 m.
∑ B.“ - ∑ F.“. = Last R.L. - First R.L.

By Rise and fall method:

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Level book note for Rise and Fall method

Staff Reading Rise Fall
R.L. (m) Remarks
B.S (m) I.S.(m) F.S.(m)
1.575 47.195 BM
1.250 0.325 47.520 A
0.850 0.400 47.920
1.330 0.480 47.440
1.580 0.250 47.190
2.550 1.450 0.130 47.320 CP1
1.980 0.570 47.890
1.760 0.220 48.110
1.710 0.050 48.160
1.840 0.130 48.030
1.920 0.080 47.950
1.830 3.250 1.330 46.620 CP2
2.260 0.430 46.190 B

Level difference between A and B = 47.195 – 46.190 = 1.005.

Arithmetic Check for Reduction of Level

∑ B.“. = . ; ∑ F.“. = .
Therefore ∑ B.“ - ∑ F.“. = -1.005 m
∑ Rise = . ; ∑ Fall = .
Therefore ∑ Rise - ∑ Fall = -1.005 m

Last R.L. - First R.L. = 46.190 – 47.195 = -1.005 m.

∑ B.“ - ∑ F.“. = ∑ Rise - ∑ Fall = Last R.L. - First R.L.

Example 5: The following consecutive readings were taken with a level and a 4.0 m staff on a
continuously sloping ground at common interval of 30 m. 0.780, 1.535, 1.955, 2.430, 2.985,
3.480, 1.155, 1.960, 2.365, 3.640, 0.935, 1.045, 1.630 and 2.545. The reduced level of first
point A was 180.750. Rule out a page of level field book and enter the above readings.
Calculate the reduced levels of all the points and apply proper check for calculation. (June
2013)
Solution:

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By Rise and fall method:

Level book note for Rise and Fall method
Staff Reading Rise Fall
R.L. (m) Remarks
B.S (m) I.S.(m) F.S.(m)
0.780 180.750 A
1.535 0.755 179.995
1.955 0.420 179.575
2.430 0.475 179.100
2.985 0.555 178.545
1.155 3.480 0.495 178.050
1.960 0.805 177.245
2.365 0.405 176.840
0.935 3.640 1.275 175.565
1.045 0.110 175.455
1.630 0.585 174.870
2.545 0.915 173.955
Arithmetic Check for Reduction of Level
∑ B.“. = 2.870 ; ∑ F.“. = 9.665 m
Therefore ∑ B.“ - ∑ F.“. = -6.795 m
∑ Rise = 0.000 ; ∑ Fall = 6.795 m
Therefore ∑ Rise - ∑ Fall = -6.795 m

Last R.L. - First R.L. = 173.955 – 180.750 = -6.795 m.

∑ B.“ - ∑ F.“. = ∑ Rise - ∑ Fall = Last R.L. - First R.L.

By Height of Instrument method:

Level book note for Height of instrument method
Staff Reading Height of
R.L. (m) Remarks
B.S (m) I.S.(m) F.S.(m) Instrument (m)
0.780 181.530 180.750 A
1.535 179.995
1.955 179.575
2.430 179.100
2.985 178.545

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1.155 3.480 179.205 178.050

1.960 177.245
2.365 176.840
0.935 3.640 176.500 175.565
1.045 175.455
1.630 174.870
2.545 173.955

Arithmetic Check for Reduction of Level

∑ B.“. = . ; ∑ F.“. = .
Therefore ∑ B.“ - ∑ F.“. = -6.795 m

Last R.L. - First R.L. = 173.955 – 180.750 = -6.795 m.

∑ B.“ - ∑ F.“. = ∑ Rise - ∑ Fall = Last R.L. - First R.L.

Reciprocal Leveling: To find accurate relative elevations of two widely separated intervisible
points (between which levels cannot be set), reciprocal leveling is being used.
To find the difference in elevation between two points, say X and Y, a level is set up at L near
X and readings (X1 and Y1) are observed with staff on both X and Y respectively. The level is
then set up near Y and staff readings (Y2 and X2) are taken respectively to the near and distant
points. If the differences in the set of observations are not same, then the observations are
fraught with errors. The errors may arise out of the curvature of the earth or intervening
atmosphere (associated with variation in temperature and refraction) or instrument (due to
error in collimation) or any combination of these.

The true difference in elevation and errors associated with observation, if any, can be found
as follows:
Let the true difference in elevation between the points be rh and the total error be e.
Assuming, no error on observation of staff near the level (as the distance is very small)
Then,
rh = X1 ~ (Y1 - e) [From first set of observation]
and
rh = (X2 - e) ~ Y2 [From second set of observation]

Δh = [(X1 ~ Y1) + (X2 ~ Y2)]/2

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Or Δh = [ First differe e i o ser atio + “e o d differe e i o ser atio ]/

Thus, the true difference in elevation between any two points can be obtained by taking the
mean of the two differences in observation.
Thus, total error in observations can be obtained by taking the difference of the two
differences in observation.

Total error e = [(X1 ~ Y1) - (X2 ~ Y2)]/2

Or e = [(First difference in observation) - (Second difference in observation)]/2

The total error consist of error due to curvature of the earth, atmospheric errors (due to
temperature and refraction) and instrumental errors (due to error in collimation) etc.

Theodolite
A theodolite is a precision instrument for measuring angles in the horizontal and vertical
planes. Theodolites are used mainly for surveying applications, and have been adapted for
specialized purposes in fields like metrology and rocket launch technology. A modern
theodolite consists of a movable telescope mounted within two perpendicular axes—the
horizontal or trunnion axis, and the vertical axis. When the telescope is pointed at a target
object, the angle of each of these axes can be measured with great precision, typically two
seconds of arc. The most important instrument for exact survey work and many types are
available to meet varying requirements of accuracy and precision, with direct readings of the
circle ranging from 5 min to 0.1 sec.
CLASSIFICATION:
A. Theodolite may be classified into transit and non-transit theodolite.
Transit theodolite: A theodolite is said to be transit one when its telescope can be revolved
through 180° in a vertical plane about its horizontal axis, thus directing the telescope in
exactly opposite direction.
Non-transit theodolite: A theodolite is said to be a non-transit one when its telescope cannot
be revolved through 180° in a vertical plane about its horizontal axis.

B. Based on the type the theodolite is divided into three types based on angles, which are
vernier, optical and electronic.
Vernier Theodolite: Uses vernier scale
Optical Theodolite: Uses optical with horizontal and vertical circles made from transparent
glasses and graduated scale.

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Electronic Theodolite: Has a screen with digits for angles on front and back of the instrument.

The face of the current observation (telescope position) is the side on which the vertical circle
is, when viewed from the eyepiece, which is either face left or face right. The telescope has its
own clamp and tangent screws.
A theodolite is mounted on its tripod head by means of a forced centering plate or tribrach
containing four thumbscrews, or in modern theodolites, three for rapid leveling. Before use, a
theodolite must be precisely placed vertical above the point to be measured using a plumb
bob, optical plummet or laser plummet. The instrument is then set level using levelling
footscrews and circular and more precise tubular spirit bubbles.
Both axes of a theodolite are equipped with graduated circles that can be read through
magnifying lenses. The vertical circle which 'transits' about the horizontal axis should read 90°
(100 grad) when the sight axis is horizontal, or 270° when the instrument is in its second
position, that is, "turned over" or "plunged". Half of the difference between the two
positions is called the "index error".

Sectional view of theodolite

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Three assemblies of theodolite View of theodolite

ADJUSTMENT OF A THEODOLITE
The adjustments of a theodolite are of two kinds: Permanent adjustment and Temporary
adjustment
PERMANENT ADJUSTMENT: The permanent adjustment are made to establish the fixed
relationships between the fundamental lines of the instrument, and once made, they last for
long time. They are essential for the accuracy of observations.
TEMPORARY ADJUSTMENT: The temporary adjustments are made at each set up of the
instrument before starting taking observations with the instrument. There are three
temporary adjustment of a theodolite.
a. Centering
b. Levelling
c. Focusing
a. CENTERING: Centering means bringing the vertical axis of the theodolite immediately over
a station mark. The station mark should be represented by well-defined point such as end of
a nail driven on the top of a peg or the intersection points of a cross marked at the surface
below the instrument etc.

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b. LEVELLING: Having centered and approximately leveled the instrument, it is accurately

leveled with reference to the plate levels by means of foot-screws so that the vertical axis is
made truly vertical.
c. FOCUSSING: This is done in two steps focusing of the eye-piece distinct vision of the cross-
hairs at diaphragm and focusing the object-glass for bringing the image of the object into the
plane of the diaphragm.

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