Topic 1 Reading Exercises From: Copi, Irving M. Introduction To Logic, 14th Edition. Routledge. Chapter 1
Topic 1 Reading Exercises From: Copi, Irving M. Introduction To Logic, 14th Edition. Routledge. Chapter 1
Topic 1 Reading Exercises From: Copi, Irving M. Introduction To Logic, 14th Edition. Routledge. Chapter 1
1 Reading Exercises from:
Copi, Irving M. Introduction to Logic, 14th Edition. Routledge.
Chapter 1
INSTRUCTIONS
Identify the premises and conclusions in the following passages. Some premises do support the
conclusion; others do not. Note that premises may support conclusions directly or indirectly and
that even simple passages may contain more than one argument.
Example Problem
A wellregulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to
keep and bear arms shall not be infringed.
—The Constitution of the United States, Amendment 2
Example Solution
Conclusion: If a racial gap is evidence of discrimination, then all tests discriminate
Premise: Standardized tests have a disparate racial and ethnic impact; white and Asian
students score, on average, markedly higher than their black and Hispanic peers.
6. Good sense is, of all things in the world, the most equally distributed, for everybody thinks
himself so abundantly provided with it that even those most difficult to please in all other
matters do not commonly desire more of it than they already possess.
—René Descartes, A Discourse on Method, 1637
Conclusion: Good sense is, of all things in the world, the most equally distributed
Premise: for everybody thinks himself so abundantly provided with it that even those
most difficult to please in all other matters do not commonly desire more of it than they already
possess.
This study source was downloaded by 100000823175634 from CourseHero.com on 02-13-2022 18:21:27 GMT -06:00
https://www.coursehero.com/file/32945610/com362-t1-reading-exercises-2docx/
7. When Noah Webster proposed a Dictionary of the American Language, his early 19th-century
critics presented the following argument against it: “Because any words new to the United States
are either stupid or foreign, there is no such thing as the American language; there’s just bad
English.”
—Jill Lepore, “Noah’s Mark,” The New Yorker, 6 November 2006
Premise: Because any words new to the United States are either stupid or foreign, there
is no such thing as the American language
Conclusion: there’s just bad English
8. The death penalty is too costly. In New York State alone taxpayers spent more than $200
million in our state’s failed death penalty experiment, with no one executed. In addition to being
too costly, capital punishment is unfair in its application. The strongest reason remains the
epidemic of exonerations of death row inmates upon post-conviction investigation, including ten
New York inmates freed in the last 18 months from long sentences being served for murders or
rapes they did not commit.
—L. Porter, “Costly, Flawed Justice,” The New York Times, 26 March 2007
Premise 1: In New York State alone taxpayers spent more than $200 million in our state’s
failed death penalty experiment, with no one executed.
Premise 2: The strongest reason remains the epidemic of exonerations of death row
inmates upon post-conviction investigation, including ten
New York inmates freed in the last 18 months from long sentences being served for
murders or rapes they did not commit.
9. Houses are built to live in, not to look on; therefore, let use be preferred before uniformity.
—Francis Bacon, “Of Building,” in Essays, 1597
Premise: Houses are built to live in, not to look on
Conclusion: therefore, let use be preferred before uniformity
10. To boycott a business or a city [as a protest] is not an act of violence, but it can cause
economic harm to many people. The greater the economic impact of a boycott, the more
impressive the statement it makes. At the same time, the economic consequences are likely to be
shared by people who are innocent of any wrongdoing, and who can ill afford the loss of income:
This study source was downloaded by 100000823175634 from CourseHero.com on 02-13-2022 18:21:27 GMT -06:00
https://www.coursehero.com/file/32945610/com362-t1-reading-exercises-2docx/
hotel workers, cab drivers, restaurateurs, and merchants. The boycott weapon ought to be used
sparingly, if for no other reason than the harm it can cause such bystanders.
—Alan Wolfe, “The Risky Power of the Academic Boycott,” The Chronicle of Higher
Education, 17 March 2000
Premise 1: To boycott a business or a city [as a protest] is not an act of violence, but it
can cause economic harm to many people.
Premise 2: At the same time, the economic consequences are likely to be shared by
people who are innocent of any wrongdoing, and who can ill afford the loss of income: hotel
workers, cab drivers, restaurateurs, and merchants.
Conclusion: The boycott weapon ought to be used sparingly, if for no other reason than
the harm it can cause such bystanders.
11. Ethnic cleansing was viewed not so long ago as a legitimate tool of foreign policy. In the
early part of the 20th century forced population shifts were not uncommon; multicultural empires
crumbled and nationalism drove the formation of new, ethnically homogenous countries
—Belinda Cooper, “Trading Places,” The New York Times Book Review, 17 September 2006
Conclusion: Ethnic cleansing was viewed not so long ago as a legitimate tool of foreign
policy.
Premise: multicultural empires crumbled and nationalism drove the formation of new,
ethnically homogenous countries
12. If a jury is sufficiently unhappy with the government’s case or the government’s conduct, it
can simply refuse to convict. This possibility puts powerful pressure on the state to behave
properly. For this reason a jury is one of the most important protections of a democracy
—Robert Precht, “Japan, the Jury,” The New York Times, 1 December 2006
Premise: If a jury is sufficiently unhappy with the government’s case or the government’s
conduct, it can simply refuse to convict.
Conclusion: For this reason a jury is one of the most important protections of a
democracy
13. Without forests, orangutans cannot survive. They spend more than 95 percent of their time in
the trees, which, along with vines and termites, provide more than 99 percent of their food. Their
only habitat is formed by the tropical rain forests of Borneo and Sumatra
—Birute Galdikas, “The Vanishing Man of the Forest,” The New York Times, 6 January 2007
This study source was downloaded by 100000823175634 from CourseHero.com on 02-13-2022 18:21:27 GMT -06:00
https://www.coursehero.com/file/32945610/com362-t1-reading-exercises-2docx/
Cocnlusion: Without forests, orangutans cannot survive
Premise: They spend more than 95 percent of their time in the trees, which, along with
vines and termites, provide more than 99 percent of their food.
14. Omniscience and omnipotence are mutually incompatible. If God is omniscient, he must
already know how he is going to intervene to change the course of history using his
omnipotence. But that means he can’t change his mind about his intervention, which means he is
not omnipotent
—Richard Dawkins, The God Delusion (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2006)
Premise 1: If God is omniscient, he must already know how he is going to intervene to
change the course of history using his omnipotence.
Premise 2: But that means he can’t change his mind about his intervention, which means
he is not omnipotent
Conclusion: Omniscience and omnipotence are mutually incompatible.
15. Reason is the greatest enemy that faith has; it never comes to the aid of spiritual things, but
more frequently than not struggles against the divine Word, treating with contempt all that
emanates from God
—Martin Luther, Last Sermon in Wittenberg, 17 January 154
Conclusion: Reason is the greatest enemy that faith has
Premise: it never comes to the aid of spiritual things, but more frequently than not
struggles against the divine Word
INSTRUCTIONS
Some of the following passages contain explanations, some contain arguments, and some may be
interpreted as either an argument or an explanation. What is your judgment about the chief
function of each passage? What would have to be the case for the passage in question to be an
argument? To be an explanation? Where you find an argument, identify its premises and
conclusion. Where you find an explanation, indicate what is being explained and what the
explanation is.
Example Problem
Humans have varying skin colors as a consequence of the distance our ancestors lived from the
Equator. It’s all about sun. Skin color is what regulates our body’s reaction to the sun and its
rays. Dark skin evolved to protect the body from excessive sun rays. Light skin evolved when
people migrated away from the Equator and needed to make vitamin D in their skin. To do that
they had to lose pigment. Repeatedly over history, many people moved dark to light and light to
dark. That shows that color is not a permanent trait
This study source was downloaded by 100000823175634 from CourseHero.com on 02-13-2022 18:21:27 GMT -06:00
https://www.coursehero.com/file/32945610/com362-t1-reading-exercises-2docx/
—Nina Jablonski, “The Story of Skin,” The New York Times, 9 January 2007
Example Solution
This is essentially an explanation. What is being explained is the fact that humans have varying
skin colors. The explanation is that different skin colors evolved as humans came to live at
different distances from the Equator and hence needed different degrees of protection from the
rays of the sun. One might interpret the passage as an argument whose conclusion is that skin
color is not a permanent trait of all humans. Under this interpretation, all the propositions
preceding the final sentence of the passage serve as premises.
PROBLEMS
15.The Treasury Department’s failure to design and issue paper currency that is readily
distinguishable to blind and visually impaired individuals violates Section 504 of the
Rehabilitation Act, which provides that no disabled person shall be “subjected to discrimination
under any program or activity conducted by any Executive agency.”
—Judge James Robertson, Federal District Court for the District of Columbia, American Council
of the Blind v. Sec. of the Treasury, No. 020864 (2006)
This is an explanation because it is stating a fact. There is no arguing for or against this
statement, it just is. In order for it to be an argument the statement needs more persuasion. If
this were the case, the conclusion here would be the explanation of the failure of the Treasure
Department, and the premise would be the explanation of section 504
16.Rightness [that is, acting so as to fulfill one’s duty] never guarantees moral goodness. For an
act may be the act which the agent thinks to be his duty, and yet be done from an indifferent or
bad motive, and therefore be morally indifferent or bad
—Sir W. David Ross, Foundations of Ethics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1939)
This is essentially an argument because it provides evidence to try to back up its claim.
In order for it to be an explanation the statement needs more factual and less like it is trying to
give you evidence to agree with it.
Premise: Rightness [that is, acting so as to fulfill one’s duty] never guarantees moral
goodness
Conclusion: For an act may be the act which the agent thinks to be his duty, and yet be
done from an indifferent or bad motive, and therefore be morally indifferent or bad
17.Man did not invent the circle or the square or mathematics or the laws of physics. He
discovered them. They are immutable and eternal laws that could only have been created by a
supreme mind: God. And since we have the ability to make such discoveries, man’s mind must
possess an innate particle of the mind of God. To believe in God is not “beyond reason.”
—J. Lenzi, “Darwin’s God,” The New York Times Magazine, 18 March 2007
This study source was downloaded by 100000823175634 from CourseHero.com on 02-13-2022 18:21:27 GMT -06:00
https://www.coursehero.com/file/32945610/com362-t1-reading-exercises-2docx/
This is essentially an explanation but could be seen as an argument. What is being
explained here is how eternal laws cannot be created by man because God created them. If this
were to be an argument the conclusion would be man did not invent anything but discovered
them. The premise would be that these things are immutable things that can only be created by
God.
18.Many of the celebratory rituals [of Christmas], as well as the timing of the holiday, have their
origins outside of, and may predate, the Christian commemoration of the birth of Jesus. Those
traditions, at their best, have much to do with celebrating human relationships and the enjoyment
of the goods that this life has to offer. As an atheist I have no hesitation in embracing the holiday
and joining with believers and nonbelievers alike to celebrate what we have in common
—John Teehan, “A Holiday Season for Atheists, Too,” The New York Times, 24 December 2006
This is an explanation because she is stating her beliefs and not trying to argue for or
against anything. If this were to be an argument it would have to get rid of the opinion bit. If this
were to be done, the premise would be how the rituals of Christmas have to do with the birth of
Jesus. The conclusion would be how the rituals have to do with the birth of Jesus.
19.All ethnic movements are twoedged swords. Beginning benignly, and sometimes necessary
to repair injured collective psyches, they often end in tragedy, especially when they turn
political, as illustrated by German history
—Orlando Patterson, “A Meeting with Gerald Ford,” The New York Times, 6 January 2007
This is an argument because it is trying to provide evidence to persuade the reader. If it
were to be an explanation, it would need more facts.
Premise: Beginning benignly, and sometimes necessary to repair injured collective
psyches, they often end in tragedy, especially when they turn political, as illustrated by German
history
Conclusion: All ethnic movements are twoedged swords.
20.That all who are happy, are equally happy, is not true. A peasant and a philosopher may be
equally satisfied, but not equally happy. Happiness consists in the multiplicity of agreeable
consciousness. A peasant has not the capacity for having equal happiness with a philosopher
—Samuel Johnson, in Boswell’s Life of Johnson, 1766
I see this as more as an explanation. He is trying to explain to you why he thinks this way
instead of persuading you to side with his beliefs. If this were to be an argument the conclusion
would be that a peasant cannot be as happy as a philosopher. The premises would be that a
peasant may not be equally happy and that happiness consist in the multiplicity of agreeable
consciousness.
This study source was downloaded by 100000823175634 from CourseHero.com on 02-13-2022 18:21:27 GMT -06:00
https://www.coursehero.com/file/32945610/com362-t1-reading-exercises-2docx/
Chapter 2
INSTRUCTIONS
Identify the premises and conclusions in the following passages. Some premises do support the
conclusion; others do not. Note that premises may support conclusions directly or indirectly and
that even simple passages may contain more than one argument. Each of the following passages
may contain more than one argument.
PROBLEMS
1. The [Detroit] Pistons did not lose because of the lack of ability. They are an allaround better
team. They lost because of the law of averages. They will beat the [San Antonio] Spurs every
two times out of three. When you examine the NBA finals [of 2005], that is exactly how they
lost the seventh (last game) because that would have been three out of three. The Spurs will beat
the Pistons one out of three. It just so happens that, that one time was the final game, because the
Pistons had already won two in a row.
—Maurice Williams, “Law of Averages Worked Against Detroit Pistons,” The Ann
Arbor (Michigan) News, 8 July 2005
Premise 1: They lost because of the law of averages
Premise 2: They are an allaround better team
Conclusion: The [Detroit] Pistons did not lose because of the lack of ability.
2. Hundreds of thousands of recent college graduates today cannot express themselves with the
written word. Why? Because universities have shortchanged them, offering strange literary
theories, Marxism, feminism, deconstruction, and other oddities in the guise of writing courses.
—Stanley Ridgeley, “College Students Can’t Write?” National Review Online, 19 February 2003
Premise: Because universities have shortchanged them, offering strange literary
theories, Marxism, feminism, deconstruction, and other oddities in the guise of writing courses
Conclusion: Hundreds of thousands of recent college graduates today cannot express
themselves with the written word
3. Racially diverse nations tend to have lower levels of social support than homogenous ones.
People don’t feel as bound together when they are divided on ethnic lines and are less likely to
embrace mutual support programs. You can have diversity or a big welfare state. It’s hard to
have both.
—David Brooks (presenting the views of Seymour Lipset), “The American Way of
Equality,” The New York Times, 14 January 2007
Premise: People don’t feel as bound together when they are divided on ethnic lines and
are less likely to embrace mutual support programs
Conclusion: Racially diverse nations tend to have lower levels of social support than
homogenous ones.
This study source was downloaded by 100000823175634 from CourseHero.com on 02-13-2022 18:21:27 GMT -06:00
https://www.coursehero.com/file/32945610/com362-t1-reading-exercises-2docx/
4. Orlando Patterson claims that “freedom is a natural part of the human condition.” Nothing
could be further from the truth. If it were true, we could expect to find free societies spread
throughout human history. We do not. Instead what we find are every sort of tyrannical
government from time immemorial.
—John Taylor, “Can Freedom Be Exported?” The New York Times, 22 December 2006
Premise: freedom is a natural part of the human condition
Conclusion: Nothing could be further from the truth.
5. The New York Times reported, on 30 May 2000, that some scientists were seeking a way to
signal back in time. A critical reader responded thus:
It seems obvious to me that scientists in the future will never find a way to signal back in
time. If they were to do so, wouldn’t we have heard from them by now?
—Ken Grunstra, “Reaching Back in Time,” The New York Times, 6 June 2000
Premise: If they were to do so, wouldn’t we have heard from them by now?
Conclusion: It seems obvious to me that scientists in the future will never find a way to
signal back in time.
INSTRUCTIONS
Each of the following famous passages, taken from classical literature and philosophy, comprises
a set of arguments whose complicated interrelations are critical for the force of the whole.
Construct for each the diagram of premises and conclusions that you would find most helpful in
analyzing the flow of argument in that passage. More than one interpretation will be defensible.
PROBLEMS
1. A question arises: whether it be better [for a prince] to be loved than feared or feared than
loved? One should wish to be both, but, because it is difficult to unite them in one person, it is
much safer to be feared than loved, when, of the two, one must be dispensed with. Because this
is to be asserted in general of men, that they are ungrateful, fickle, false, cowards, covetous….
and that prince who, relying entirely on their promises, has neglected other precautions, is
ruined, because friendships that are obtained by payments may indeed be earned but they are not
secured, and in time of need cannot be relied upon. Men have less scruple in offending one who
is beloved than one who is feared, for love is preserved by the link of obligation which, owing to
the baseness of men, is broken at every opportunity for their advantage; but fear preserves you
by a dread of punishment which never fails.
—Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince, 1515
This study source was downloaded by 100000823175634 from CourseHero.com on 02-13-2022 18:21:27 GMT -06:00
https://www.coursehero.com/file/32945610/com362-t1-reading-exercises-2docx/
2. Democratic laws generally tend to promote the welfare of the greatest possible number; for
they emanate from the majority of the citizens, who are subject to error, but who cannot have an
interest opposed to their own advantage. The laws of an aristocracy tend, on the contrary, to
concentrate wealth and power in the hands of the minority; because an aristocracy, by its very
nature, constitutes a minority. It may therefore be asserted, as a general proposition, that the
purpose of a democracy in its legislation is more useful to humanity than that of an aristocracy.
—Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, 183
This study source was downloaded by 100000823175634 from CourseHero.com on 02-13-2022 18:21:27 GMT -06:00
https://www.coursehero.com/file/32945610/com362-t1-reading-exercises-2docx/
Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)