KCA UNIVERSITY

FACULTY: COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

UNIT: TELECOMMUNICATIONS

UNIT CODE: BISF 2301

GROUP MEMBERS: REG NO:

Ron Ragu Gitau 19/02558
Mohamed Zakaria Abdullahi 20/03618
Bageni Wigina 20/03907
David Wahome Maina 20/04071

DATE: 23rd November, 2021

Q1. Describe the following media impairments: Noise, Distortion, Attenuation. Discuss
any mitigations that are employed in telecommunications against these impairments. (5
marks)

• Noise occurs when an unwanted signal is added between transmission and reception.
These include thermal noise, inter-modulation noise and crosstalk.

Mitigation Techniques for Noise

One way to mitigate noise in wireless communication is by using a Faraday cage. A Faraday
cage is a device that blocks out external noise and prevents it from interfering with the
communication between two devices. In order for a Faraday cage to be useful, all devices
within a network need to reside within the cage so as not to prevent communication between
them. However, as a result of its design, a Faraday cage is only able to mitigate external noise
in a wireless network.

• Distortion occurs when the signal changes form or shape. It mostly occurs in composite
signals with different frequencies which have their own propagation speed travelling
through a medium.
Mitigation Technique for Distortion.
The delay distortion can be neutralised by using suitable equalizers.

• Attenuation is caused when the strength of a signal deteriorates with distance over a
transmission link. An amplifier is used to amplify the attenuated signal and compensate
for the loss.

Mitigation Techniques for Attenuation.

i. Improving Cables.
Cables can come in many forms, including copper, fibre, satellite and more. Each type of cable
can handle different rates of transmission and different temperatures.
Copper cables, although cheap and common, can be less effective and may experience
attenuation more frequently that other types of cables. Fiber cables, however, use glass tubes
and send signals through high-frequency wavelengths of light.
Switching cables from copper to fibre — as well as ensuring they are all properly insulated —
can help improve a signal’s strength and speed.
ii. Shortening Distance.
A network administrator is not only responsible for networking the environment, but to
maintain the best efficiencies possible. For example, using shorter cables, or moving the end
product closer to the signal source, can also help improve signal strength. The faster the signal,
the more productive and cost-efficient a company becomes.
 iii. Including Amplifiers or Repeaters.
Although repeaters or amplifiers may slow down a signal, they do a great job at preventing
attenuation. These options may work best in large offices or environments where the signal
needs to reach farther, but the speed of the transmission is less important.

Q2. A microphone is connected to a PC whose output is directed to a modem capable of

transmitting microwave signals. Draw a diagram illustrating the transmitter side from
the microphone to the microwave dish. Use graphs to show the waveforms at every step
clearly explaining the nature of the signal (analogue/digital) and the frequency
components (10 marks)
Analog data, such as the sounds made by a human voice, take on continuous values. When
someone speaks, an analogue wave is created in the air. This can be captured by a microphone
and converted to an analogue signal or sampled and converted to a digital signal.

Analog signals are a representation of time varying quantities in a continuous signal. Basically,
a time variance is presented in a manner in which some sort of information is passed using
various types of methods, including electrical, mechanical, hydraulic, or pneumatic systems.
Unlike digital signals, which use a numeric method of transmitting information, analogue
signals use small fluctuations in the signal itself to pass information. These signals act
essentially like simulations of a continuous time varying quantity. They duplicate the features
of the actual quantity by presenting a different one. In other words, they use one method of
recording information and transfer it to a different format that, in turn, presents the information
in that medium.
A digital signal refers to an electrical signal that is converted into a pattern of bits. Unlike an
analogue signal, which is a continuous signal that contains time-varying quantities, a digital
signal has a discrete value at each sampling point. The precision of the signal is determined by
how many samples are recorded per unit of time. A digital signal is easily represented by a
computer because each sample can be defined with a series of bits that are either in the state 1
(on) or 0 (off). Digital signals can be compressed and can include additional information for
error correction.

Waveforms as represented on Graphs.

The waveform of a signal is a graph of its instantaneous voltages versus time. In audio, for
example, we are always dealing with periodic waveforms that make up what we hear. These
periodic waveforms can be plotted on a graph and will show up as some type of squiggly line.
From left to right is time (usually a very short slice of time) and from top to bottom is the
amplitude of the sound (or relative voltage) at those instants in time. The familiar sine wave is
an example of this.
Waveforms, or Waves (a Wave File, for example) are also the names sometimes given to
samples or snippets of sound that are used in various electronic sound generating or playing
instruments.
A Pulse Waveform

A pulse is a waveform or signal in its own right. It has very different Mark-to-Space ratio
compared to a high frequency square wave clock signal or even a rectangular waveform.
The purpose of a “Pulse” and that of a trigger is to produce a very short signal to control the
time at which something happens for example, to start a Timer, Counter, Monostable or Flip-
flop etc, or as a trigger to switch “ON” Thyristors, Triacs and other power semiconductor
devices.

Square Wave Electrical Waveforms

Square-wave Waveforms are used extensively in electronic and microelectronic circuits for
clock and timing control signals as they are symmetrical waveforms of equal and square
duration representing each half of a cycle and nearly all digital logic circuits use square wave
waveforms on their input and output gates.
Unlike sine waves which have a smooth rise and fall waveform with rounded corners at their
positive and negative peaks, square waves on the other hand have very steep almost vertical up
and down sides with a flat top and bottom producing a waveform which matches its description,
– “Square” as shown below.
Then we can say that for a square wave waveform the positive or “ON” time is equal to the
negative or “OFF” time so the duty cycle must be 50%, (half of its period). As frequency is
equal to the reciprocal of the period, ( 1/T ) we can define the frequency of a square wave
waveform as:
A Sine Wave Waveform
Seconds (s), milliseconds (ms), and microseconds (s) are all examples of periodic time units
(T).
We may represent the periodic time of the waveform in degrees or radians for sine wave
waveforms only, as one full cycle is equal to 360o (T = 360o) or in Radians as 2pi, 2 (T = 2),
so we can say that 2 radians = 360o – (Remember this!).
The periodic time or period, which indicates a defined length of time, is now recognized as the
time it takes for electrical waveforms to repeat themselves.
We get the number of times a period or cycle repeats itself in one second or cycles per second
if we take the reciprocal of the period (1/T). When we take the reciprocal of the period (1/T),
we get a figure that reflects the number of times a period or cycle repeats itself in one second
or cycles per second, which is generally referred to as Frequency in Hertz units (Hz).
Then Hertz may be defined as "cycles per second" (cps), with 1Hz equalling one cycle per
second. Period and frequency are mathematical reciprocals, and as the periodic time of the
waveform reduces, its frequency rises, and vice versa, with the connection between Periodic
time and Frequency given as.
Rectangular Waveforms
They are similar to the square wave waveform above, the difference being that the two pulse
widths of the waveform are of an unequal time period. Rectangular waveforms are therefore
classed as “Non-symmetrical” waveforms as shown below.

The example above shows that the positive pulse width is shorter in time than the negative
pulse width. Equally, the negative pulse width could be shorter than the positive pulse width,
either way the resulting waveform shape would still be that of a rectangular waveform.
A Triangular Waveform

Generally, for Triangular Waveforms the positive-going ramp or slope (rise), is of the same
time duration as the negative-going ramp (decay) giving the triangular waveform a 50% duty
cycle. Then any given voltage amplitude, the frequency of the waveform will determine the
average voltage level of the wave. So for a slow rise and slow delay time of the ramp will give
a lower average voltage level than a faster rise and decay time.
Sawtooth Waveforms
As its name suggests, the shape of the waveform resembles the teeth of a saw blade. Sawtoothed
waveforms can have a mirror image of themselves, by having either a slow-rising but extremely
steep decay, or an extremely steep almost vertical rise and a slow-decay as shown below.

The positive ramp Sawtooth Waveform is the more common of the two waveform types with
the ramp portion of the wave being almost perfectly linear. The Sawtooth waveform is
commonly available from most function generators and consists of a fundamental frequency (
ƒ ) and all its integer ratios of harmonics, such as: 1/2, 1/4, 1/6 1/8 … 1/n etc. What this means
in practical terms is that the Sawtoothed Waveform is rich in harmonics and for music
synthesizers and musicians gives the quality of the sound or tonal colour to their music without
any distortion.
Waveform Generator IC

Q3. Discuss switching using PSTN switching as an example. Describe the migration of
PSTN to NGN (next generation network) (5 marks)
A switch, in the context of networking, is a high-speed device that receives incoming data
packets and redirects them to their destination on a local area network. It connects multiple
communication lines together.
Switching is the method that is used to establish connections between nodes within a network.
Once a connection has been made, information can be sent. It is used in connecting systems to
make them as to one-to-one communication.
Public Switched Telephone Network or PSTN is a telephone service that connects various
residents and businesses through underground copper wires. This type of phone service is also
called plain old telephone service (POTS), a landline, and fixed-line telephones. Furthermore,
this phone service has been widely used across the world for generations. However,
advancements in telecommunication have resulted in a decline in demand for PSTN lines.
Four types of switching which take place at different levels in PTSN;
1. Circuit switching
When calls are made, the switches create a circuit between two phones and maintain the
connection for the duration of the call.
2. Central office
supplier. Since this is a local call, the call does not leave the local exchange.
Example: Calling a business located in the next building or block from your building.
3. Tandem office
Example: Calling a business located in the next suburb but within the same city.
4. Toll office
Example: Calling a business located in another city or state within the same country.
5. International Gateway
Example: Calling internationally.
The features of a PSTN are:

• Subscribers can be connected by entering telephone numbers

• The existing connections are primarily used to transmit speech information
• After hanging up the connection is closed and the resources used become available to
other subscribers
A public switched telephone network combines phone networks across the world. These
include:
• Telephone lines
• Cellular networks
• Fiber optic cables
• Switching centres
• Cable systems
Consider what happens when you dial a number from your own phone.
Step #1 - Your telephone set converts sound waves into electrical signals. These signals are
then transmitted to a terminal via a cable.
Step #2 - The terminal collects the electrical signals and transmits these to the central office
(CO).
Step #3 - The central office routes the calls in the form of electrical signals through fiber optic
cable. The fibre optic conduit then carries these signals in the form of light pulses to their final
destination.
Step #4 - Your call is routed to a tandem office (a regional hub responsible for transmitting
calls to distant central offices) or a central office (for local calls).
Step #5 - When your call reaches the right office, the signal is converted back to an electrical
signal and is then routed to a terminal.
Step #6 - The terminal routes the call to the appropriate telephone number. Upon receiving the
call, the telephone set converts the electrical signals back to sound waves.
It takes a few seconds for your call to reach its destination. This process is facilitated by using
fibre optic cables and a global network of switching centres.
Migration from PSTN to NGN
Why Migration is required;
• Network convergence – one network for voice, data and video
• OPEX and CAPEX savings
• New service opportunities
• Non availability of spare parts of the exiting TDM exchanges
NGN concept takes into consideration new realities in the telecommunication industry
characterised by factors such as: the need to converge and optimise the operating networks and
the extraordinary expansion of digital traffic.

Strategy of Migration
Migration from PSTN to NGN can be achieved in two different stages
• Migration of Trunk Exchanges (class 4)
• Migration of Local Exchanges (class 5)
Different network elements involved
i. Soft switch
• Also known as Call Agent or Media Gateway Controller. It performs call control, signalling
and interworking, traffic measurement and recording functions
• Provides Addressing, Analysis, routing and charging facilities
ii. Trunk Media Gateway
Performs the functions of
• Voice encoding & Compression
• Packetization of voice channels
iii. Signalling Gateway
Provides interworking function between SS7 network and IP network
iv. Access Gateway
Performs the functions of providing interface to an Access network like DLC, AN RAX, RSUs,
ISDN PRI. The interface is based on E1 or STM-1.
v. Line Access Gateway
• Line Access Gateways provide the interface to a single subscriber line. It is a two-wire
interface
The protocols used are:
• Between Soft switch and media gateway – H.248/MGCP
• Between two soft switches - SIP(T) or BICC
• Between Soft switch and media gateway – H.248/MGCP
• Between two soft switches - SIP(T) or BICC
Between Softswitch and signalling gateway - sigtran suite of protocols
• Between softswitch and Application server- sip, parley etc.
• Between two media gateways for actual packet transfer- RTP/RTCP
• Between Softswitch and media gateway – H.248/MGCP
• Between two soft switches - SIP(T) or BICC
Different related issues related to migration
i. QoS (Quality of Service)
The basic criterion for QoS evolution is ‘subjective user satisfaction’, e.g., speed, accuracy,
reliability, and security. This involves identification of parameters that can be directly observed
and measured at the point at which the service is accessed by users and network providers.
These factors need to be taken into account when agreeing on parameters for, and levels of,
QoS for NGN.
ii. Interoperability
NGN will involve a broad series of protocols (including various profiles) at both service and
network levels, it is essential to ensure interoperability between different systems and
networks, underlines the strategic importance of this subject. Within the NGN, security issues
interrelate with architecture, QoS, network management, mobility, charging and payment.
iii. Security
Security is as crucial to the NGN as it is in today’s network environment. The very wide scope
of this topic, combined with the number of SDOs (standards development organisations)
already involved.
iv. Generalized Mobility
NGN will give users and devices the ability to communicate and to access services irrespective
of change of location or technical environment.
The general idea behind the NGN is that one network transports all information and services
(voice, data, and all sorts of media such as video) by encapsulating these into packets, similar
to those used on the Internet. The major factor is increasing demand for new multimedia
services, increasing demand for mobility, etc. The customers demand for new services is
increasing and that too at less cost. Therefore, there is a need for a network which has a
capability to develop services and able to extend it to the end user independent of the other part
of the network. This is achieved through the concept of NGN.
You can image a simple migration from PSTN to NGN as below:
In the picture above, you can see that Core will migrate to Media Gateway Controller, Interal
BUS as Core Packet Network and Fabric switching as External Packet Network.
In the class 5 Circuit Switching, Core will control modules by specific standard. When
migrating to NGN, specific standard will be H.248/Megaco and modules will be gateways.
In practically, NGN acts as class 5 and class 4.
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