SFDA01 1/8/06 10:57 AM Page i

Structural Foundation
Designers’ Manual

W.G. Curtin, MEng, PhD, FEng, FICE, FIStructE, MConsE

G. Shaw, CEng, FICE, FIStructE, MConsE

G.I. Parkinson, CEng, FICE, FIStructE, MConsE

J.M. Golding, BSc, MS, CEng, MICE, FIStructE

Second Edition revised by

N.J. Seward, BSc(Hons), CEng, FIStructE, MICE

SFDA01 1/8/06 10:57 AM Page ii

© Estates of W.G. Curtin and G. Shaw, together with G.I. Parkinson, J.M. Golding and N.J. Seward 2006

Blackwell Publishing editorial offices:

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permission of the publisher.

First published 1994 by Blackwell Science

Reissued in paperback 1997
Second edition published 2006 by Blackwell Publishing

ISBN-10: 1-4051-3044-X
ISBN-13: 978-1-4051-3044-8

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Structural foundation designers’ manual / W.G. Curtin . . . [et al.]. – 2nd ed. rev. by N.J. Seward.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-4051-3044-X (alk. paper)
1. Foundations. 2. Structural design. I. Curtin, W.G. (William George). II. Seward, N.J.
TA775.S75 2006
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2006042883

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SFDA01 1/8/06 10:57 AM Page iii

Dedication

This book is dedicated to Bill Curtin who died suddenly in

November 1991 following a short illness.
Bill’s contribution to the book at that time was all but
complete and certainly well ahead of his co-authors. It is a
source of sadness that Bill did not have the pleasure and
satisfaction of seeing the completed publication but his
input and enthusiasm gave his co-authors the will to com-
plete their input and progress the book to completion.
SFDA01 1/8/06 10:57 AM Page v

Contents

Preface xi 1.11.3 Example 8: Reliability of

the soils investigation 13
Preface to First Edition xii
1.11.4 Example 9: Deterioration of
The Book’s Structure and What It Is About xiii ground exposed by excavation 13
1.11.5 Example 10: Effect of new
Acknowledgements xiv foundation on existing structure 14
Authors’ Biographies xv 1.12 Design procedures 14
1.13 References 14
Notation xvi
2 Soil Mechanics, Lab Testing and Geology 15
PART 1: APPROACH AND FIRST
A: Soil mechanics 15
CONSIDERATIONS 1
2.1 Introduction to soil mechanics 15
2.2 Pressure distribution through ground 15
1 Principles of Foundation Design 3
2.3 Bearing capacity 17
1.1 Introduction 3
2.3.1 Introduction to bearing capacity 17
1.2 Foundation safety criteria 3
2.3.2 Main variables affecting bearing
1.3 Bearing capacity 4
capacity 19
1.3.1 Introduction 4
2.3.3 Bearing capacity and bearing
1.3.2 Bearing capacity 4
pressure 19
1.3.3 Presumed bearing value 4
2.3.4 Determination of ultimate
1.3.4 Allowable bearing pressure 5
bearing capacity 20
1.3.5 Non-vertical loading 5
2.3.5 Safe bearing capacity –
1.4 Settlement 6
cohesionless soils 21
1.5 Limit state philosophy 7
2.3.6 Safe bearing capacity –
1.5.1 Working stress design 7
cohesive soils 22
1.5.2 Limit state design 7
2.3.7 Safe bearing capacity –
1.6 Interaction of superstructure and soil 8
combined soils 22
1.6.1 Example 1: Three pinned arch 8
2.4 Settlement 22
1.6.2 Example 2: Vierendeel
2.4.1 Introduction to settlement 22
superstructure 8
2.4.2 Void ratio 23
1.6.3 Example 3: Prestressed brick
2.4.3 Consolidation test 23
diaphragm wall 8
2.4.4 Coefficient of volume
1.6.4 Example 4: Composite
compressibility 24
deep beams 9
2.4.5 Magnitude and rate of settlement 25
1.6.5 Example 5: Buoyancy raft 9
2.4.6 Settlement calculations 25
1.7 Foundation types 9
2.5 Allowable bearing pressure 26
1.7.1 Pad foundations 10
2.6 Conclusions 26
1.7.2 Strip footings 10
1.7.3 Raft foundations 10 B: Laboratory testing 26
1.7.4 Piled foundations 11 2.7 Introduction to laboratory testing 26
1.8 Ground treatment (geotechnical 2.8 Classification (disturbed sample tests) 26
processes) 11 2.8.1 Particle size and distribution 26
1.9 Changes of soil properties during 2.8.2 Density 27
excavation 12 2.8.3 Liquidity and plasticity 29
1.10 Post-construction foundation failure 12 2.8.4 General 29
1.11 Practical considerations 13 2.9 Undisturbed sample testing 29
1.11.1 Example 6: Excavation in 2.9.1 Moisture content 29
waterlogged ground 13 2.9.2 Shear strength 29
1.11.2 Example 7: Variability of 2.9.3 Consolidation tests
ground conditions 13 (oedometer apparatus) 29
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vi Contents

2.9.4 Permeability tests 32 3.7 Recording information – trial pit

2.9.5 Chemical tests 32 and borehole logs and soil profiles 55
2.10 Summary of tests 32 3.8 Soil samples and soil profiles 56
2.11 Analysis of results 37 3.9 Preliminary analysis of results 56
2.12 Final observations on testing 37 3.10 Site investigation report 61
3.10.1 Factors affecting quality of report 61
C: Geology 37 3.10.2 Sequence of report 62
2.13 Introduction to geology 37 3.10.3 Site description 62
2.14 Formation of rock types 38 3.10.4 The ground investigation 62
2.15 Weathering of rocks 38 3.10.5 Results 62
2.16 Agents of weathering 38 3.10.6 Recommendations 62
2.16.1 Temperature 38 3.11 Fills (made ground) 63
2.16.2 Water 38 3.12 Legal issues 63
2.16.3 Wind 38 3.13 Time 64
2.16.4 Glaciation 38 3.14 Conclusions 64
2.17 Earth movement 38 3.15 Further information 65
2.17.1 Folds, fractures and faults 38 3.16 References 65
2.17.2 Dip and strike 39
2.17.3 Jointing 39 PART 2: SPECIAL AND FURTHER
2.17.4 Drift 39 CONSIDERATIONS 67
2.18 Errors in borehole interpretation 40
2.19 Geophysical investigation 42 4 Topography and its Influence on Site
2.20 Expert knowledge and advice 42 Development 69
2.21 References 42 4.1 Introduction 69
4.2 Implications from surface observations 69
3 Ground Investigation 43 4.2.1 Changes in level, ground slopes
3.1 Introduction 43 and movements 69
3.2 The need for investigation 44 4.2.2 Mounds, depressions and
3.2.1 The designer’s need 44 disturbed ground 70
3.2.2 The contractor’s need 45 4.2.3 Past or current activities 71
3.2.3 The client’s need 45 4.2.4 Vegetation 72
3.2.4 Site investigation for failed, 4.2.5 Surface ponding or
or failing, existing foundations 45 watercourses 72
3.3 Procedure 45 4.3 Effects on development arising from
3.3.1 Site survey plan 47 topographical features 73
3.3.2 Study of existing information 47 4.3.1 Sloping sites 73
3.3.3 Preliminary site reconnaissance 4.3.2 Slope stability 75
and site walkabout 47 4.3.3 Groundwater 77
3.4 Soil investigation 48 4.3.4 Settlement 78
3.4.1 Borehole layout 48 4.4 Summary 79
3.4.2 Trial pits layout 49 4.5 References 79
3.4.3 Hand augers 50
3.4.4 Boring 50 5 Contaminated and Derelict Sites 80
3.4.5 Backfilling of trial pits and 5.1 Introduction 80
boreholes 50 5.1.1 State of the art 80
3.4.6 Soil sampling 50 5.1.2 Contamination implications 81
3.4.7 Storage of samples 50 5.2 Redundant foundations and services 82
3.4.8 Frequency of sampling 50 5.2.1 Identification 83
3.4.9 Appointment of specialist soil 5.2.2 Sampling and testing 83
investigator 51 5.2.3 Site treatment 83
3.5 Site examination of soils 52 5.3 Chemical and toxic contamination 83
3.6 Field (site) testing of soils 52 5.3.1 Part IIA risk-based approach 83
3.6.1 Standard Penetration 5.3.2 Soil Guideline Values 84
Test (SPT) 52 5.3.3 CLEA Model 84
3.6.2 Vane test 52 5.3.4 Risk to humans and animals 85
3.6.3 Plate bearing test 53 5.3.5 Risks to plants and the wider
3.6.4 Pressuremeters 53 ecosystem 89
3.6.5 Groundwater (piezometers 5.3.6 Risk to the water environment 89
and standpipes) 53 5.3.7 Risk to buildings and
3.6.6 Other field tests 55 construction materials 89
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Contents vii

5.3.8 Toxic contamination – site 6.12 Monitoring 107

identification 91 6.13 References 107
5.3.9 Contaminant investigation 91
5.3.10 Sampling and testing 92 7 Fill 108
5.3.11 Site treatment 92 7.1 Filled sites 108
5.4 Foundation protection 93 7.1.1 Introduction 108
5.5 Examples of site investigations on 7.1.2 Movement and settlement 108
potentially contaminated sites 94 7.2 The container 108
5.6 References 94 7.2.1 The container surface 108
7.2.2 The container edges 108
6 Mining and Other Subsidence 95 7.2.3 The container base 110
6.1 Introduction 95 7.2.4 The container sub-strata 110
6.2 Mechanics of mining subsidence 95 7.3 Water 111
6.3 Methods of mining 97 7.3.1 Effect of water on combustion 111
6.3.1 Longwall workings 97 7.3.2 Effect of water on chemical
6.3.2 Pillar and stall workings solutions 111
(partial extraction methods) 97 7.3.3 Water lubrication 111
6.3.3 ‘Bell-pits’ 99 7.3.4 Water inundation 111
6.4 Associated and other workings 100 7.3.5 Organic decay 111
6.4.1 Abandoned mine shafts and adits 100 7.3.6 Information from water 111
6.4.2 Fireclay and other clays 100 7.4 The fill material 111
6.4.3 Iron ores 100 7.4.1 Introduction 111
6.4.4 Other metals 100 7.5 Fill investigations 112
6.4.5 Limestone 100 7.5.1 Special requirements 112
6.4.6 Salt 100 7.5.2 Suggested procedures 113
6.4.7 Chalk 100 7.6 Settlement predictions 113
6.5 Faulting 100 7.6.1 Settlement: fill only 113
6.6 Natural and other cavities 100 7.6.2 Settlement: combined effects 115
6.6.1 Dissolving rock 100 7.7 The development and its services 116
6.6.2 Dissolving soils 100 7.7.1 Sensitivity 116
6.7 Treatment of abandoned shallow 7.7.2 Treatment and solutions 117
workings 100 7.7.3 New filling for development 118
6.7.1 Introduction 100 7.8 Case examples 118
6.7.2 Excavate and backfill 101 7.8.1 Introduction 118
6.7.3 Partial and full grouting 101 7.8.2 Example 1: Movement of
6.8 Treatment of abandoned shafts 101 existing building on fill 118
6.8.1 Capping 101 7.8.3 Example 2: New development
6.9 Effect of mining method and method on existing colliery fill 119
of treatment 101 7.8.4 Example 3: New development
6.9.1 Introduction 101 on new filling 120
6.9.2 Bell workings 101 7.8.5 Example 4: New developments
6.9.3 Pillar and stall 102 on existing preloaded fill 120
6.9.4 Longwall workings 103 7.8.6 Example 5: New development
6.9.5 Rafts founded over longwall on existing backfilled quarry
workings 103 (purchase of coal rights) 121
6.10 Design principles and precautions 7.8.7 Example 6: Development on
in longwall mining subsidence areas 103 new fill (prevention of flooding) 122
6.10.1 Introduction 103 7.9 References 123
6.10.2 Rafts and strips for low-rise, 7.10 Further reading 123
lightly loading buildings 104
6.10.3 Rafts for multi-storey structures 8 Ground Improvement Methods 124
or heavy industrial buildings 105 8.1 Introduction 124
6.10.4 Jacking points 105 8.2 Surface rolling 124
6.10.5 Service ducts 105 8.2.1 Introduction 124
6.10.6 Piling 105 8.2.2 Method 124
6.10.7 Articulated foundation 105 8.2.3 Soil suitability and variation 125
6.11 Superstructures 106 8.2.4 Site monitoring 125
6.11.1 Introduction 106 8.3 Vibro-stabilization 126
6.11.2 Rigid superstructures 106 8.3.1 Introduction 126
6.11.3 Flexible superstructures 106 8.3.2 Working surfaces 127
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viii Contents

8.3.3 Method 127 9.3.16 Holed balanced pad foundations 148

8.3.4 Vibro-compaction 128 9.3.17 Cantilever balanced pad
8.3.5 Vibro-displacement 129 foundations 149
8.3.6 Vibro-replacement 129 9.4 Group two – surface spread foundations 149
8.3.7 Summary of vibro-stabilization 130 9.4.1 Nominal crust raft 149
8.3.8 Design considerations – 9.4.2 Crust raft 150
granular soils 130 9.4.3 Blanket raft 150
8.3.9 Design considerations – 9.4.4 Slip-plane raft 151
cohesive soils 130 9.4.5 Cellular raft 151
8.3.10 Testing 131 9.4.6 Lidded cellular raft 151
8.3.11 Vibro-concrete 131 9.4.7 Beam strip raft 151
8.4 Dynamic consolidation 133 9.4.8 Buoyancy (or ‘floating’) raft 151
8.4.1 Introduction 133 9.4.9 Jacking raft 152
8.4.2 Method 133 9.5 Group three – pile foundations 152
8.4.3 Usage 133 9.5.1 Introduction 152
8.4.4 Site checks 133 9.5.2 Stone/gravel piles 153
8.5 Preloading 133 9.5.3 Concrete piles 153
8.5.1 Introduction 133 9.5.4 Timber piles 155
8.5.2 Method 134 9.5.5 Steel piles 156
8.5.3 Design of surcharge 134 9.5.6 Anchor piles 156
8.5.4 Installation of drainage systems 134 9.5.7 Anchor blocks 156
8.6 Grout injections 135 9.5.8 Pile caps and ground beams 157
8.6.1 Introduction 135 9.6 Group four – miscellaneous elements
8.6.2 Loose soils 135 and forms 157
8.6.3 Swallow-holes 136 9.6.1 Suspended ground floor slabs 158
8.6.4 Shallow mining 136 9.6.2 Floating ground floor slabs 159
8.6.5 Mine shafts, wells and bell-pits 136 9.6.3 Pier and beam foundations 159
8.7 Lime/cement stabilization 137 9.6.4 Retaining walls 161
8.8 Reinforced soil 138 9.6.5 Grillage foundations 162
8.8.1 Introduction 138
8.8.2 Foundation applications 139 10 Foundation Selection and Design Procedures 164
8.8.3 Patents 139
A: Foundation selection 164
8.8.4 Research and development 139
10.1 Introduction 164
8.9 Reference 139
10.2 Foundation selection 164
10.3 Information collection/assessment 164
PART 3: FOUNDATION TYPES: SELECTION
10.4 General approach to choice
AND DESIGN 141
of foundations 165
10.5 Questioning the information
9 Foundation Types 143
and proposals 169
9.1 Introduction 143
10.6 Exploitation of foundation stiffness
9.2 Foundation types 143
and resulting ground pressure 172
9.3 Group one – strip and pad foundations 143
10.7 Conclusions 173
9.3.1 Strip footings 143
9.3.2 Masonry strips 143 B: Foundation design calculation procedure 173
9.3.3 Concrete strips – plain and 10.8 Introduction 173
reinforced 144 10.9 Definition of bearing pressures 173
9.3.4 Concrete trench fill 145 10.10 Calculation of applied bearing pressures 174
9.3.5 Stone trench fill 145 10.11 Structural design of foundation
9.3.6 Rectangular beam strips 145 members 178
9.3.7 Inverted T beam strips 145 10.12 General design method 180
9.3.8 Pad bases 147 10.13 References 185
9.3.9 Shallow mass concrete pads 147
9.3.10 Shallow reinforced 11 Design of Pads, Strips and Continuous
concrete pads 147 Foundations 186
9.3.11 Deep reinforced concrete pads 147 11.1 Unreinforced concrete pads and strips 186
9.3.12 Deep mass concrete pads 147 11.1.1 Introduction 186
9.3.13 Balanced pad foundations 148 11.1.2 Trench fill 186
9.3.14 Rectangular balanced pad 11.1.3 Trench fill design decisions 187
foundations 148 11.1.4 Sizing of the design 189
9.3.15 Trapezoidal balanced pad 11.1.5 Design Example 1: Trench
foundations 148 fill strip footing 190
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Contents ix

11.1.6 Design Example 2: Deep 12.3.1 Introduction 230

mass concrete pad base 192 12.3.2 Design decisions 230
11.1.7 Unreinforced concrete strips 193 12.3.3 Sizing up the design 230
11.2 Reinforced concrete pads and strips 194 12.3.4 Design Example 2: Rectangular
11.2.1 Introduction 194 balanced foundation 232
11.2.2 Design decisions 194 12.3.5 Design Example 3: Cantilever
11.2.3 Sizing up of the design 194 balanced foundation 233
11.2.4 Design Example 3: Reinforced 12.3.6 Design Example 4: Trapezoidal
strip foundation 195 balanced foundation 235
11.2.5 Design Example 4: Reinforced 12.3.7 Design Example 5: Holed
pad base 198 balanced foundation 236
11.3 Pad foundations with axial loads
and bending moments 200 13 Raft Foundations 238
11.3.1 Design Example 5: Pad base – 13.1 Design procedures for semi-flexible rafts 238
axial load plus bending moment 13.1.1 Design principles 238
(small eccentricity) 201 13.1.2 Design of raft layouts 238
11.3.2 Design Example 6: Pad base – 13.1.3 Bearing pressure design 239
axial load plus bending moment 13.1.4 Design span for local depressions 240
(large eccentricity) 202 13.1.5 Slab design 240
11.3.3 Design Example 7: Pad base – 13.1.6 Beam design 243
axial load plus bending moments 13.2 Nominal crust raft – semi-flexible 245
about both axes 206 13.2.1 Design decisions 245
11.3.4 Design Example 8: Pad base – 13.2.2 Sizing the design 245
axial and horizontal loads 207 13.2.3 Design Example 1: Nominal
11.3.5 Design Example 9: Shear wall base crust raft 249
– vertical loads and horizontal 13.3 Crust raft 251
wind loads 209 13.3.1 Introduction 251
11.4 Rectangular and Tee-beam 13.3.2 Design decisions 251
continuous strips 212 13.3.3 Design Example 2: Crust raft 252
11.4.1 Introduction 212 13.4 Blanket raft 256
11.4.2 Design decisions 212 13.4.1 Introduction 256
11.4.3 Sizing of the design 212 13.4.2 Design decisions 257
11.4.4 Design Example 10: Continuous 13.4.3 Sizing the design 257
Tee beam footing with uniform 13.4.4 Design Example 3: Blanket raft 257
bearing pressure 213 13.5 Slip sandwich raft 261
11.4.5 Design Example 11: Continuous 13.5.1 Introduction 261
rectangular beam footing with 13.5.2 Design decisions 262
trapezoidal bearing pressure 217 13.5.3 Sizing the design 262
11.5 Grillage foundations 221 13.5.4 Design Example 4: Slip
11.5.1 Introduction 221 sandwich raft 263
11.5.2 Design decisions 221 13.6 Cellular raft 265
11.5.3 Sizing of the design 221 13.6.1 Introduction 265
11.5.4 Design Example 12: Grillage 13.6.2 Sizing the design 265
foundation 221 13.6.3 Design Example 5: Cellular raft 266
11.6 Floating slabs (ground slabs) 224 13.7 Lidded cellular raft 270
11.6.1 Introduction 224 13.7.1 Introduction 270
11.6.2 Design decisions 224 13.7.2 Sizing the design 271
11.6.3 Sizing of the slab 225 13.7.3 Design Example 6: Lidded
11.6.4 Design Example 13: Floating slab 225 cellular raft 271
11.7 References 226 13.8 Beam strip raft 271
13.8.1 Introduction 271
12 Tied and Balanced Foundations 228 13.8.2 Sizing the design 271
12.1 General introduction 228 13.8.3 Design Example 7: Beam strip raft 272
12.2 Tied foundations 228 13.9 Buoyancy raft 272
12.2.1 Introduction 228 13.9.1 Introduction 272
12.2.2 Design decisions 228 13.9.2 Sizing the design 274
12.2.3 Sizing the foundations 228 13.9.3 Design Example 8: Buoyancy raft 274
12.2.4 Design Example 1: Tied portal 13.10 Jacking raft 276
frame base 229 13.10.1 Introduction 276
12.3 Balanced foundations (rectangular, 13.10.2 Sizing the design 276
cantilever, trapezoidal and holed) 230 13.11 References 276
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x Contents

14 Piles 277 15 Retaining Walls, Basement Walls,

14.1 Introduction 277 Slip Circles and Underpinning 304
14.2 Applications 277 15.1 Introduction 304
14.3 Types of piles 278 15.2 Retaining walls and basements 304
14.3.1 Load-bearing characteristics 278 15.3 Stability 305
14.3.2 Materials 278 15.4 Flotation 306
14.4 Methods of piling 283 15.5 Buoyancy 306
14.4.1 Driven piles 283 15.6 Pressures 307
14.4.2 Driven cast-in-place piles 283 15.6.1 Liquid pressure 307
14.4.3 Bored cast-in-place piles 283 15.6.2 Earth pressure 307
14.4.4 Screw piles 284 15.6.3 Surcharge 307
14.4.5 Jacked piles 284 15.7 Slip circle example 307
14.4.6 Continuous flight auger piles 284 15.8 Continuous underpinning 308
14.4.7 Mini or pin piles 284 15.9 Discontinuous underpinning 310
14.5 Choice of pile 284 15.10 Spread underpinning 311
14.5.1 Ground conditions and structure 285 15.11 References 311
14.5.2 Durability 285
14.5.3 Cost 285 Appendices 313
14.6 Design of piled foundations 285 Introduction to appendices 313
14.6.1 Factor of safety 285 Appendix A: Properties and Presumed
14.6.2 Determination of ultimate Bearing Pressures of Some Well Known
bearing capacity 286 Engineering Soils and Rocks 314
14.6.3 Pile loading tests 288 Appendix B: Map Showing Areas of
14.6.4 Pile groups 288 Shrinkable Clays In Britain 317
14.6.5 Spacing of piles within a group 289 Appendix C: Map Showing Areas of Coal
14.6.6 Ultimate bearing capacity and Some Other Mineral Extractions 318
of group 289 Appendix D: Foundation Selection Tables 319
14.6.7 Negative friction 289 Appendix E: Guide to Use of Ground
14.7 Pile caps 289 Improvement 322
14.7.1 Introduction 289 Appendix F: Tables Relating to
14.7.2 The need for pile caps – capping Contaminated Sites/Soils 325
beams 290 Appendix G: Factors of Safety 341
14.7.3 Size and depth 290 Appendix H: Design Charts for Pad
14.8 Design of foundations at pile head 291 and Strip Foundations 343
14.9 Design examples 293 Appendix J: Table of Ground Beam
14.9.1 Design Example 1: Calculation Trial Sizes 348
of pile safe working loads 293 Appendix K: Design Graphs and Charts for
14.9.2 Design Example 2: Pile cap Raft Foundations Spanning Local Depressions 349
design 295 Appendix L: Table of Material Frictional
14.9.3 Design Example 3: Piled ground Resistances 357
beams with floating slab 296 Appendix M: Cost Indices for
14.9.4 Design Example 4: Piled ground Foundation Types 358
beams with suspended slab 299 Appendix N: Allowable Bearing
14.9.5 Design Example 5: Piled Pressure for Foundations on
foundation with suspended Non-Cohesive Soil 359
flat slab 300
14.10 References 303 Index 361
SFDA01 1/8/06 10:58 AM Page xi

Preface

In this age of increasing specialism, it is important that relevant to the subject area and the opportunity has been
the engineer responsible for the safe design of structures taken to revise and update the original material in line with
maintains an all-round knowledge of the art and science of these new references. In particular, the chapter on con-
foundation design. In keeping with the aims and aspirations taminated and derelict sites has been rewritten incorporat-
of the original authors, this second edition of the Structural ing current UK guidelines contained within the Part IIA
Foundation Designers’ Manual provides an up-to-date refer- Environmental Protection Act 1990 and guidance provided
ence book, for the use of structural and civil engineers by DEFRA, the Environment Agency and BS 10175.
involved in the foundation design process.
The work continues to draw on the practical experience
The inspiration provided by Bill Curtin who was the driv- gained by the directors and staff of Curtins Consulting over
ing force behind the practical approach and no-nonsense 45 years of civil and structural engineering consultancy,
style of the original book, has not been sacrificed and the who I thank for their comments and feedback. Thanks also
book continues to provide assistance for the new graduate go to the Department of Engineering at the University
and the experienced design engineer in the face of the of Wales, Newport for providing secretarial support and
myriad choices available when selecting a suitable founda- editing facilities.
tion for a tricky structure on difficult ground.
N.J. Seward
Since the first edition was written, there have been changes
to the many technical publications and British Standards
SFDA01 1/8/06 10:58 AM Page xii

Preface to First Edition

‘Why yet another book on foundations when so many good foundation design is unnecessarily costly and the advances
ones are already available?’ – a good question which in civil engineering construction have not always resulted
deserves an answer. in a spin-off for building foundations. Traditional building
foundations, while they may have sometimes been over-
This book has grown out of our consultancy’s extensive costly were quick to construct and safe – on good ground.
experience in often difficult and always cost-competitive But most of the good ground is now used up and we have to
conditions of designing structural foundations. Many of build on sites which would have been rejected on the basis
the existing good books are written with a civil engineering of cost and difficulty as recently as a decade ago. Advances
bias and devote long sections to the design of aspects such in techniques and developments can now make such sites a
as bridge caissons and marine structures. Furthermore, cost-and-construction viable option. All these aspects have
a lot of books give good explanations of soil mechanics and been addressed in this book.
research – but mainly for green field sites. We expect designers
to know soil mechanics and where to turn for reference Though the book is the work of four senior members of the
when necessary. However there are few books which cover consultancy, it represents the collective experience of all
the new advances in geotechnical processes necessary now directors, associates and senior staff, and we are grateful for
that we have to build on derelict, abandoned inner-city their support and encouragement. As in all engineering
sites, polluted or toxic sites and similar problem sites. And design there is no unique ‘right’ answer to a problem –
no book, yet, deals with the developments we and other designers differ on approach, priorities, evaluation of
engineers have made, for example, in raft foundations. criteria, etc. We discussed, debated and disagreed – the
Some books are highly specialized, dealing only (and result is a reasonable consensus of opinion but not a com-
thoroughly) with topics such as piling or underpinning. promise. Engineering is an art as well as a science, but the
art content is even greater in foundation design. No two
Foundation engineering is a wide subject and designers painters would paint a daffodil in the same way (unless
need, primarily, one reference for guidance. Much has been they were painting by numbers!). So no two designers
written on foundation construction work and methods – would design a foundation in exactly the same manner
and that deserves a treatise in its own right. Design and (unless they chose the same computer program and fed it
construction should be interactive, but in order to limit the with identical data).
size of the book, we decided, with regret to restrict dis-
cussion to design and omit discussion of techniques such So we do not expect experienced senior designers to agree
as dewatering, bentonite diaphragm wall construction, totally with us and long may individual preference be
timbering, etc. important. All engineering design, while based on the same
studies and knowledge, is an exercise in judgement backed
Foundation construction can be the biggest bottleneck in a by experience and expertise. Some designers can be daring
building programme so attention to speed of construction and others over-cautious; some are innovative and others
is vital in the design and detailing process. Repairs to failed prefer to use stock solutions. But all foundation design must
or deteriorating foundations are frequently the most costly be safe, cost-effective, durable and buildable, and these
of all building remedial measures so care in safe design have been our main priorities. We hope that all designers
is crucial, but extravagant design is wasteful. Too much find this book useful.
SFDA01 1/8/06 10:58 AM Page xiii

The Book’s Structure and What It Is About

The book is arranged so that it is possible for individual affect a site. Experienced and young engineers should find
designers to use the manual in different ways, depending useful information within this section when dealing with
upon their experience and the particular aspects of founda- sites affected by contamination, mining, fills or when con-
tion design under consideration. sidering the treatment of sub-soils to improve bearing or
settlement performance. The chapters in Part 2 give informa-
The book, which is divided into three parts, deals with the
tion which will help when planning site investigations and
whole of foundation design from a practical engineering
assist in the foundation selection and design process.
viewpoint. Chapters 1–3, i.e. Part 1, deal with soil mech-
anics and the behaviour of soils, and the commission and Part 3 covers the different foundation types, the selection of
interpretation of site investigations are covered in detail. an appropriate foundation solution and the factors affect-
ing the choice between one foundation type and another.
In Part 2 (Chapters 4–8), the authors continue to share their
Also covered is the actual design approach, calculation
experience – going back over 45 years – of dealing with
method and presentation for the various foundation types.
filled and contaminated sites and sites in mining areas;
Experienced and young engineers should find this section
these ‘problem’ sites are increasingly becoming ‘normal’
useful for the selection and design of pads, strips, rafts and
sites for today’s engineers.
piled foundations.
In Part 3 (Chapters 9–15), discussion and practical selection
The experienced designer can refer to Parts 1, 2 and 3 in any
of foundation types are covered extensively, followed by
sequence. Following an initial perusal of the manual, the
detailed design guidance and examples for the various
young engineer could also refer to the various parts out of
foundation types. The design approach ties together the
sequence to assist with the different stages and aspects of
safe working load design of soils with the limit-state design
foundation design.
of structural foundation members.
For those practising engineers who become familiar with
The emphasis on practical design is a constant theme
the book and its information, the tables, graphs and charts
running through this book, together with the application of
grouped together in the Appendices should become a quick
engineering judgement and experience to achieve appro-
and easy form of reference for useful, practical and economic
priate and economic foundation solutions for difficult sites.
foundations in the majority of natural and man-made
This is especially true of raft design, where a range of raft
ground conditions.
types, often used in conjunction with filled sites, provides
an economic alternative to piled foundations. Occasional re-reading of the text, by the more experienced
designer, may refresh his/her appreciation of the basic
It is intended that the experienced engineer would find Part
important aspects of economical foundation design, which
1 useful to recapitulate the basics of design, and refresh
can often be forgotten when judging the merits of often
his/her memory on the soils, geology and site investigation
over-emphasized and over-reactive responses to relatively
aspects. The younger engineer should find Part 1 of more
rare foundation problems. Such problems should not be
use in gaining an overall appreciation of the starting point
allowed to dictate the ‘norm’ when, for the majority of
of the design process and the interrelationship of design,
similar cases, a much simpler and more practical solution
soils, geology, testing and ground investigation.
(many of which are described within these pages) is likely
Part 2 covers further and special considerations which may still to be quite appropriate.
SFDA01 1/8/06 10:58 AM Page xiv

Acknowledgements

We are grateful for the trust and confidence of many clients • DEFRA
in the public and private sectors who readily gave us free- • Institution of Civil Engineers
dom to develop innovative design. We appreciate the help • John Wiley & Sons.
given by many friends in the construction industry, design
From the first edition, we were grateful for the detailed
professions and organizations and we learnt much from
vetting and constructive criticism from many of our directors
discussions on site and debate in design team meetings. We
and staff who made valuable contributions, particularly to
are happy to acknowledge (in alphabetical order) permis-
John Beck, Dave Knowles and Jeff Peters, and to Mark Day
sion to quote from:
for diligently drafting all of the figures.
• British Standards Institution
Sandra Taylor and Susan Wisdom were responsible for
• Building Research Establishment
typing the bulk of the manuscript for the first edition, with
• Cement and Concrete Association
patience, care and interest.
• Corus
• CIRIA
SFDA01 1/8/06 10:58 AM Page xv

Authors’ Biographies

W.G. CURTIN (1921–1991) MEng, PhD, FEng, FICE, in numerous land reclamation and development projects
FIStructE, MConsE dealing with derelict and contaminated industrial land and
dockyards. He is co-author of Structural Masonry Detailing
Bill Curtin’s interest and involvement in foundation engin-
Manual.
eering dated back to his lecturing days at Brixton and
Liverpool in the 1950– 60s. In 1960 he founded the Curtins
J. GOLDING BSc, MS, CEng, MICE, FIStructE
practice in Liverpool and quickly gained a reputation for
economic foundation solutions on difficult sites in the John Golding spent seven years working with Curtins Con-
north-west of England and Wales. He was an active mem- sulting Engineers and is now an associate with WSP Cantor
ber of both the Civil and Structural Engineering Institutions Seinuk. He has recently completed the substructure design
serving on and chairing numerous committees and work- for the award-winning Wellcome Trust Headquarters, and
ing with BSI and CIRIA. He produced numerous technical is currently responsible for the design of the UK Supreme
design guides and text books including Structural Masonry Court and the National Aquarium. He has over 25 years’
Designers’ Manual. experience in the design of commercial, residential and
industrial structures, together with civil engineering water
G. SHAW (1940–1997) CEng, FICE, FIStructE, MConsE treatment works, road tunnels and subway stations. Many
Gerry Shaw was a director of Curtins Consulting Engineers of the associated foundations have been in difficult inner-
plc with around 40 years’ experience in the building indus- city sites, requiring a range of ground improvement and
try, including more than 30 years as a consulting engineer. other foundation solutions. He has been involved in
He was responsible for numerous important foundation research and development of innovative approaches to
structures on both virgin and man-made soil conditions concrete, masonry and foundation design, and is the author
and was continuously involved in foundation engineering, of published papers on all of these topics.
innovative developments and monitoring advances in
foundation solutions. He co-authored a number of tech- N.J. Seward BSc(Hons), CEng, FIStructE, MICE
nical books and design notes and was external examiner
Norman Seward is a senior lecturer at the University of
for Kingston University. He acted as expert witness in legal
Wales, Newport. Prior to this he spent 28 years in the
cases involving building failures, and was a member of the
building industry, working on the design of major struc-
BRE/CIRIA Committee which investigated and analysed
tures both in the UK and abroad with consulting engineers
building failures in 1980. He co-authored both Structural
Turner Wright, Mouchel, the UK Atomic Energy Authority
Masonry Designers’ Manual and Structural Masonry Detailing
and most recently as associate director in Curtins Cardiff
Manual. He was a Royal Academy of Engineering Visiting
office. He was Wales Branch chairman of the IStructE in
Professor of Civil Engineering Design to the University of
1998 and chief examiner for the Part III examination from
Plymouth.
2000 to 2004. He has experience as an expert witness in
cases of structural failure, has been technical editor for a
G.I. PARKINSON CEng, FICE, FIStructE, MConsE
number of publications including the IStructE Masonry
Gary Parkinson was a director of Curtins Consulting Handbook and is a member of the IStructE EC6 Handbook
Engineers plc responsible for the Liverpool office. He has Editorial Panel. He currently teaches on the honours degree
over 40 years’ experience in the building industry, includ- programme in civil engineering, in addition to developing
ing 35 years as a consulting engineer. He has considerable his research interests in the field of foundations for
foundation engineering experience, and has been involved lightweight structures.
SFDA01 1/8/06 10:58 AM Page xvi

Notation

APPLIED LOADS AND CORRESPONDING

PRESSURES AND STRESSES

Loads Pressures and stresses

F = FB + FS foundation loads f = F/A pressure component resulting from F
FB buried foundation/backfill load fB = FB/A pressure component resulting from FB
FS new surcharge load fS = FS/A pressure component resulting from FS
G superstructure dead load g pressure component resulting from G
H horizontal load
Hf horizontal load capacity at failure
M bending moment
N=T−S net load n=t−s pressure component resulting from N
n′ = n − γw zw net effective stress
nf net ultimate bearing capacity at failure
P superstructure vertical load p=t−f pressure component resulting from P
pu = tu − fu resultant ultimate design pressure
pz pressure component at depth z resulting
from P
Q superstructure imposed load q pressure component resulting from Q
S = SB + SS existing load s = S/A pressure component resulting from S
SB ‘buried’ surcharge load (i.e. ≈FB) sB = SB/A pressure component resulting from SB
SS existing surcharge load sS = SS/A pressure component resulting from SS
s′ = s − γw zw existing effective stress
T=P+F total vertical load t pressure resulting from T
t′ = t − γw zw total effective stress
tf total ultimate bearing capacity at failure
V shear force v shear stress due to V
W superstructure wind load w pressure component resulting from W

General subscripts for loads and pressures

a allowable (load or bearing pressure)
f failure (load or bearing pressure)
u ultimate (limit-state)
G dead
Q imposed
W wind

F foundation
P superstructure
T total

Partial safety factors for loads and pressures

γG partial safety factor for dead loads
γQ partial safety factor for imposed loads
γW partial safety factor for wind loads

γF combined partial safety factor for

foundation loads
γP combined partial safety factor for
superstructure loads
γT combined partial safety factor for total loads
SFDA01 1/8/06 10:58 AM Page xvii

Notation xvii

Notation principles for loads and pressures

(1) Loads are in capitals, e.g.
P = load from superstructure (kN)
F = load from foundation (kN)

(2) Loads per unit length are also in capitals, e.g.

P = load from superstructure (kN/m)
F = load from foundation (kN/m)

(3) Differentiating between loads and loads per unit length.

This is usually made clear by the context, i.e. pad foundation calculations will normally be in terms of loads (in kN), and
strip foundations will normally be in terms of loads per unit length (kN/m). Where there is a need to differentiate, this is
done, as follows:
∑ P = load from superstructure (kN)
P = load from superstructure per unit length (kN/m)

(4) Distributed loads (loads per unit area) are lower case, e.g.
f = uniformly distributed foundation load (kN/m2)

(5) Ground pressures are also in lower case, e.g.

p = pressure distribution due to superstructure loads (kN/m2)
f = pressure distribution due to foundation loads (kN/m2)

(6) Characteristic versus ultimate (u subscript).

Loads and pressures are either characteristic values or ultimate values. This distinction is important, since characteristic
values (working loads/pressures) are used for bearing pressure checks, while ultimate values (factored loads/
pressures) are used for structural member design. All ultimate values have u subscripts. Thus
p = characteristic pressure due to superstructure loads
pu = ultimate pressure due to superstructure loads

GENERAL NOTATION

Dimensions
a distance of edge of footing from face of wall/beam
A area of base
Ab effective area of base (over which compressive bearing pressures act)
As area of reinforcement
OR surface area of pile shaft
b width of the section for reinforcement design
B width of base
Bb width of beam thickening in raft
Bconc assumed width of concrete base
Bfill assumed spread of load at underside of compacted fill material
d effective depth of reinforcement
D depth of underside of foundation below ground level
OR diameter of pile
Dw depth of water-table below ground level
e eccentricity
h thickness of base
hb thickness of beam thickening in raft
hfill thickness of compacted fill material
hconc thickness of concrete
H length of pile
OR height of retaining wall
H1, H2 thickness of soil strata ‘1’, ‘2’, etc.
L length of base
OR length of depression
Lb effective length of base (over which compressive bearing pressures act)
tw thickness of wall
u length of punching shear perimeter
x projection of external footing beyond line of action of load
SFDA01 1/8/06 10:58 AM Page xviii

xviii Notation

z depth below ground level

zw depth below water-table

ρ1, ρ2 settlement of strata ‘1’, ‘2’, etc.

Miscellaneous
c cohesion
cb undisturbed shear strength at base of pile
cs average undrained shear strength for pile shaft
e void ratio
fbs characteristic local bond stress
fc ultimate concrete stress (in pile)
fcu characteristic concrete cube strength
I moment of inertia
k permeability
K earth pressure coefficient
Ka active earth pressure coefficient
Km bending moment factor (raft design)
mv coefficient of volume compressibility
N SPT value
Nc Terzaghi bearing capacity factor
Nq Terzaghi bearing capacity factor
Nγ Terzaghi bearing capacity factor
vc ultimate concrete shear strength
V total volume
Vs volume of solids
Vv volume of voids
Z section modulus

α creep compression rate parameter

OR adhesion factor
γ unit weight of soil
γdry dry unit weight of soil
γsat saturated unit weight of soil
γw unit weight of water
δ angle of wall friction
ε strain
µ coefficient of friction
σ (soil) stress normal to the shear plane
σ′ (soil) effective normal stress
τ (soil) shear stress
φ angle of internal friction

Occasionally it has been necessary to vary the notation system from that indicated here. Where this does happen, the
changes to the notation are specifically defined in the accompanying text or illustrations.
SFDC01 1/8/06 11:00 AM Page 1

Part 1
Approach and First Considerations
SFDC01 1/8/06 11:00 AM Page 2
SFDC01 1/8/06 11:00 AM Page 3

1 Principles of Foundation Design

1.1 Introduction The foundation must also be economical in construction

costs, materials and time.
Foundation design could be thought of as analogous to a
beam design. The designer of the beam will need to know There are a number of reasons for foundation failure, the
the load to be carried, the load-carrying capacity of the two major causes being:
beam, how much it will deflect and whether there are any
(1) Bearing capacity. When the shear stress within the
long-term effects such as creep, moisture movement, etc. If
soil, due to the structure’s loading, exceeds the shear
the calculated beam section is, for some reason, not strong
strength of the soil, catastrophic collapse of the sup-
enough to support the load or is likely to deflect unduly,
porting soil can occur. Before ultimate collapse of the
then the beam section is changed. Alternatively, the beam
soil occurs there can be large deformations within it
can either be substituted for another type of structural ele-
which may lead to unacceptable differential movement
ment, or a stronger material be chosen for the beam.
or settlement of, and damage to, the structure. (In some
Similarly the soil supporting the structure must have situations however, collapse can occur with little or no
adequate load-carrying capacity (bearing capacity) and advance warning!)
not deflect (settle) unduly. The long-term effect of the soil’s (2) Settlement. Practically all materials contract under com-
bearing capacity and settlement must be considered. If the pressive loading and distort under shear loading – soils
ground is not strong enough to bear the proposed initial are no exception. Provided that the settlement is either
design load then the structural contact load (bearing pres- acceptable (i.e. will not cause structural damage or
sure) can be reduced by spreading the load over a greater undue cracking, will not damage services, and will be
area – by increasing the foundation size or other means – or visually acceptable and free from practical problems of
by transferring the load to a lower stratum. For example, door sticking, etc.) or can be catered for in the structural
rafts could replace isolated pad bases – or the load can design (e.g. by using three-pinned arches which can
be transferred to stronger soil at a lower depth beneath accommodate settlement, in lieu of fixed portal frames),
the surface by means of piles. Alternatively, the ground there is not necessarily a foundation design problem.
can be strengthened by compaction, stabilization, pre- Problems will occur when the settlement is significantly
consolidation or other means. The structural materials in excessive or differential.
the superstructure are subject to stress, strain, movement, Settlement is the combination of two phenomena:
etc., and it can be helpful to consider the soil supporting
the superstructure as a structural material, also subject to (i) Contraction of the soil due to compressive and shear
stress, strain and movement. stresses resulting from the structure’s loading. This con-
traction, partly elastic and partly plastic, is relatively
Structural design has been described as using materials not rapid. Since soils exhibit non-linear stress/strain beha-
fully understood, to make frames which cannot be accur- viour and the soil under stress is of complex geometry,
ately analysed, to resist forces which can only be estimated. it is not possible to predict accurately the magnitude
Foundation design is, at best, no better. ‘Accuracy’ is a of settlement.
chimera and the designer must exercise judgement. (ii) Consolidation of the soil due to volume changes. Under
Sections 1.2–1.6 outline the general principles before dealing applied load the moisture is ‘squeezed’ from the soil
with individual topics in the following sections and chapters. and the soil compacts to partly fill the voids left by the
retreating moisture. In soils of low permeability, such
as clays, the consolidation process is slow and can even
1.2 Foundation safety criteria
continue throughout the life of the structure (for ex-
It is a statement of the obvious that the function of a founda- ample, the leaning tower of Pisa). Clays of relatively high
tion is to transfer the load from the structure to the ground moisture content will consolidate by greater amounts
(i.e. soil) supporting it – and it must do this safely, for if it than clays with lower moisture contents. (Clays are
does not then the foundation will fail in bearing and/or set- susceptible to volume change with change in moisture
tlement, and seriously affect the structure which may also content – they can shrink on drying out and heave, i.e.
fail. The history of foundation failure is as old as the history expand, with increase in moisture content.) Sands tend
of building itself, and our language abounds in such idioms to have higher permeability and lower moisture con-
as ‘the god with feet of clay’, ‘build not thy house on sand’, tent than clays. Therefore the consolidation of sand is
‘build on a firm foundation’, ‘the bedrock of our policy’. faster but less than that of clay.
SFDC01 1/8/06 11:00 AM Page 4

4 Approach and First Considerations

1.3 Bearing capacity 1.3.2 Bearing capacity

Probably the happy medium is to follow the sound advice
1.3.1 Introduction
given by experienced engineers in the British Standard
Some designers, when in a hurry, tend to want simple Institution’s Code of practice for foundations, BS 8004. There
‘rules of thumb’ (based on local experience) for values of they define ultimate bearing capacity as ‘the value of the gross
bearing capacity. But like most rules of thumb, while loading intensity for a particular foundation at which the
safe for typical structures on normal soils, their use can resistance of the soil to displacement of the foundation is
produce uneconomic solutions, restrict the development fully mobilized.’ (Ultimate in this instance does not refer to
of improved methods of foundation design, and lead to ultimate limit state.)
expensive mistakes when the structure is not typical.
The net loading intensity (net bearing pressure) is the addi-
For typical buildings: tional intensity of vertical loading at the base of a founda-
tion due to the weight of the new structure and its loading,
(1) The dead and imposed loads are built up gradually and
including any earthworks.
relatively slowly.
(2) Actual imposed loads (as distinct from those assumed The ultimate bearing capacity divided by a suitable
for design purposes) are often only a third of the dead factor of safety – typically 3 – is referred to as the safe bearing
load. capacity.
(3) The building has a height/width ratio of between 1/3
It has not been found possible, yet, to apply limit state
and 3.
design fully to foundations, since bearing capacity and
(4) The building has regularly distributed columns or load-
settlement are so intertwined and influence both founda-
bearing walls, most of them fairly evenly loaded.
tion and superstructure design (this is discussed further in
Typical buildings have changed dramatically since the Sec- section 1.5). Furthermore, the superstructure itself can be
ond World War. The use of higher design stresses, lower altered in design to accommodate, or reduce, the effects of
factors of safety, the removal of robust non-load-bearing settlement. A reasonable compromise has been devised by
partitioning, etc., has resulted in buildings of half their engineers in the past and is given below.
previous weight, more susceptible to the effects of settle-
ment, and built for use by clients who are less tolerant in 1.3.3 Presumed bearing value
accepting relatively minor cracking of finishes, etc. Because
The pressure within the soil will depend on the net loading
of these changes, practical experience gained in the past is
intensity, which in turn depends on the structural loads
not always applicable to present construction.
and the foundation type. This pressure is then compared
For non-typical structures: with the ultimate bearing capacity to determine a factor
of safety. This appears reasonable and straightforward –
(1) The imposed load may be applied rapidly, as in tanks
but there is a catch-22 snag. It is not possible to determine
and silos, resulting in possible settlement problems.
the net loading intensity without first knowing the founda-
(2) There may be a high ratio of imposed to dead load.
tion type and size, but the foundation type and size can-
Unbalanced imposed-loading cases – imposed load
not be designed without knowing the acceptable bearing
over part of the structure – can be critical, resulting in
pressure.
differential settlement or bearing capacity failures, if
not allowed for in design. The deadlock has been broken by BS 8004, which gives pre-
(3) The requirement may be for a tall, slender building sumed allowable bearing values (estimated bearing pressures)
which may be susceptible to tilting or overturning and for different types of ground. This enables a preliminary
have more critical wind loads. foundation design to be carried out which can be adjusted,
(4) The requirement may be for a non-regular column/ up or down, on further analysis. The presumed bearing
wall layout, subjected to widely varying loadings, value is defined as: ‘the net loading intensity considered
which may require special consideration to prevent appropriate to the particular type of ground for prelimin-
excessive differential settlement and bearing capacity ary design purposes’. The value is based on either local
failure. experience or on calculation from laboratory strength tests
or field loading tests using a factor of safety against bearing
There is also the danger of going to the other extreme
capacity failure.
by doing complicated calculations based on numbers from
unrepresentative soil tests alone, and ignoring the import- Foundation design, like superstructure design, is a trial-
ant evidence of the soil profile and local experience. Structural and-error method – a preliminary design is made, then
design and materials are not, as previously stated, mathem- checked and, if necessary, amended. Amendments would
atically precise; foundation design and materials are even be necessary, for example, to restrict settlement or over-
less precise. Determining the bearing capacity solely from a loading; in consideration of economic and construction
100 mm thick small-diameter sample and applying it to implications, or designing the superstructure to resist
predict the behaviour of a 10 m deep stratum, is obviously or accommodate settlements. The Code’s presumed bear-
not sensible – particularly when many structures could fail, ing values are given in Table 1.1 and experience shows
in serviceability, by settlement at bearing pressures well that these are valuable and reasonable in preliminary
below the soil’s ultimate bearing capacity. design.
SFDC01 1/8/06 11:00 AM Page 5

Principles of Foundation Design 5

Table 1.1 Presumed bearing values (BS 8004, Table 1)(1)

NOTE. These values are for preliminary design purposes only, and may need alteration upwards or downwards. No addition has
been made for the depth of embedment of the foundation (see 2.1.2.3.2 and 2.1.2.3.3).

Category Types of rocks and soils Presumed allowable bearing value Remarks

kN/m2* kgf/cm2* tonf/ft2

Rocks Strong igneous and gneissic rocks in These values are based on
sound condition 10 000 100 the assumption that the
Strong limestones and strong foundations are taken down to
sandstones 4000 40 unweathered rock. For weak,
Schists and slates 3000 30 weathered and broken rock,
Strong shales, strong mudstones and see 2.2.2.3.1.12
strong siltstones 2000 20

Non-cohesive Dense gravel, or dense sand and gravel >600 >6 Width of foundation not less
soils Medium dense gravel, or medium than 1 m. Groundwater level
dense sand and gravel <200 to 600 <2 to 6 assumed to be a depth not
Loose gravel, or loose sand and gravel <200 <2 less than below the base of
Compact sand >300 >3 the foundation. For effect
Medium dense sand 100 to 300 1 to 3 of relative density and
Loose sand <100 <1 groundwater level,
Value depending on degree of see 2.2.2.3.2
looseness

Cohesive soils Very stiff boulder clays and hard clays 300 to 600 3 to 6 Group 3 is susceptible to long-
Stiff clays 150 to 300 1.5 to 3 term consolidation settlement
Firm clays 75 to 150 0.75 to 1.5 (see 2.1.2.3.3).
Soft clays and silts <75 <0.75 For consistencies of clays, see
table 5
Very soft clays and silts Not applicable

Peat and organic soils Not applicable See 2.2.2.3.4

Made ground or fill Not applicable See 2.2.2.3.5

* 107.25 kN/m2 = 1.094 kgf/cm2 = 1 tonf/ft2

All references within this table refer to the original document

1.3.4 Allowable bearing pressure the horizontal component of the inclined load. This could
result in reducing the value of the allowable bearing pres-
Knowing the structural loads, the preliminary foundation
sure to carry the vertical component of the inclined load.
design and the ultimate bearing capacity, a check can be
BS 8004 (Code of practice for foundations) suggests a simple
made on the allowable bearing pressure. The allowable net
rule for design of foundations subject to non-vertical loads
bearing pressure is defined in the Code as ‘the maximum
as follows:
allowable net loading intensity at the base of the founda-
tion’ taking into account: V H
+ <1
Pv Ph
(1) The ultimate bearing capacity.
(2) The amount and kind of settlement expected. where V = vertical component of the inclined load,
(3) The ability of the given structure to accommodate this H = horizontal component of the inclined load,
settlement. Pv = allowable vertical load – dependent on allow-
able bearing pressure,
This practical definition shows that the allowable bearing Ph = allowable horizontal load – dependent on
pressure is a combination of three functions; the strength allowable friction and/or adhesion on the
and settlement characteristics of the ground, the founda- horizontal base, plus passive resistance
tion type, and the settlement characteristics of the structure. where this can be relied upon.
However, like all simple rules which are on the safe side,
1.3.5 Non-vertical loading
there are exceptions. A more conservative value can be
When horizontal foundations are subject to inclined forces necessary when the horizontal component is relatively high
(portal frames, cantilever structures, etc.) the passive resist- and is acting on shallow foundations (where their depth/
ance of the ground must be checked for its capacity to resist breadth ratio is less than 1/4) founded on non-cohesive soils.
SFDC01 1/8/06 11:00 AM Page 6

6 Approach and First Considerations

In the same way that allowable bearing pressure is reduced From experience it has been found that the magnitude
to prevent excessive settlement, so too may allowable passive of relative rotation – sometimes referred to as angular
resistance, to prevent unacceptable horizontal movement. distortion – is critical in framed structures, and the magni-
tude of the deflection ratio, ∆/L, is critical for load-bearing
If the requirements of this rule cannot be met, provision
walls. Empirical criteria have been established to minimize
should be made for the horizontal component to be taken
cracking, or other damage, by limiting the movement, as
by some other part of the structure or by raking piles, by
shown in Table 1.2.
tying back to a line of sheet piling or by some other means.
The length-to-height ratio is important since according to
1.4 Settlement some researchers the greater the length-to-height ratio the
greater the limiting value of ∆/L. It should be noted that
If the building settles excessively, particularly differentially
cracking due to hogging occurs at half the deflection ratio of
– e.g. adjacent columns settling by different amounts – the
that for sagging. Sagging problems appear to occur more
settlement may be serious enough to endanger the stability
frequently than hogging in practice.
of the structure, and would be likely to cause serious ser-
viceability problems. Since separate serviceability and ultimate limit state analy-
ses are not at present carried out for the soil – see section 1.5
Less serious settlement may still be sufficient to cause
– it is current practice to adjust the factor of safety which is
cracking which could affect the building’s weathertight-
applied to the soil’s ultimate bearing capacity, in order to
ness, thermal and sound insulation, fire resistance, damage
obtain the allowable bearing pressure.
finishes and services, affect the operation of plant such as
overhead cranes, and other serviceability factors. Further- Similarly, the partial safety factor applied to the character-
more, settlement, even relatively minor, which causes the istic structural loads will be affected by the usual super-
building to tilt, can render it visually unacceptable. (Old structure design factors and then adjusted depending
Tudor buildings, for example, may look charming and on the structure (its sensitivity to movement, design life,
quaint with their tilts and leaning, but clients and owners of damaging effects of movement), and the type of imposed
modern buildings are unlikely to accept similar tilts.) loading. For example, full imposed load occurs infre-
quently in theatres and almost permanently in grain stores.
Differential settlement, sagging, hogging and relative
Overlooking this permanence of loading in design has
rotation are shown in Fig. 1.1.
caused foundation failure in some grain stores. A number
In general terms it should be remembered that founda- of failures due to such loading conditions have been
tions are no different from other structural members and investigated by the authors’ practice. A typical example is
deflection criteria similar to those for superstructure an existing grain store whose foundations performed satis-
members would also apply to foundation members. factorily until a new grain store was built alongside. The

L L

original position settled position

of base of base H

settlement

tilt
differential
relative rotation
settlement
L L
tension cracks

H
∆
∆
relative tension cracks
deflection ∆ deflection ratio = ∆
L
hogging sagging

Fig. 1.1 Settlement definitions.

SFDC01 1/8/06 11:00 AM Page 7

Principles of Foundation Design 7

Table 1.2 Typical values of angular distortion to limit cracking (Ground Subsidence, Table 1, Institution of Civil
Engineers, 1977)(2)

Class of structure Type of structure Limiting angular distortion

1 Rigid Not applicable: tilt is criterion

2 Statically determinate steel and timber structures 1/100 to 1/200

3 Statically indeterminate steel and reinforced concrete framed structures, 1/200 to 1/300
load-bearing reinforced brickwork buildings, all founded on reinforced
concrete continuous and slab foundations

4 As class 3, but not satisfying one of the stated conditions 1/300 to 1/500

5 Precast concrete large-panel structures 1/500 to 1/700

ground pressure from the new store increased the pressure therefore,
in the soil below the existing store – which settled and tilted.
column load
Similarly, any bending moments transferred to the ground required base area =
safe bearing capacity
(by, for example, fixing moments at the base of fixed portal
frames) must be considered in the design, since they will 1000
= = 4 m2
affect the structure’s contact pressure on the soil. 250
There is a rough correlation between bearing capacity and The method has the attraction of simplicity and was gener-
settlement. Soils of high bearing capacity tend to settle less ally adequate for traditional buildings in the past. However,
than soils of low bearing capacity. It is therefore even more it can be uneconomic and ignores other factors. A nuclear
advisable to check the likely settlement of structures founded power station, complex chemical works housing expensive
on weak soils. As a guide, care is required when the safe plant susceptible to foundation movement or similar build-
bearing capacity (i.e. ultimate bearing capacity divided by a ings, can warrant a higher factor of safety than a supermar-
factor of safety) falls below 125 kN/m2; each site, and each ket warehouse storing tinned pet food. A crowded theatre
structure, must however be judged on its own merits. may deserve a higher safety factor than an occasionally
used cow-shed. The designer should exercise judgement in
1.5 Limit state philosophy the choice of factor of safety.

In addition, while there must be precautions taken against

1.5.1 Working stress design foundation collapse limit state (i.e. total failure) there must be
A common design method (based on working stress) used in a check that the serviceability limit state (i.e. movement
the past was to determine the ultimate bearing capacity of under load which causes structural or building use dis-
the soil, then divide it by a factor of safety, commonly 3, tress) is not exceeded. Where settlement criteria dominate,
to determine the safe bearing capacity. The safe bearing the bearing pressure is restricted to a suitable value below
capacity is the maximum allowable design loading intens- that of the safe bearing capacity, known as the allowable
ity on the soil. The ultimate bearing capacity is exceeded bearing pressure.
when the loading intensity causes the soil to fail in shear.
Typical ultimate bearing capacities are 150 kN/m2 for soft 1.5.2 Limit state design
clays, 300 – 600 kN/m2 for firm clays and loose sands/
Attempts to apply limit state philosophy to foundation
gravels, and 1000 –1500 kN/m2 for hard boulder clays and
design have, so far, not been considered totally successful.
dense gravels.
So a compromise between working stress and limit state has
Consider the following example for a column foundation. developed, where the designer determines an estimated
The ultimate bearing capacity for a stiff clay is 750 kN/m2. allowable bearing pressure and checks for settlements and
If the factor of safety equals 3, determine the area of a pad building serviceability. The actual bearing pressure is then
base to support a column load of 1000 kN (ignoring the factored up into an ultimate design pressure, for structural
weight of the base and any overburden). design of the foundation members.

ultimate bearing capacity The partial safety factors applied for ultimate design loads
Safe bearing capacity = (i.e. typically 1.4 × dead, 1.6 × imposed, 1.4 × wind and 1.2
factor of safety
for dead + imposed + wind) are for superstructure design
750 and should not be applied to foundation design for allow-
= = 250 kN/m2
3 able bearing calculations.
column load For dead and imposed loads the actual working load, i.e.
actual bearing pressure =
base area the unfactored characteristic load, should be used in most
SFDC01 1/8/06 11:00 AM Page 8

8 Approach and First Considerations

foundation designs. Where there are important isolated

foundations and particularly when subject to significant
eccentric loading (as in heavily loaded gantry columns,
water towers, and the like), the engineer should exercise
discretion in applying a partial safety factor to the imposed
load. Similarly when the imposed load is very high in rela-
tion to the dead load (as in large cylindrical steel oil tanks),
the engineer should apply a partial safety factor to the
imposed load.
rigid portal
In fact when the foundation load due to wind load on
the superstructure is relatively small – i.e. less than 25% of
(dead + imposed) – it may be ignored. Where the occa-
sional foundation load due to wind exceeds 25% of (dead +
imposed), then the foundation area should be proportioned
so that the pressure due to wind + dead + imposed loads
does not exceed 1.25 × (allowable bearing pressure). When
wind uplift on a foundation exceeds dead load, then this
becomes a critical load case.

1.6 Interaction of superstructure and soil

three pinned arch
The superstructure, its foundation, and the supporting soil
should be considered as a structural entity, with the three Fig. 1.2 Rigid portal versus three pinned arch.
elements interacting.

Adjustments to the superstructure design to resist the normal superstructure

effects of bearing failure and settlements, at minor extra
costs, are often more economic than the expensive area
increase or stiffening of the foundations. Some examples
from the authors’ practice are given here to illustrate these
adjustments. Adjustments to the soil to improve its prop-
erties are briefly discussed in section 1.8. The choice of
foundation type is outlined in section 1.7. Adjustments and
choices are made to produce the most economical solution. deep stiff footing independent of superstructure

stiffened superstructure
1.6.1 Example 1: Three pinned arch
The superstructure costs for a rigid-steel portal-frame shed
are generally cheaper than the three pinned arch solution
(see Fig. 1.2).

Differential settlement of the column pad bases will how-

ever seriously affect the bending moments (and thus the
stresses) in the rigid portal, but have insignificant effect on
the three pinned arch. Therefore the pad foundations for
relatively shallow foundation
the rigid portal will have to be bigger and more expensive beam acting as a truss
than those for the arch, and may far exceed the saving in with the superstructure
superstructure steelwork costs for the portal. (In some cases
it can be worthwhile to place the column eccentric to the Fig. 1.3 Stiff footing versus Vierendeel truss.
foundation base to counteract the moment at the base of the
foundation due to column fixity and/or horizontal thrust.) (2) Stiffer superstructure, to act as a Vierendeel truss and
thus in effect becoming a stiff beam, with the foundation
1.6.2 Example 2: Vierendeel beam acting as the bottom boom of the truss.
superstructure
The truss solution (2) showed significant savings in con-
The single-storey reinforced concrete (r.c.) frame structure struction costs and time.
shown in Fig. 1.3 was founded in soft ground liable to
excessive sagging/differential settlement. Two main solu- 1.6.3 Example 3: Prestressed brick
tions were investigated: diaphragm wall
(1) Normal r.c. superstructure founded on deep, stiff, A sports hall was to be built on a site with severe mining
heavily reinforced strip footings. subsidence. At first sight the economic superstructure
SFDC01 1/8/06 11:00 AM Page 9

Principles of Foundation Design 9

hinge joints
to allow blocks
to settle
differentially

compressible material to basement floors span between

allow for movement due not piled blocks of flats
to heave or settlement

Fig. 1.4 Buoyancy raft.

solution of a brickwork diaphragm wall was ruled out, of trees. The sub-soil was of low bearing capacity over-
since the settlement due to mining would result in unac- lying dense gravel. The building plan was amended to
ceptable tensile stresses in the brickwork. The obvious solu- incorporate two sections of flats interconnected by staircase
tions were to cast massive, expensive foundation beams to and lift shafts, see Fig. 1.4. A basement was required
resist the settlement and support the walls, or to abandon beneath the staircase section and the removal of over-
the brickwork diaphragm wall solution in favour of a prob- burden enabled the soil to sustain structural loading. To
ably more expensive structural steelwork superstructure. have piled this area would have added unnecessary expense.
The problem was economically solved by prestressing the The final design was piling for the two, four-storey sections
wall to eliminate the tensile stresses resulting from differ- of the flats, and a buoyancy raft (see section 13.9) for
ential settlement. the basement.

1.6.4 Example 4: Composite deep beams It is hoped that these five simple examples illustrate the
importance of considering the soil/structure interaction
Load-bearing masonry walls built on a soil of low bearing and encourage young designers not to consider the founda-
capacity containing soft spots are often founded on strip tion design in isolation.
footings reinforced to act as beams, to enable the footings to
span over local depressions. The possibility of composite Bearing capacity, pressure, settlement, etc., are dealt with
action between the wall and strip footing, acting together as more fully in Chapter 2 and in section B of Chapter 10.
a deeper beam, is not usually considered. Composite action
significantly reduces foundation costs with only minor 1.7 Foundation types
increases in wall construction costs (i.e. engineering bricks Foundation types are discussed in detail in Chapter 9; a
are used as a d.p.c. in lieu of normal d.p.c.s, which would brief outline only is given here to facilitate appreciation of
otherwise act as a slip plane of low shear resistance). Bed the philosophy.
joint reinforcement may also be used to increase the
Basically there are four major foundation types: pads,
strength of the wall/foundation composite.
strips, rafts, and piles. There are a number of variations
within each type and there are combinations of types. Full
1.6.5 Example 5: Buoyancy raft
details of the choice, application and design is dealt with
A four-storey block of flats was to be built on a site where in detail in later chapters. The choice is determined by the
part of the site was liable to ground heave due to removal structural loads, ground conditions, economics of design,
SFDC01 1/8/06 11:00 AM Page 10

10 Approach and First Considerations

1.7.1 Pad foundations

Pad foundations tend to be the simplest and cheapest foun-
dation type and are used when the soil is relatively strong
or when the column loads are relatively light. They are
usually square or rectangular on plan, of uniform thickness
and generally of reinforced concrete. They can be stepped
or haunched, if material costs outweigh labour costs.
The reinforcement can vary from nothing at one extreme
mass through to a heavy steel grillage at the other, with lightly
reinforced sections being the most common. Typical types
are shown in Fig. 1.5.

1.7.2 Strip footings

Strip footings are commonly used for the foundations
to load-bearing walls. They are also used when the pad
foundations for a number of columns in line are so closely
haunched spaced that the distance between the pads is approximately
equal to the length of the side of the pads. (It is usually more
economic and faster to excavate and cast concrete in one
long strip, than as a series of closely spaced isolated pads.)
They are also used on weak ground to increase the founda-
tion bearing area, and thus reduce the bearing pressure –
the weaker the ground then the wider the strip. When it is
necessary to stiffen the strip to resist differential settlement,
stepped then tee or inverted tee strip footings can be adopted. Typical
examples are shown in Fig. 1.6.

1.7.3 Raft foundations

When strips become so wide (because of heavy column
loads or weak ground) that the clear distance between them
is about the same as the width of the strips (or when the
depth to suitable bearing capacity strata for strip footing
reinforced loading becomes too deep), it is worth considering raft
foundations. They are useful in restricting the differential
Fig. 1.5 Pad foundations. settlement on variable ground, and to distribute variations
of superstructure loading from area to area. Rafts can be
stiffened (as strips can) by the inclusion of tee beams.
economics of scale of the contract and construction costs,
buildability, durability – as is all structural design choice. Rafts can also be made buoyant by the excavation (displace-
Only a brief description is given in this section to help ment) of a depth of soil, similar to the way that seagoing
understand the soil behaviour. rafts are made to float by displacing an equal weight of

load-bearing wall row of columns

inverted tee tee wide strip

Fig. 1.6 Strip footings.

SFDC01 1/8/06 11:00 AM Page 11

Principles of Foundation Design 11

simple raft

stiffened rafts

buoyant raft

Fig. 1.7 Raft foundations.

water. A cubic metre of soil can weigh as much as three was considered unsuitable for building. The authors’ prac-
floor loads per square metre, so a deep basement excava- tice, for example, economically founded a small housing
tion can displace the same weight of soil as the weight of the estate on a thick bed of peat by the use of 20 m long piles to
proposed structure. However where there is a high water- support the low-rise domestic housing. Consideration
table then flotation of the raft can occur, if the water pres- should also be given to the use of piles on contaminated
sures exceed the self-weight! Typical examples of rafts are sites where driven piles can be economic as they do not
shown in Fig. 1.7. produce arisings that would otherwise need to be disposed
of off site at great cost. Typical examples of piling are
1.7.4 Piled foundations shown in Fig. 1.8.

Piles are used when they are more economical than the
1.8 Ground treatment (geotechnical
alternatives, or when the ground at foundation level is too
processes)
weak to support any of the previously described founda-
tion types. Piles are also used on sites where soils are par- Soil properties can change under the action of superstruc-
ticularly affected by seasonal changes (and/or the action ture loading. It compacts, consolidates and drains, and so
of tree roots), to transfer the structural loads below the level becomes denser, stronger and less prone to settlement.
of such influence. Piles can transfer the structure load to These improvements can also be induced by a variety of
stronger soil, or to bedrock and dense gravel. The structural geotechnical processes before construction. The ground
load is supported by the pile, acting as a column, when it can be temporarily loaded before construction (pre-
is end-bearing on rock (or driven into dense gravel), or consolidated), hammered by heavy weights to compact it
alternatively by skin friction between the peripheral area (dynamic consolidation), vibrated to shake down and reduce
of the pile and the surrounding soil (similar to a nail driven the voids ratio (vibro stabilization), the soil moisture
into wood) or by a combination of both. drained off (dewatering, sand wicks), the voids filled with
cementitious material (grouting, chemical injection), and
Rapid advances in piling technology have made piling on
similar techniques.
many sites a viable alternative economic proposition and
not necessarily a last resort. The reduction in piling costs Imported material (usually sandy gravel) can be laid over
has also made possible the use of land which previously weak ground and compacted so that the pressure from
SFDC01 1/8/06 11:00 AM Page 12

12 Approach and First Considerations

column

slab

weak pile cap

ground
skin
friction

dense
gravel

rock
end-bearing pile end-bearing pile friction pile
onto rock into gravel

Fig. 1.8 Piled foundations.

column pad foundations can be spread over a greater area.

G.L.
Imported material can also be used to seal contaminated
sites. Imported soils can also be laid and compacted in thin
(say 150 mm) layers with polymer nets placed between each weight of
layer. The composite material, known as reinforced soil, has soil
been widely used in retaining walls and embankments. level 1
These techniques are discussed in detail in Chapter 8. The
development of these techniques has made it possible to consolidated
build economically on sites which, until recently, were too soil
difficult and expensive to be considered as building land.

Temporary geotechnical processes can be used to ease

G.L. overburden
excavation. Typical cases are: removed to
(1) Temporary dewatering to allow the excavation to be form basement
carried out in the dry,
(2) Chemical injection, freezing, grouting and the like to
maintain sides of excavations, etc. level 1
heave
Permanent processes are employed to improve the ground
properties by:
over-consolidated
(1) Compaction (making the soil denser and thus soil liable to heave
stronger), and
Fig. 1.9 Heave following removal of overburden.
(2) Consolidation and drainage processes to reduce the
magnitude of settlement. (Such measures are discussed
in detail in Chapter 8.)
1.10 Post-construction foundation failure
1.9 Changes of soil properties during A foundation that has been designed well and has per-
excavation formed perfectly satisfactorily, may suffer distress due to
nearby disturbance. Typical examples of such disturbance
The soil at level 1, below ground level – see Fig. 1.9 – is sub-
are piling for a new adjacent building; rerouting of heavy
ject to pressure, and thus consolidation, due to the weight
traffic; new heavy hammering plant installed in adjoining
of the soil above, and is in equilibrium. If the overlying soil
factories; and other activities which may vibrate or send
is removed to form a basement then the pressure, and con-
impact shocks through the soil under the existing founda-
solidation effects, at level 1 are also removed. The unloaded
tion, thus causing compaction and further settlement,
soil, in this condition, is known as over-consolidated, and is
which may be unacceptable.
likely to recover from the consolidation and rise in level
(heave). This can be likened to the elastic recovery of con- Similarly, changes in the moisture content (by increasing it
traction on a column when its load is removed. due to leaking mains and drains or by the removal of trees,
SFDC01 1/8/06 11:00 AM Page 13

Principles of Foundation Design 13

or decreasing it by introducing drainage paths due to These practical considerations are illustrated by the follow-
neighbouring excavation or by further growth of trees) ing examples.
can disturb the state of equilibrium of the soil/foundation
interaction. An interesting case, investigated by the authors’ 1.11.1 Example 6: Excavation in
practice, was the deforestation of land uphill of a factory. waterlogged ground
The increased rain water run-off seriously affected the
A simple example of excavation in waterlogged ground
basement of the factory.
exemplifies the problems which may be encountered. At
The construction and loading of new foundations may dis- the commencement of a 1–2 m deep underpinning contract
turb existing buildings. The rising level of the water-table in mass concrete, groundwater was found to be rising
in cities due to the cessation of artesian well pumping is much higher and faster than previous trial pits had
also causing problems (see Chapter 4 on topography, and indicated. The circumstances were such that a minipiling
CIRIA Special Publication 69, The engineering implications of contractor was quickly brought onto site, and speedily
rising groundwater levels in the deep aquifer beneath London).(3) installed what was, at face value, a more costly solution, but
proved far less expensive overall than slowly struggling to
1.11 Practical considerations construct with mass concrete while pumping. As will be
well-known to many of our readers, few small site pumps
There are, in foundation design, a number of practical are capable of running for longer than two hours without
construction problems and costs to be considered. The malfunctioning!
chief ones are:
1.11.2 Example 7: Variability of
(1) The foundations should be kept as shallow as possible,
ground conditions
commensurate with climatic effects on, and strength
of, the surface soil; particularly in waterlogged ground. On one site a varying clay fill had been placed to a depth of
Excavation in seriously waterlogged ground can be roughly 2 m over clay of a similar soft to firm consistency.
expensive and slow. Since a large industrial estate was to be developed on the
(2) Expensive and complex shuttering details should be site in numerous phases by different developers, a thor-
avoided, particularly in stiffened rafts. Attention ough site investigation had been undertaken. Nevertheless,
should be paid to buildability. on more than one occasion, the project engineer found him-
(3) Reduction in the costs of piling, improvements in self looking down a hole of depth 2 m or greater, trying to
ground treatment, advances in soil mechanics, etc. decide if a mass concrete base was about to be founded in
have considerably altered the economics of design, fill or virgin ground, and in either case whether it would
and many standard solutions are now out-of-date. There achieve 100 kN/m2 allowable bearing pressure or not. This
is a need to constantly review construction costs and emphasizes the importance of engineers looking at the
techniques. ground first-hand by examining the trial pits rather than
(4) Designers need to be more aware of the assumptions relying on the site investigation report from the relative
made in design, the variability of ground conditions, comfort of their desk.
the occasional inapplicability of refined soil analyses
and the practicality of construction. 1.11.3 Example 8: Reliability of the soils
(5) The reliability of the soil investigation, by critical investigation
assessment.
On one site a contractor quoted a small diameter steel tube
(6) Effect of construction on ground properties, i.e. vibra-
pile length of 5 m (to achieve a suitable set), based upon
tion from piling, deterioration of ground exposed by
a site investigation report. In the event his piles achieved
excavation in adverse weather conditions, removal of
the set at an average of 22 m (!), so obviously cost complica-
overburden, seasonal variation in the water-table,
tions ensued. In addition to this, one of the main difficulties
compaction of the ground by construction plant.
was convincing the contractor to guarantee his piles at that
(7) Effect of varying shape, length and rigidity of the
depth, as he was understandably concerned about their
foundation, and the need for movement and settle-
slenderness.
ment joints.
(8) After-effects on completed foundations of sulfate
1.11.4 Example 9: Deterioration of ground
attack on concrete, ground movements due to frost
exposed by excavation
heave, shrinkable clays, and the effects of trees; also
changes in local environment, e.g. new construction, An investigation by the authors’ practice of one particular
re-routing of heavy traffic, installation of plant in failure springs to mind as an example. Part of a factory had
adjoining factories causing impact and vibration. been demolished exposing what had been a party wall, but
(9) Fast but expensive construction may be more eco- a 20 m length of this wall was undermined by an excavation
nomic than low-cost but slow construction to clients for a new service duct and a classic failure ensued. The
needing quick return on capital investment. exposed excavation was then left open over a wet weekend,
(10) Effect of new foundation loading on existing adjoining resulting in softening of the face and a collapse occurred
structures. early on the Monday.
SFDC01 1/8/06 11:00 AM Page 14

14 Approach and First Considerations

So often the most catastrophic of failures are as a result of can exceed 1 m – or by the depth of basement, boiler
these types of classic textbook examples, which could be house, service ducts or similar.
prevented by the most basic precautions. (4) The foundation area required is determined from the
characteristic (working) loads and estimated allowable
1.11.5 Example 10: Effect of new foundation pressure. This determines the preliminary design of
on existing structure the types or combination of types of foundation. The
selection is usually based on economics, speed and
A new storage silo was to be constructed within an existing
buildability of construction.
mill, and the proposal was to found it on a filled basement,
(5) The variation with depth of the vertical stress is deter-
in the same way that the adjacent silo had been 20 years
mined, to check for possible over-stressing of any
before. The authors’ practice was called in for their opinion
underlying weak strata.
fairly late in the day, with the steel silo already under
(6) Settlement calculations should be carried out to check
fabrication.
that the total and differential settlements are acceptable.
After investigation of the fill, the client was advised to carry If these are unacceptable then a revised allowable bear-
the new silo on small diameter piles through the fill down ing pressure should be determined, and the foundation
to bedrock. This would thereby avoid placing additional design amended to increase its area, or the foundations
loading into the fill, and thus causing settlement of the should be taken down to a deeper and stronger stratum.
existing silo. (7) Before finalizing the choice of foundation type, the
preliminary costing of alternative superstructure
1.12 Design procedures designs should be made, to determine the economics
of increasing superstructure costs in order to reduce
Good design must not only be safe but must aim to save
foundation costs.
construction costs, time and materials. The following pro-
(8) Alternative safe designs should be checked for eco-
cedures should help to achieve this and an ‘educated’ client
nomy, speed and simplicity of construction. Speed and
will recognize the importance of funding this work with a
economy can conflict in foundation construction – an
realistic fee.
initial low-cost solution may increase the construction
(1) On the building plan, the position of columns and load- period. Time is often of the essence for a client needing
bearing walls should be marked, and any other induced early return on capital investment. A fast-track pro-
loadings and bending moments. The loads should be gramme for superstructure construction can be negated
classified into dead, imposed and wind loadings, giv- by slow foundation construction.
ing the appropriate partial safety factors for these loads. (9) The design office should be prepared to amend the
(2) From a study of the site ground investigation (if avail- design, if excavation shows variation in ground condi-
able), the strength of the soil at various depths or strata tions from those predicted from the site soil survey and
below foundation level should be studied, to determine investigation.
the safe bearing capacity at various levels. These values
– or presumed bearing values from BS 8004 in the 1.13 References
absence of a site investigation – are used to estimate the
1. British Standards Institution (1986) Code of practice for founda-
allowable bearing pressure.
tions. BS 8004, BSI, London.
(3) The invert level (underside) of the foundation is deter- 2. Institution of Civil Engineers (1977) Ground Subsidence. Thomas
mined by either the minimum depth below ground level Telford, London.
unaffected by temperature, moisture content variation 3. Simpson, B. (1989) The Engineering Implications of Rising
or erosion – this can be as low as 450 mm in granular Groundwater Levels in the Deep Aquifer beneath London. CIRIA,
soils but, depending on the site and ground conditions, London, Special Publication 69.
SFDC02 1/8/06 11:01 AM Page 15

2 Soil Mechanics, Lab Testing and Geology

SECTION A: SOIL MECHANICS He has also said:

‘Rigour is often equated with mathematics but there is at

2.1 Introduction to soil mechanics least as much rigour in observing and recording physical
Since most foundation designers have an understanding phenomena, developing logical argument and setting
of soil mechanics testing it is not proposed, in this chapter, these out on paper.’
to go into great detail on the topic. There are, in any case, Casagrande criticized those teachers:
numerous textbooks, proceedings of international confer-
ences and learned papers on the subject. ‘who had not the faculty to train their students to critical,
independent thinking. Such ideas are then dragging
It is aimed therefore to give a recapitulation (and greater through his life [the student] like invisible chains,
confidence) for the experienced designer, and perhaps a hampering his professional progress.’
sense of proportion to those young engineers who appear
to think it is a branch of applied mathematics. The subject is Emeritus Professor John Burland, of Imperial College,
of vital importance to the designer and contractor. The London, in his Nash lecture,(1) said:
designer must know the strength, stability and behaviour of ‘the greatest problem lies in the fact that all too often
the soil under load and the contractor must equally know the boundaries between reality, empiricism and theory
what will have to be contended with in construction. Soil become thoroughly confused. As a result the student can
mechanics is a serious and valuable scientific attempt to quickly lose confidence, believing that there is no secure
determine the soil’s type and properties. basic frame of reference from which to work – the whole
The subject grew out of separate inquiries into a variety of subject becomes a kind of “black art” . . . an attitude
early foundation failures, together with the new need to widely prevalent today amongst general practitioners.’
found heavier loads on poorer soils. The early pioneers He also said:
of the subject, such as Terzaghi, collected and collated this
dispersed information to establish a scientific, organized ‘soil mechanics is a craft as much as a science. A distinctive
discipline. After the Second World War, the desperate need feature of a craftsman . . . is that he “knows” his material.
for reconstruction focused more widespread interest in the He may not be able to quote its Young’s modulus, yield
subject, and by the mid- to late 1950s many universities had strength, etc., but he knows from handling it and work-
started courses and research. Today it is accepted as normal ing it far more about its likely behaviour than would be
that it forms part of an engineer’s training. The earlier revealed by measuring a dozen difficult properties.’
hostility to this relatively new science by older engineers, It is reassuring to designers that such an eminent expert has
and the uncritical acceptance of it as ‘gospel’ by young expressed these views.
engineers, has since developed into healthy appreciation
of its value, and the need for experience and judgement Soil mechanics tests determine the soil’s classification, its
in its application by many designers. bearing capacity, settlement characteristics, its stability and
pressures within it, and finally the ease or difficulty of its
When practical designers criticize passive acceptance of excavation and treatment.
inapplicable theory they can be accused (admittedly by
second-rate academics and researchers) of being reaction- 2.2 Pressure distribution through ground
ary, and anti-scholarship and research – this is not the case.
The pressure distribution of concentrated loads on, say,
Terzaghi himself stated, after criticizing some teaching, that:
concrete padstones or masonry walls is often assumed to
‘as a consequence, engineers imagined that the future of disperse through 45° planes as shown in Fig. 2.1 (a).
science of foundations would consist in carrying out the
Since
following programme – drill a hole in the ground. Send
the soil samples to a laboratory, collect the figures, intro- load
stress = and area = 4z2
duce them into equations and compute the results. The area
last remnants of this period are still found in attempts to
then
prescribe simple formulas for computing settlements –
no such formulas can possibly be obtained except by load
stress =
ignoring a considerable number of factors.’ 4z2
SFDC02 1/8/06 11:01 AM Page 16

16 Approach and First Considerations

P CL
45° dispersal of
pressure r
z=1m

A = 4 m2
z=2m
z=3m

P
A = 16 m2

A = 36 m2
z
(a)

pressure distribution

vertical stress p z
1 at depth z caused
by applied load P
2
depth (m)

3
Fig. 2.2 Variation of vertical stress with depth
(Boussinesq assumption).
4

5
(b) it also assumes that the contact pressure is uniform which it
is often not. Nevertheless the assumptions produce reason-
Fig. 2.1 Variation of vertical stress with depth
able results for practical design and more closely correlates
(45° dispersal assumption).
with pressure distribution in the soil, than the 60° dispersal
assumption.

The three exceptions to the Boussinesq equation occur:

and a pressure distribution/depth results in the graph
(1) When a soft layer underlies a stiff layer leading to a
shown in Fig. 2.1 (b). In most soils, a dispersion angle of 60°
wider spread of lateral pressure,
from the horizontal plane is a more commonly accepted
(2) When a very stiff foundation does not transfer uniform
value. The use of a dispersion angle is an oversimplified
pressure to the soil, and
approach which can produce incorrect results, but helps to
(3) For those occasional soils with high vertical shear
understand the principles. A redefined and more accurate
modulus, which tend to have a narrower spread of
method developed by Boussinesq is more generally adopted.
lateral load.
The vertical stress, pz, at any point beneath the concentrated
The variation of vertical stress across a horizontal plane
load, P, at a depth, z, and a radius r is given by the equation:
within the soil subject to uniform vertical contact pressure
3P 1 is not uniform. Figure 2.4 shows the variation of pressure
pz = ×
2πz 2 ⎡
1/2 along a horizontal plane due to a uniform contact pres-
⎛ r⎞ ⎤
2
⎢1 + ⎜ ⎟ ⎥ sure under a raft or strip, assuming again a 45° dispersal of
⎢⎣ ⎝ z⎠ ⎥
⎦ stress for simplicity.

This results in the pressure distribution graph shown in The simplification shows the maximum pressure under
Fig. 2.2. the centre of the raft, or strip, and diminishing pressure
towards the edge. This may help to clarify the cause of strip
The solving of the equation for a number of different depths
footings sagging when supporting a uniformly distributed
and plan positions is obviously laborious without the aid of
load, and a uniformly loaded raft deflecting like a saucer.
a computer, and designers tend to use pressure contour
Figure 2.4 also shows that the soil is subject to vertical stress
charts as shown in Fig. 2.3.
(and thus settlement) beyond the edge of the foundations.
While the 60° dispersal is an assumption, it should be An existing building, close to a new raft foundation, may
appreciated that the Boussinesq equation is also based on suffer settlement due to the new loaded foundation. Fig-
assumptions. The assumptions are that the soil is elastic, ure 2.3 shows the stress variation across a horizontal plane
homogeneous and isotropic – which, of course, it is not, and based on the Boussinesq equation.
SFDC02 1/8/06 11:01 AM Page 17

Soil Mechanics, Lab Testing and Geology 17

4B 3B 2B B B

0.8 p
B
0.01 p

0.4 p
0.02 p
2B

0.04 p
3B
0.2 p

4B
vertical stress pz
caused by foundation
pressure p
5B

6B

0.1 p

7B

8B 0.08 p

9B

10B

0.06 p
11B

Fig. 2.3 Vertical stress contours beneath an infinite strip (Weltman & Head, Site Investigation Manual, CIRIA (1983),
Fig. 72).(2)

2.3 Bearing capacity can be resolved parallel and perpendicular to the boundary
planes, AC and BC, (Fig. 2.5 (b)) into compressive and
2.3.1 Introduction to bearing capacity shearing forces Pσ and Pτ. These forces are resisted by the
soil’s shear strength, τ, and its compressive strength, σ (see
A simplistic explanation, to ensure the understanding of Fig. 2.5 (c)). The soil will tend to fail in shear long before it
the basic principles of bearing capacity, is given below. fails in compression.

The loaded foundation in Fig. 2.5 (a) pushes down a trian- The shearing resistance of the soil, τ, is a factor of its cohe-
gular wedge of soil, the downward load, P, is resisted by sion, c, and its internal friction (dependent on the angle of
the upward reactions, P/2 on each triangle. The reactions internal friction, φ).
SFDC02 1/8/06 11:01 AM Page 18

18 Approach and First Considerations

foundation pressure soil beyond affected

from uniform load by foundation

Fig. 2.4 Variation of vertical stress along a horizontal plane.

Coulomb’s equation states that:

P τ = c + σ tan φ

where σ = normal pressure across the shear plane.

In a friction-less clay:
A B τ=c

In a non-cohesive sand:

τ = σ tan φ
C
P P Many soils are rarely solely cohesive or frictional but are a
2 2 mixture of both, such as silty sands, sandy clays, etc.
(a)
As an example, determine the shear resistance of a soil with
c = 100 kN/m2, and φ = 20°, subject to a normal pressure of
A A
200 kN/m2.
τ
τ = c + σ tan φ
σ τ = 100 + (200 × tan 20°)
Pτ τ
P τ = 173 kN/m2
C C
2 σ The simple triangular wedge action shown in Fig. 2.5 is
Pσ mainly confined to frictional non-cohesive soils. In mainly
(b) (c) cohesive soils the triangular wedge in pushing down tends
to disturb and displace soil on both sides of the wedge (see
Fig. 2.5 Normal and shear stresses for a triangular
Fig. 2.6) and further soil shear resistance will be mobilized
wedge of soil.
along the planes of disturbance.
SFDC02 1/8/06 11:01 AM Page 19

Soil Mechanics, Lab Testing and Geology 19

P P

A B
τ A B

C τ
C
Fig. 2.6 Triangular wedge action in cohesive soils. Fig. 2.8 Effect of depth of base on bearing capacity.

2.3.2 Main variables affecting bearing

capacity ground level
(1) The surface area of the wedge resisting the foundation 0.5 m 1m Dw
load depends on the size of the foundation and its 1 water-table D
shape, as is shown in Figs 2.7 (a), (b) and (c).
Figures 2.7 (a) and (b) show diagrammatically that 2 foundation base
the larger a square base then the greater the surface area
of the wedge, and that a strip footing has less surface 1m
area per unit area of foundation (see Fig. 2.7 (c)).
(2) The bearing capacity of a foundation is affected by its 3
depth, D, and the density of the soil (see Fig. 2.8).
Comparing Fig. 2.8 with Fig. 2.6, it will be noted that Fig. 2.9 Variation of effective overburden pressure for
there is a greater volume of soil to push up, and the a pad foundation.
shear planes are longer. Furthermore, the greater the
density (the weight) of the soil then the greater the force sand has a dry unit weight of 17.5 kN/m3 and a saturated
necessary to push it up. unit weight of 20 kN/m3.
(3) In any horizontal plane at or below foundation level At level 1 (zw = 0):
there is an existing pressure due to the weight of soil
s′ = s = γdryDw = 17.5 × 0.5 = 8.75 kN/m2
above the plane. This existing overburden pressure will
vary with the density and weight of the soil and the At level 2 (zw = D − Dw):
percentage of water within the soil. s′ = γsat(D − Dw) + γdry(Dw) − γw(D − Dw)
(a) Total overburden pressure, s, equals pressure due = 20(1.0 − 0.5) + 17.5(0.5) − 10(1.0 − 0.5)
to weight of soil and water (and any other existing = 10 + 8.75 − 5 = 13.75 kN/m2
surcharge loads) before construction.
(b) Effective overburden pressure, s′, equals the total At level 3 (zw = 2.0 − Dw):
overburden pressure, s, minus the porewater pres- s′ = γsat(2.0 − Dw) + γdry(Dw) − γw(2.0 − Dw)
sure (usually equal to the head of water above the = 20(2.0 − 0.5) + 17.5(0.5) − 10(2.0 − 0.5)
plane). = 30 + 8.75 − 15
= 23.75 kN/m2
At a depth zw below the water-table, s′ = s − γw zw

where γw is the unit weight of water. 2.3.3 Bearing capacity and bearing pressure
As an example, determine the effective over-burden pres- In the previous section both bearing pressure and capacity
sures at the levels of water-table, proposed foundation base, were discussed. It is important to differentiate between
and 1 m below proposed foundation, shown in Fig. 2.9. The the two.

B
B
B

square bases strip footing

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 2.7 Effect of base size and shape on soil wedge.

SFDC02 1/8/06 11:01 AM Page 20

20 Approach and First Considerations

40

Nγ
Nq
30
Nc
φ (in degrees)

20

10

0
70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 20 40 60 80 100
values of N c and N q values of N γ

Fig. 2.10 Terzaghi’s bearing capacity coefficients (Reproduced from Terzaghi, K. & Peck, R. B. (1996) Soil Mechanics
in Engineering Practice, 3rd edn, permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.(3)).

The bearing capacity is the pressure the soil is capable of in Fig. 2.10), the net and total ultimate bearing capacities
resisting. are, respectively,

The bearing pressure is the pressure exerted on the soil by the (1) Strip footings
foundation.
nf = cNc + s′(Nq − 1) + 0.5γBNγ
Both terms have sub-divisions as follows: tf = cNc + s′(Nq − 1) + 0.5γBNγ + s
(1) The total bearing pressure, t, is the total pressure on (2) Square or circular bases
the ground due to the weight of the foundations, the
nf = 1.3cNc + s′(Nq − 1) + 0.4γBNγ
structure and any backfill.
tf = 1.3cNc + s′(Nq − 1) + 0.4γBNγ + s
(2) The net bearing pressure, n, is the net increase in pressure
due to the weight of the structure and its foundation, For sands and gravels, when non-cohesive, the term cNc in
i.e. n = t − s. the above equations is equal to zero.
(3) The total ultimate bearing capacity, tf, is the total loading
The net ultimate bearing capacity, nf, for such soils is:
intensity at which the ground fails in shear (Note ‘ultim-
ate’ does not refer to ultimate limit state in this context.) nf = s′(Nq − 1) + 0.5γBNγ for strips, and
(4) The net ultimate bearing capacity, nf, is the net loading nf = s′(Nq − 1) + 0.4γBNγ for square bases.
intensity at which the ground fails in shear, i.e., nf = tf − s.
For pure cohesive soils, where φ = 0°, nf = cNc for both strips
(5) The net allowable bearing pressure, na = nf/(factor of
and square bases. For φ = 0°, Nc is generally taken as 5.14.
safety). The factor of safety is determined by the
designer’s experience and judgement, the magnitude
Example 1
and rate of settlement and the structure’s resistance, or
susceptibility, to settlement. It is common in practice to A strip footing of width B = 1.5 m is founded at a depth
adopt a factor of safety of 3 for normal structures. D = 2.0 m in a soil of unit weight γ = 19 kN/m3. The soil has
a cohesion c = 10 kN/m2 and an angle of internal friction of
2.3.4 Determination of ultimate φ = 25°. No groundwater was encountered during the site
bearing capacity investigation.

As discussed above the bearing capacity depends on such For a strip footing the total ultimate bearing capacity is
factors as the shear strength of the soil and the size and given by:
shape of the foundation. Terzaghi, some 60 years ago, tf = cNc + s′(Nq − 1) + 0.5γBNγ + s
developed mathematical solutions to cover all these
Since there is no groundwater, the effective overburden
variations. The solutions were modified by experiments,
pressure equals the total overburden pressure.
and further modified by Brinch Hansen. For shallow founda-
tions, using dimension-less coefficients, Nc, Nq and Nγ (given s′ = s = γD = 19 × 2.0 = 38 kN/m2
SFDC02 1/8/06 11:01 AM Page 21

Soil Mechanics, Lab Testing and Geology 21

From Fig. 2.10, Nc = 25, Nq = 13, Nγ = 10. Thus: (1) φ and c are well-known from tests and are constant for a
given soil,
tf = cNc + s′(Nq − 1) + 0.5γBNγ + s
(2) That the loads imposed on the ground are known with
= cNc + s′Nq + 0.5γBNγ
exactitude, and
= 10(25) + 38(13) + 0.5(19 × 1.5 × 10)
(3) The effect of settlement on the structure is not considered.
= 250 + 494 + 142.5
= 886.5 kN/m2 As in all structural design, the engineer will therefore apply
the results of calculations with judgement and experience.
Applying a factor of safety of 3, this gives a total allowable
bearing pressure It has not yet proved possible to apply limit-state philo-
tf 886.5 sophy to bearing capacity. Simply applying a partial safety
ta = = = 295 kN/m2 factor to ultimate bearing capacity and checking for ser-
3 3
viceability, i.e., prevention of undue settlement, does not go
Example 2 all the way to producing good design. This is considered
A strip footing of width B = 1.0 m is to be founded at a further in the following sub-sections.
depth D = 1.5 m below the surface of a cohesionless sand In general, however, when the bearing capacity is low
with dry and saturated unit weights γdry = 16 kN/m3 and the settlements tend to be high, and, conversely, when the
γsat = 18 kN/m3, and an angle of internal friction of φ = 30°. bearing capacity is high the settlement is more likely to
The net ultimate bearing capacity is be low.

nf = s′(Nq − 1) + 0.5γBNγ
2.3.5 Safe bearing capacity –
From Fig. 2.10, Nq = 22 and Nγ = 20. cohesionless soils
The net ultimate bearing capacity at depth D is to be It is extremely difficult to obtain truly undisturbed samples
checked, assuming the groundwater is of cohesionless soils (sands and gravels), and furthermore,
shear tests, which fully simulate in situ conditions, are
(1) below 3 m depth,
not without difficulties. The angle of internal friction, φ, is
(2) at 1.5 m depth,
more often determined by the various penetration tests,
(3) at 0.5 m depth.
and these too can give varying results. From Fig. 2.10, it will
(1) Groundwater below 3 m depth be seen that for small increases in φ there are large increases
in both Nq and Nγ , leading to a large increase in net ultimate
Effective overburden, s′ = γsatD = 16 × 1.5 = 24 kN/m2
bearing capacity, nf.
Unit weight, γ = γdry = 16 kN/m3
For example,
nf = s′(Nq − 1) + 0.5γBNγ
= 24(22 − 1) + 0.5(16 × 1.0 × 20) when φ = 30°, Nq = 22 and Nγ = 20
when φ = 33°, Nq = 30 and Nγ = 30
= 664 kN/m2

(2) Groundwater at 1.5 m depth Thus, for a 3 m square base founded in sand of unit
weight γ = 20 kN/m3 with an effective overburden pres-
s′ = 24 kN/m2 as in (1). sure s′ = 20 kN/m2, then:

When groundwater is present at or above foundation level, For φ = 30°, nf = s′(Nq − 1) + 0.4γBNγ
the unit weight γ in the second half of the bearing capacity = 20(22 − 1) + 0.4(20 × 3 × 20)
equation should be the submerged unit weight. = 420 + 480 = 900 kN/m2
γ = γsat − γw = 18 − 10 = 8 kN/m3 For φ = 33°, nf = 20(30 − 1) + 0.4(20 × 3 × 30)
nf = s′(Nq − 1) + 0.5γBNγ = 580 + 720 = 1300 kN/m2
= 24(22 − 1) + 0.5(8 × 1.0 × 20)
= 584 kN/m2 So a 10% increase in φ results in approximately a 40%
increase in nf. However, foundation design pressure on
(3) Groundwater at 0.5 m depth non-cohesive soil is usually governed by acceptable settle-
s′ = γdryDw + γsat(D − Dw) − γw(D − Dw) ment, and this restriction on bearing pressure is usually
= 16(0.5) + 18(1.5 − 0.5) − 10(1.5 − 0.5) much lower than the ultimate bearing capacity divided by
= 17 kN/m2 the factor of safety of 3. Generally only in the case of narrow
γ = 8 kN/m3 as in (2) strip foundations on loose submerged sands is it vital to
nf = s′(Nq − 1) + 0.5γBNγ determine the ultimate bearing capacity, since this may be
= 16(22 − 1) + 0.5(8 × 1.0 × 20) more critical than settlement.
= 416 kN/m2
In practice settlements are limited to 25 mm by use of
There are underlying and well-known approximating charts relating allowable bearing pressure to standard
assumptions in all the equations both in this section and the penetration test results, as shown in Terzaghi & Peck’s chart
previous sections. Typically these are: in Fig. 2.11 and reproduced with an example in Appendix N.
SFDC02 1/8/06 11:01 AM Page 22

22 Approach and First Considerations

700 the settlement. In the same way as the magnitude of a

max. settlement
beam’s deflection depends on the strength/stiffness of the
25 mm
allowable bearing pressure (kN/m2)

600 beam and the load on it, so too does settlement depend

standard penetration resistance

N = 50 on the strength/stiffness of the soil and the load (bearing
500 pressure) on it. Limiting beam deflections to acceptable
N = 40 levels is done by either reducing the load or strengthen-
400 ing/stiffening the beam, and so too settlement is limited
N = 30 in design, by either restricting the load (bearing pressure),
300 or strengthening/stiffening the material (by geotechnical
N = 20 processes).
200
N = 10 Just as steel and concrete beams deflect by different
amounts, so too does the magnitude of settlement differ
100
N =5 between cohesive and non-cohesive soils. The rate of
deflection of a prestressed concrete beam differs from
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 that of a steel beam, the prestressed beam is affected by
width of footing : B (m) long-term creep. Similarly the rate of settlement differs
between cohesive and non-cohesive soils.
Fig. 2.11 Terzaghi & Peck allowable bearing
pressure/SPT chart. (Reproduced from Terzaghi, K. & If the whole structure settled evenly there would be little
Peck, R.B. (1996) Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice, problem, but, as shown in Figs 2.3 and 2.4, even uniform
3rd edn, permission of John Wiley and Sons, Inc.(3)). pressure at foundation level results in non-uniform pres-
sure within the soil, leading to differential settlement and
sagging (or hogging) as shown in Fig. 1.1. The situation is
2.3.6 Safe bearing capacity – cohesive soils worse when the foundation loading is not uniform.

It is easier to sample and test clay soils. The test results can The settlement of soils under load is somewhat analogous
be more reliable – provided that the moisture content of the to squeezing a saturated sponge. If the sponge shown in
test sample is the same as the clay strata in situ. As water Fig. 2.12 is contained in a sealed and flexible plastic envel-
is squeezed (or drained) from the soil then the value of c ope it will deform by spreading. The water in the sponge
increases. But since the drainage of water from the clay is will be under pressure. But in the strata it is difficult for the
slow then so too is the increase in c, so that generally the soil to spread, and if the sponge is restrained the water
increase in bearing capacity is ignored in foundation pressure will be greater. If the plastic is punctured the
design. The value of c from undrained shear strength tests water will at first spurt out, reduce gradually to a trickle,
is therefore adopted in most designs. and when there is equilibrium of pressure between the

Unlike non-cohesive soils, the bearing capacity, and not

settlement, is found to be the main design factor in the pressure
foundation design of light structures founded on firm clay.
Applying a factor of safety of 2.5–3.0 to the ultimate bearing
capacity usually restricts settlement to acceptable levels.
Where there is no experience of the behaviour of the soil
under load, the clay is less than firm, or the structures are
heavy, then settlement estimates should be made.
plastic
2.3.7 Safe bearing capacity – combined soils cover

Soils such as silts, sandy clays, silty sands and the like pos-
sess both c and φ properties. Reasonable soil samples can be
taken for testing, usually by triaxial compression tests. The water in
voids sponge
ultimate bearing capacity results obtained from such tests
are divided by a factor of safety based on experience and
judgement and the design for settlement (as is shown later).
settlement

2.4 Settlement

2.4.1 Introduction to settlement

Soils, like other engineering materials, contract under load.
This contraction, known in foundation engineering as settle- spreading
ment, must be determined and checked, so that either its
magnitude will not affect the superstructure, or the super- Fig. 2.12 Squeezing a saturated sponge in
structure design should build-in flexibility to accommodate a sealed bag.
SFDC02 1/8/06 11:01 AM Page 23

Soil Mechanics, Lab Testing and Geology 23

sponge and the loaded pressure on it, then the drainage of

moisture will cease (see Fig. 2.13).

If the load is increased then again water will drain from the
sponge, settlement increases, and finally reaches equilib-
rium again.

Apart from drainage of moisture from the sponge other

actions take place. The sponge particles are compressed
and pushed into closer contact – similar to elastic con-
traction. The spreading of the soil, shown in Fig. 2.12, is
water spurting out
indicative of a Poisson’s ratio action. With the reduction in
volume the sponge is becoming more compact and there-
fore stronger, more able to resist the load pressure, and
no water
settles relatively less with increased pressure. A settlement/
draining time graph under increasing pressure, say σ1, σ2, etc., would
then be as shown in Fig. 2.14.

This is what happens in practice. The mechanics are out-

lined in the following sub-sections.

sponge in
2.4.2 Void ratio
equilibrium
Soils are not totally solid, but comprise a mixture of soil
Fig. 2.13 Squeezing a saturated sponge in
particles and water below the water-table, or soil, air and
a punctured bag.
water above the water-table.

Figure 2.15(a) shows the actual soil, and Fig. 2.15(b) shows
time
a convenient idealized form. The ratio of the voids to the
solids, i.e.

volume of voids Vv
void ratio, e = =
volume of solids Vs

σ1 All readers will have experienced the effect of differing

void ratios in practice. Where a road repair has been
undertaken, backfilled and resurfaced, on a route used
settlement

regularly, they will have noticed after a few weeks that the
repair has consolidated under vehicle loading, and has
σ2 become an irritating rut in the road. The poorly compacted
backfill started off with a relatively high voids ratio; load-
ing has led to compaction and settlement, until the voids
ratio has reduced to a similar level to the rest of the road
σ3
construction.
σ4
2.4.3 Consolidation test
This is basically a refined squeezing the sponge exercise, and
is shown in Fig. 2.16.
Fig. 2.14 Settlement with time under increasing
pressure.

voids

Vv = volume of
voids
total
volume Vs = volume of
V solids

solids
(a) (b)

Fig. 2.15 Void ratio in soils.

SFDC02 1/8/06 11:01 AM Page 24

24 Approach and First Considerations

dial gauge measuring applied vertical 2.4.4 Coefficient of volume compressibility

settlement pressure
This coefficient is important in calculating settlement.

The compression of a soil, per unit thickness, due to a unit

increase in effective pressure is represented by
steel cutting
ring volumetric change
mv =
unit of pressure increase
If H1 = original thickness, and H2 = final thickness, then,
since the area is constant,

H1 − H2
volumetric change =
H1

But the change in height is due to the change in void

ratio, i.e.
porous disk to soil sample, 75 mm dia.,
allow drainage 20 mm thick e1 − e2
volumetric change =
Fig. 2.16 Consolidation test. 1 + e1

Now
e1 − e2
a=
dσ′

therefore
e1
volumetric change

adσ′
volumetric change =
slope of curve 1 + e1
de
e2 a= hence
dσ′
adσ′
1 + e1
mv =
dσ′
a
adσ′ 1
= ×
1 + e1 dσ′
σ1′ σ2′
pressure increase a
= m2/kN
1 + e1
Fig. 2.17 Variation of void ratio with increasing
pressure. Determining a from experiments, and knowing mv, the
pressure increase dσ′, and the thickness of the strata H1,
then:

A pressure, known as the consolidation pressure σ′, is settlement, ρ1 = mv dσ′H1

applied, and by reading the dial gauge the settlement is
If there are, say, four strata, then the total settlement = ρ1 +
noted at time intervals until full consolidation is reached,
ρ2 + ρ3 + ρ4 , where ρ1, ρ2, etc. represent the settlement of the
normally after 24 hours. The water in the soil squeezes out
individual strata.
through the porous discs, the sample contracts, and the
new void ratio, e, can be determined. The test is repeated Typical values of mv for clays are given in Table 2.1.
with increasing increments of σ′ (i.e. σ′1 , σ′2 , σ′3 , etc.) and
For example, for a clay strata, mv = 0.2 × 10−3 m2/kN, the
the change in e (i.e. e1, e2, e3, etc.) noted.
thickness of the strata H1 = 1.5 m and the change in pressure
A typical graph of void ratio to consolidation pressure in the strata dσ′ = 100 kN/m2.
generally results in a curve (see Fig. 2.17).
The slope of the e– σ′ curve, a, decreases with increase in
pressure (since the soil is becoming more and more dense);
Table 2.1 Typical values of mv
consequently a is not constant. In calculations, however, the
pressure range, from initial to final result, is such that a is soil mv(m2/kN × 10−3 ) Compressibility
often assumed constant, i.e. the e–σ′ curve between the two
pressures is a straight line. Therefore: Soft clay 2.0–0.25 very high to high
Soft-to-stiff clay 0.25–0.125 medium
e1 − e2 2
a= m /kN Stiff-to-hard boulder clay 0.125–0.00625 low to very low
σ′1 − σ′2
SFDC02 1/8/06 11:01 AM Page 25

Soil Mechanics, Lab Testing and Geology 25

sample tests. Examination of the settlement behaviour of

construction comparable structures on similar soils is advisable, and
period
the insertion of movement joints in the structure (to form
clay controlled cracks) where damaging differential settlement
is likely, is good design policy.
settlement

sand As the soil moisture is drained away under foundation

loading, the soil becomes denser and stronger until equilib-
rium is reached and settlement ceases. If, later, the soil is
further loaded by increasing the structural loads, or new
structures are added on, or there are further soil moisture
reductions, then further settlement will start. The pressure
within the strata varies, see Fig. 2.1, and though the strata
time can be sub-divided into thin layers for purposes of calcula-
tion, this still gives only the settlement of that stratum at
Fig. 2.18 Settlement of sands and clays with time. one particular point, and not along the stratum.

The sample tested in the consolidation test is allowed

To determine the settlement, ρ1, to drain on the vertical axis only, whereas in situ there
are other drainage paths. The sample (supposedly undis-
ρ1 = mvdσ′H1
turbed) is, relative to the strata, very thin, and may not be
= (0.2 × 10−3) (100) (1.5 × 103)
representative of the strata in situ.
= 30 mm
The pressure in the strata is not always that due to the total
2.4.5 Magnitude and rate of settlement load assumed in design. The design load at foundation
level must cover the case of full imposed load, yet, for say
Soils are of course not solid (as are steel, granite or similar
an office block, this may occur for only a quarter of the time,
materials) but, like a wet sponge, are a mixture of soil
so the pressure in the strata causing settlement is an estimate.
particles and water in the voids between the particles. The
magnitude of the settlement depends not only on the bear- Certainly the use of finite-element analysis and computers
ing pressure but also on the amount of water in the soil (its can eliminate the need for laborious calculations but they
void ratio). The rate of settlement depends on how fast the do not necessarily produce the right answer.
water can be squeezed from the soil (its permeability).
It cannot be over-emphasized that it is the magnitude of
Sands generally contain less water than clays, and the
differential settlement that mainly causes structural damage,
water can escape faster. So sands settle less and faster than
rather than the magnitude of overall settlement. Particular
clays (see Fig. 2.18).
settlement calculation checks should be made where the
In sands the bulk of the settlement occurs during construc- foundation loading is not uniform, where the strata varies
tion, but clays continue to settle long after construction is in thickness, where the structure is particularly susceptible
complete. to differential settlement, and where there is no previous
experience of the soil from which to work.
The short-term settlement of sands is termed immediate
settlement. The long-term settlement of clays is termed Because of so many variables, exact estimates are difficult,
consolidation. Because of the similarity between the settle- and it is usual to quote settlements to the nearest:
ment/time graph for sand and clay and the stress/strain
• 5 mm where the settlement is 25 mm or less.
graphs for steel and concrete, it is tempting to postulate a
• 25 mm where the settlement is up to 150 mm.
modulus of elasticity for soils. Thus mathematical theories
• 50 mm where the settlement is greater than 150 mm.
can be proposed which, while elegant, can bear little rela-
tion to facts. To reduce the effects of differential settlements to an
acceptable level the designer can:
2.4.6 Settlement calculations
(1) Avoid the adoption of structures and foundations
The structural loads used in foundation design for settle- sensitive to settlement.
ment calculations (and bearing pressure) should be the actual (2) Employ ground improvement techniques.
loads, and not those factored up to give ultimate loads. (3) Transfer, by piling, the load to strong strata.
(4) Build in jacking pockets to re-level the structure.
Estimation of the magnitude and particularly the rate of
(5) Use deep basements of cellular construction.
settlement is one of the most difficult engineering design
(6) Use rigid rafts or strip beams.
estimates – accurate forecasts are practically impossible,
and engineering experience and judgement are essential. In addition to the measures of structural/foundation inter-
Trial hole inspection, to study the horizontal, vertical and action design, given in sections 10.5 and 10.6, the designer
inclined drainage paths, is essential in order to make adjust- can let the structure settle differentially and control the
ments to calculated results. Vegetation roots which have cracking by inserting movement joints (which in effect are
decayed leave drainage paths which can be undetected in controlled cracks). This method is often the most economic
SFDC02 1/8/06 11:01 AM Page 26

26 Approach and First Considerations

solution. The placing of such joints is based on experience 2.6 Conclusions

and some guidance is given below:
Soil mechanics is not an exact science (but neither is much
(1) Separate tall heavy blocks from low, light ones. of structural design). Some engineers dismiss the subject
(2) Decrease the centres of joints positioned for structural as academic and of no practical value – such an attitude can
differential movement due to thermal moisture and lead to over-design or even foundation failure. The good
other movements. designer will know the subject, appreciate its limitations,
(3) Place joints at stress concentrations (i.e. top of door to and apply sound judgement and experience in design.
bottom of window-sill above). The engineer, needing detailed information on specific
(4) Place joints at changes of plan shape. matters, is referred to the numerous excellent textbooks on
the subject.
2.5 Allowable bearing pressure
In most structural designs a factor of safety is applied to SECTION B: LABORATORY TESTING
ultimate strength to produce a design safe strength, and
then checked for serviceability resulting in, sometimes, 2.7 Introduction to laboratory testing
a further restriction to produce an allowable strength. In
Soil mechanics tests determine the classification of a soil, its
foundation design the soil’s ultimate bearing capacity is
bearing capacity, its settlement characteristics, its stability
determined and a factor of safety is applied to give a safe
and pressures within it, and finally, the ease, or difficulty,
bearing capacity, so that the soil does not fail in shear. This
of its excavation and treatment.
safe bearing capacity is checked for the possibility of undue
settlement, and to control this it may be necessary to reduce
2.8 Classification (disturbed sample tests)
the safe bearing capacity to an allowable bearing pressure, to
limit undue settlement to the structure.
2.8.1 Particle size and distribution
Safety factors, as in all structural design, are necessary to
allow for uncertainties, so judgement and experience are Soils vary enormously in formation, chemical composition,
necessary in the choice of magnitude of the factor. Safety density and even colour. The main factor affecting their
factors account for: physical behaviour is the size of the soil’s particles and this
characteristic is used to determine the classification.
(1) Variations in the shear strength within and between
the strata. For example, clay particles are relatively minute (less than
(2) Variation in the reliability of experimental and theor- 0.002 mm) and the particles stick together – they are cohesive
etical determination of ultimate bearing capacity. (as every site engineer knows, clay can stick like glue to
(3) Variation of shear strength during and after foundation gumboots). Sand particles are 30–1000 times bigger than
construction. clay particles and they interlock – they possess internal
(4) Consideration of the serviceability limit of settlement. friction (dry sand does not stick to gumboots). Clay particles
(5) The life of the structure, i.e., a lower factor of safety may are practically impervious, while sands and gravels possess
be adopted for temporary works. high permeability.

Common values are 2.5 –3.0 to cover these variations. This The cohesion of clay particles and the friction between sand
is reduced to 2.0 when the strata is uniform, reliable and particles have an important affect on the soil’s strength,
differential settlement is not critical. This can be further stability and behaviour, as does its permeability and vari-
reduced to 1.5 for temporary works when unaffected by ation in moisture content. Silt particles are intermediate
significant settlement. between clays and sands; gravel particles are bigger than

Table 2.2 Soil descriptions and particle sizes (Weltman, A.J. & Head, J.M., Site Investigation Manual, CIRIA (1983),(2)
Table 6)

Grain size (mm)

(log scale) 200 60 20 6 2 0.6 0.2 0.06 0.02 0.006 0.002
Medium

Basic soil type

Medium

Medium
Coarse

Coarse

Coarse
Fine

Fine

Fine
Boulders

Cobbles

GRAVELS SANDS SILTS CLAYS

VERY COARSE SOILS COARSE SOILS FINE SOILS

fine materials < 35% fine materials ≥ 35%

Drainage High permeability generally k > 10−5 m/s (fine sands) Low permeability Practically
properties Maximum can approach 1 m/s poor drainage impervious
10−6 > k > 10−8 m/s k < 10−8 m/s
SFDC02 1/8/06 11:01 AM Page 27

Soil Mechanics, Lab Testing and Geology 27

100 0

80 20
gap-graded silty, gravelly

percentage retained
percentage passing

medium-fine SAND
60 uniform fine 40
GRAVEL

40 60
well-graded
sandy, slightly
silty GRAVEL
20 80

0 100

0.001 0.005 0.01 0.05 0.1 0.5 1 5 10 50 100

particle size (mm)

fine medium coarse fine medium coarse fine medium coarse

CLAY SILT SAND GRAVEL

0.002 0.06 2 60 (mm)

Fig. 2.19 Grading curves for coarse grained soils (Weltman, A.J. & Head, J.M., Site Investigation Manual,
CIRIA (1983),(2) Fig. 61).

sands, and cobbles and boulders are bigger than gravels.

There is further sub-division into coarse and fine soils, and,
within a soil type, into fine, medium and coarse.

The relationship between particle or grain size, and the

main descriptive divisions for soils, together with their
approximate permeability, are shown in Table 2.2.

Soils are frequently variable – the particles vary in size – and

are often mixtures of differing soils. The variation in particle
size is termed grading. When there is uniformity of particle
size the soil is described as uniformly graded, and when it varies Uniform graded gravel
widely it is termed well-graded (see Table 2.2 and Fig. 2.19).

Figure 2.20 shows, diagrammatically, that well-graded gravel

soils and compacted soils tend to be denser and therefore
coarse sand
stronger than uniform uncompacted soils.

When gravel contains a proportion of sand it is described fine sand

as sandy gravel, and clays with a silt content are described
silt
as silty clays. Reference should be made to Table 2.3 for
description of mixtures of basic soil types. A typical classi-
Well graded, sandy, slightly
fication of coarse soils is shown in Table 2.3.
silty gravel
A general identification of soils from BS 5930 is given in
Fig. 2.21. A more detailed identification and description of
soils from BS 5930 is given in Table 2.4.

2.8.2 Density
The denser the soil then generally the stronger it is likely
to be. There are in situ and laboratory tests to determine
density, and it is also important to evaluate the moisture
Compact gravel
content of the sample. This is performed by weighing the
soil before and after drying. Fig. 2.20 Effect of grading on density.
 28
Remove cobbles and
boulders (>60 mm)

Do they
No
weigh more than rest
of soil?
SFDC02 1/8/06 11:01 AM Page 28

Is soil dark Has soil

or black, and of low been laid down by
Does soil density? man?
stick together when
Yes wet?

Does soil display low Yes Yes

plasticity, dilatancy, silky
Approach and First Considerations

Are most particles Are most particles

>200 mm? >2 mm? touch, disintegrate in
water and dry quickly?

Yes No Yes No Yes No

BOULDERS COBBLES GRAVEL SAND SILT CLAY ORGANIC Made ground

Does soil comprise

Describe secondary and Describe secondary and Describe secondary and Describe according to
natural or man made
tertiary size fractions tertiary size fractions tertiary size fractions 41.4.6
materials?

Natural Man made

Describe density (by inspection), Describe density, describe Describe strength/compactness, Describe as Describe
describe bedding, describe colour, bedding, describe colour, describe discontinuities, for natural proportion, type
measure particle size, describe measure particle size, shape describe bedding, describe soils and condition
particle shape and grading colour of components

Add other information, Add other information (such as Distinguish between fill (controlled
add geological origin organic content, calcareous placement) and made ground
content) and minor constituents (uncontrolled placement)

Replace cobbles and

boulders into description,
add geological origin

Fig. 2.21 General identification and description of soils (BS 5930, 1999, Table 12(4)).
SFDC02 1/8/06 11:01 AM Page 29

Soil Mechanics, Lab Testing and Geology 29

Table 2.3 Classification of coarse soils (Weltman, A. J. & results of soil tests be checked against expectations from the
Head, J. M., Site Investigation Manual, CIRIA (1983),(2) borehole logs, site tests and inspection of trial pits.
Table 5)
2.9.1 Moisture content
Material Composition (by weight)
While moisture content can be determined from good dis-
Slightly sandy GRAVEL up to 5% sand turbed samples, it is usually better practice to determine
Sandy GRAVEL 5% to 20% sand it from undisturbed samples, since disturbing the sample
Very sandy GRAVEL over 20% sand may alter its moisture content so that it is unrepresentative
GRAVEL /SAND about equal proportions of the in situ condition of the soil.
of gravel and sand
Very gravelly SAND over 20% gravel 2.9.2 Shear strength
Gravelly SAND 5% to 20% gravel
Slightly gravelly SAND up to 5% gravel The shear strength of silts and clays is vitally important
since it determines their bearing capacity. There are two
main types of test:
2.8.3 Liquidity and plasticity (1) Unconfined compression test. This is the simpler test
carried out on a 40 mm diameter cylindrical section cut
A clay, depending on its moisture content, can be in three
from the sample and subjected to axial compression.
physical states, i.e., solid, plastic or liquid. The divisions
The test cannot be carried out on sands and gravels, or
between the three states are known as the plastic limit and
on very weak silts and clays which are too soft to stand
liquid limit which are the moisture contents at which, by
under their own weight in the apparatus.
defined tests, the soil changes physical state. Knowing
(2) Triaxial compression test. The sample is subjected to axial
these consistency limits allows the soil to be classified
and all-round lateral compression (i.e. on the three
according to its position on the plasticity chart shown in
axes). A wider range of clay and silt soils can be tested
Fig. 2.22. Silty soils are usually found to be plotted below
under varying conditions, and results can be used to
the A-line, and clayey soils above it.
determine the cohesion and angle of shearing resistance
The plasticity can be a useful guide to the compressibility of the soil. Under stress the moisture in the soil will tend
and liability to shrinking of clays and silts. to be squeezed out of the sample and thus alter its den-
sity, strength, etc., and the contraction (consolidation)
2.8.4 General of the sample and the ‘drainage’ of the sample can be
controlled to simulate expected site conditions.
Soils within a stratum having the same particle size distribu-
tion, moisture content, density, etc. will tend to have the The shear strength of granular soils such as sands and fine
same engineering properties and behaviour. The disturbed gravels is sometimes determined by the shear box test, but
sample tests (on particle size, consistency limits, etc.) are it is often more reliable to obtain data from the in situ SPT
relatively cheap and quick to carry out, and can give good and vane tests (see section 3.6).
guidance on the degree and magnitude of the test pro-
gramme of the more expensive and time-consuming undis- The shear strength of clay is related to its cohesion, which is
turbed sample testing. Undisturbed samples are tested for usually constant and mainly unaffected by the foundation
shear strength, permeability, settlement, etc., and are rela- pressure. The shear strength of sand is related to its internal
tively expensive. friction and is affected by foundation pressure. For ex-
ample, the greater the pressure on two sheets of sandpaper
2.9 Undisturbed sample testing then the more difficult it is to slide them apart. The shear
strength of soils is highly important in determining their
Undisturbed is a misnomer, for the soil sample is not only bearing capacity.
disturbed in obtaining it from a borehole or trial pit, but
also there can be further disturbance in extruding it from Many soils are a mixture of sand, clay and silt (see Table 2.2),
the tube sampler (an undisturbed sample however, is less and will possess both frictional and cohesive properties.
disturbed than a disturbed sample). Before testing, the
sample should be examined for its soil fabric and possible 2.9.3 Consolidation tests (oedometer
disturbance. A lateral slice can be cut off to check further apparatus)
the fabric, note any organic matter, root holes (direction
A lateral slice of the soil sample is enclosed in a metal ring
and distribution) and inclusions of other material which
and loaded. The magnitude and rate of consolidation
may affect the performance of drainage paths.
(contraction under load) is noted, and used to predict the
Testing apparatus is becoming increasingly more sophistic- settlement behaviour of the foundation. (The stiffer the clay
ated and reliable. However, poor laboratory techniques, then the less it will compress; typical values are given in
use of incorrect loading rates and drainage conditions, and Table 2.5.) In many cases the settlement behaviour of the
other lack of care, will produce results which will be unreli- soil has a more critical influence on foundation design than
able. As in structural design, where final calculations are bearing capacity – the soil may not fail in bearing, but the
checked against preliminary estimates, so too should the structure may fail due to unforeseen differential settlement.
SFDC02 1/8/06 11:01 AM Page 30

30 Approach and First Considerations

Table 2.4 Identification and description of soils (BS 5930, 1999, table 13)4

Density/compactness/strength Composite soil PRINCIPAL

Soil Particle Particle
Discontinuities Bedding Colour types (mixtures of SOIL
group shape size
Term Field test basic soil types) TYPE

For mixtures
Scale of spacing of Scale of bedding BOULDERS
Very coarse

Loose involving very

discontuities thickness coarse soils
soils

By inspection of voids
200
and particle packing Red Angular
Mean
Dense Mean thickness Orange Term Approx. %c) COBBLES
Term Term
spacing mm mm secondary Sub angular
Yellow 60
Very
Very Sub rounded Coarse
Borehole with SPT N-value Over 2000 thickly Over 2000 Brown Slightly
widely <5
bedded Green (sandy d))
Rounded 20
(over about 65% sand and gravel sizes)

Thickly
Very loose 0–4 Widely 2000 to 600 2000 to 600 Blue
bedded Medium GRAVEL
White Flat
Medium
Loose 4–10 Medium 600 to 200 600 to 200 6
bedded Cream (sandy d)) 5 to 20b) Tabular
Fine
Coarse soils

Thinly Grey
Medium dense 10–30 Closely 200 to 60 200 to 60
bedded Elongated
Black 2
Very Very thinly
Dense 30–50 60 to 20 60 to 20 Coarse
closely bedded etc. Very
>20b) Minor
Very dense >50 Extremely Thickly (sandy d)) constituent 0.6
Under 20 20 to 6
closely laminated type
Calcareous,
Medium SAND
Breaks into Thinly shelly,
Visual examination: Under 6 SAND 0.2
blocks along laminated glauconitic,
Slightly pick removes soil in Fissured AND about 50b) micaceous etc.
unpolished Fine
cemented lumps which can be GRAVEL using terms
discontinuities such as
abraded
0.06
Approx. %c)
Term Slightly Coarse
Breaks into Inter- Alternating secondary calcareous,
Easily moulded or layers of Light
Uncompact Sheared blocks along bedded 0.02
crushed in the fingers polished different types.
Prequalified by SILT
discontinuities thickness term
Dark calcareous, Medium
if in equal
proportions. Mottled Slightly very 0.006
Can be moulded or Otherwise <35 calcareous.
Compact crushed by strong thickness of
(sandy e)) Fine
(over about 35% silt and clay sizes)

pressure in the fingers and spacing

between 0.002 CLAY/SILT
Very soft Finger easily pushed Spacing terms also Inter- subordinate
layers defined
0–20 in up to 25 mm used for distance laminated
% defined
between partings,
on a site or
Fine soils

isolated beds or
Soft Finger pushed in up material
laminae, desiccation
20–40 to 10 mm specific
cracks, rootlets etc.
basis or
Firm Thumb makes subjective
(sandy e)) 35 to 65a)
40–75 impression easily
CLAY
Stiff Can be indented
75–150 slightly by thumb

Very stiff Can be indented

150–300 by thumb nail
Very a)
Hard (or (sandy f)) >65
very weak Can be scratched by
mudstone) thumbnail
Cu >300 kPa

Plant remains Transported mixtures Colour

Fibres already recognizable
Firm Fibrous Slightly organic clay or silt Grey
compressed together and retains some Contains finely divided or discrete particles of
Slightly organic sand as mineral
strength organic matter, often with distinctive smell, may
Organic clay or silt Dark grey oxidize rapidly. Describe as for inorganic soils
Organic soils

Organic sand Dark grey using terminology above.

Plant remains Very organic clay or silt Black
Very compressible Pseudo-
Spongy recognizable, Very organic sand Black
and open structure fibrous
strength lost
Accumulated in situ
Predominantly plant remains, usually dark brown or black
Can be moulded in in colour, distinctive smell, low bulk density. Can contain
Amor- Recognizable plant
Plastic hand and smears Peat disseminated or discrete mineral soils
phous remains absent
fingers
SFDC02 1/8/06 11:01 AM Page 31

Soil Mechanics, Lab Testing and Geology 31

Table 2.4 (cont’d )

PRINCIPAL
SOIL Visual identification Minor constituents Stratum name Example descriptions
TYPE

BOULDERS Only seen complete in pits or exposures

Loose brown very sandy sub-angular fine
to coarse flint GRAVEL with small pockets
Often difficult to recover (up to 30 mm) of clay.
COBBLES Shell fragments, pockets of
whole from boreholes (TERRACE GRAVELS)
peat, gypsum crystals, flint
gravel, fragments of brick,
rootlets, plastic bags etc.

using terms such as: RECENT DEPOSITS,

Easily visible to naked eye; Medium dense light brown gravelly clayey fine
GRAVEL particle shape can be described; SAND.
grading can be described. with rare ALLUVIUM, Gravel is fine
(GLACIAL DEPOSITS)
with occasional

with abundant/frequent/ WEATHERED

numerous BRACKLESHAM CLAY,

Visible to naked eye; LIAS CLAY,

SAND no cohesion when dry; % defined on a site or Stiff very closely sheared orange mottled
grading can be described. material specific basis brown slightly gravelly CLAY.
or subjective Gravel is fine and medium of rounded
EMBANKMENT FILL, quartzite.
(REWORKED WEATHERED LONDON CLAY)

Only coarse silt visible with hand lens; TOPSOIL,

exhibits little plasticity and marked dilatancy;
slightly granular or silky to the touch;
SILT disintegrates in water;
lumps dry quickly; MADE GROUND OR
possesses cohesion but can be powdered GLACIAL DEPOSITS?
easily between fingers etc. Firm thinly laminated grey CLAY with closely
spaced thick laminae of sand.
(ALLUVIUM)
Intermediate in behaviour between clay and silt.
CLAY/ SILT
Slightly dilatant

Dry lumps can be broken but not powdered Plastic brown clayey amorphous PEAT.
between the fingers; (RECENT DEPOSITS)
they also disintegrate under water but more
slowly than silt;
CLAY smooth to the touch;
exhibits plasticity but no dilatancy;
sticks to the fingers and dries slowly;
shrinks appreciably on drying usually showing
cracks.

NOTES:
a) d)
Or described as coarse soil depending on mass Gravelly or sandy and/or silty or clayey
behaviour e)
Gravelly and/or sandy
b)
Or described as fine soil depending on mass f)
Gravelly or sandy
behaviour
c)
% coarse or fine soil type assessed excluding
cobbles and boulders
SFDC02 1/8/06 11:01 AM Page 32

32 Approach and First Considerations

upper plasticity range U

intermediate (I)

extremely high
very high (V)

plasticity (E)
high (H)
low (L)
70
CE
CV
60

CH
50
plasticity index (%)

ME
40 CI
e
lin
30 A-
CL MV

20
MH
10
6 MI
ML
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
liquid limit (%)

notes: 1 silt (M-soil), plots below A-line M and C may be

clay (C-soil), plots above A-line combined as fine soil F
2 the letter ‘O’ is added to the symbol of any material
containing a significant proportion of organic matter
(e.g. MHO)
3 chart is based on material passing a 425 µm BS sieve

Fig. 2.22 Plasticity chart for the classification of fine soils and the finer part of coarse soils (BS 5930, 1999, Fig. 18(4)).

Table 2.5 Typical values of compressibility of cohesive materials (Weltman, A.J. & Head, J.M., Site Investigation
Manual, CIRIA (1983),(2) Table 10)

Clay type Compressibility Coefficient of volume

compressibility mv (m2/kN) × 10−3

Very heavily overconsolidated clays, sun weathered rocks, some tills Very low <0.05
Heavily overconsolidated clays, some tills, hard London clay Low 0.05 to 0.1
Overconsolidated clays such as upper London clays, some glacial clays Medium 0.1 to 0.3
Normally consolidated clays (e.g. alluvial or estuarine) High 0.3 to 1.5
Highly organic alluvial clays and peats Very high >1.5

2.9.4 Permeability tests 2.9.5 Chemical tests

Permeability is the rate at which fluid passes through the It is often advisable to determine the sulfate and chloride
material, and thus affects the drainage and rate of con- content of the soil and ground water, and the pH value, in
solidation of the soil. Relatively permeable soils are tested order that the concrete properties and mix proportions are
in a constant head permeameter, where a constant head of water adapted to ensure durability. In dealing with contaminated
is maintained across the sample. For less permeable soils a or filled sites, the reader should consult the further guid-
falling head permeameter is used. In some soils the permeab- ance given in Chapters 5 and 7.
ility differs in the vertical and horizontal planes, and the
laboratory tests are susceptible to errors. In such cases some 2.10 Summary of tests
designers prefer to carry out site tests, particularly when A brief summary of tests for simple foundations and excava-
full details of the soil are necessary, as in impounded reser- tions is given in Table 2.6 and a fuller schedule is given in
voirs, earth dam construction and similar projects. Table 2.7.
SFDC02 1/8/06 11:01 AM Page 33

Soil Mechanics, Lab Testing and Geology 33

Table 2.6 Laboratory tests appropriate to geotechnical problems (Weltman, A.J. & Head, J.M., Site Investigation
Manual, CIRIA (1983), Table 9(2))

Geotechnical Soil type Classification tests Other laboratory tests Remarks

problem

Bearing Soft to firm Moisture content, liquid and Triaxial compression tests – —
capacity CLAYS plastic limit. Bulk density. generally unconsolidated
undrained. Laboratory vane
tests in soft clays.
Firm to stiff Moisture content, liquid and Triaxial compression tests – Sample size and anisotropy
CLAYS plastic limit. Bulk density. generally unconsolidated effects can be important in stiff
undrained or consolidated fissured clays.
undrained for effective
stress parameters.
Gravelly Moisture content and liquid Triaxial unconsolidated
CLAYS and plastic limit on material undrained compression tests
passing a 425-micron sieve. on 100 mm diameter
Bulk density. specimens. Multi-stage tests.
SANDS Maximum and minimum Possibly shear box for range Presence of secondary constituents
densities. Particle size of densities. (e.g. organic or clay pocket) have a
distribution. marked effect on bearing capacity.
Bearing capacity usually determined
from in situ tests (SPT or static cone).
GRAVELS Maximum and minimum Possibly shear box for range For most projects field tests are used
densities. Particle size of densities. rather than laboratory tests.
distribution.
WEAK ROCKS Bulk density, specific gravity, Uniaxial compression tests Shear box test on appropriate
moisture content, point load may be appropriate in some discontinuities may sometimes
tests, disc test, petrological situations. be useful.
examination

Settlement CLAYS Moisture content, liquid and Consolidation tests. Stress Swelling parameters may also be
plastic limit. Specific gravity. path triaxial. of importance.
SANDS — Stress path triaxial. Analysis usually based on in situ
tests (SPT or static cone).
GRAVELS — — No appropriate test.
WEAK ROCKS Moisture content, specific — Modulus of deformation tests are
gravity, petrological unlikely to be representative of the
examination, uniaxial field condition. Long term creep
compression strength tests on large specimens may
sometimes be appropriate

Excavation CLAYS Moisture content, liquid and Consolidated undrained and —

plastic limit. Bulk density. consolidated drained triaxial
tests for effective stress
parameters.
SANDS and Particle size distribution. — —
GRAVELS
ROCK Moisture content, point load Uniaxial compression tests. Laboratory tests mainly to establish
index, disc tests, uniaxial ease or difficulty of excavation
compressive strength

Earth CLAY Moisture content, liquid and Consolidated undrained and Fully softened or residual shear
pressures plastic limits. Bulk density. consolidated drained triaxial strength parameters may be
and compression tests – for appropriate for stiff fissured clays
stability effective stress parameters. if long term stability is required.
SANDS and Particle size distribution — Shear box may be considered if
GRAVELS representative density can be
approximated.
WEAK ROCKS Moisture content, bulk Shear box tests on Residual strength may be
density. discontinuities. appropriate.
SFDC02 1/8/06 11:01 AM Page 34

34 Approach and First Considerations

Table 2.7 Common laboratory tests for soil (BS 5930, Table 10(4))

Category Name of test or Where details Remarks

of test parameter measured can be found

Classification Moisture content or BS 1377-2 Frequently carried out as a part of other soil tests. Read in conjunction
tests water content with liquid and plastic limits, it gives an indication of undrained
strength.

Soil suction [142] To assess negative pore pressures in soil samples; especially for
desiccated soils.

Liquid and plastic BS 1377-2 To classify fine-grained soil and the fine fraction of mixed soil.
limits (Atterberg
limits)

Volumetric shrinkage BS 1377-2 To determine the moisture content below which a clay ceases to
limit shrink.

Linear shrinkage BS 1377 To assess the magnitude of shrinkage on desiccation.

Swelling clay content BS 1377 Relevant to expansive materials and based on total cation exchange
capacity of soil.

Particle density BS 1377-2 Values commonly range between 2.55 and 2.75 but a more accurate
value is required for air voids determination. Only occasional checks
are needed for most British soils, for which a value of 2.65 is assumed
unless experience of similar soils shows otherwise.

Mass density or unit BS 1377-2 Used in the calculation of forces exerted by soil.
weight

Classification Particle size BS 1377 Sieving methods give the grading of soil coarser than silt and the
tests distribution (grading) BS 1377-2 proportion passing the finest sieve represents the combined silt/clay
(a) sieving BS 1377-2 fraction. When the sample contains silt or clay the test should be done
(b) sedimentation by wet sieving. The relative proportions of silt and clay can only be
determined by means of sedimentation tests.

Chemical Dispersion BS 1377-5 Qualitative tests to assess the erodibility of fine-grained soils.
and electro-
chemical Contaminants See Annex F This is a rapidly developing field: check the most recent guidelines.
tests
Organic matter BS 1377-3 Detects the presence of organic matter able to interfere with the
BS 1924 hydration of Portland cement in soil: cement pastes.

Mass loss on ignition BS 1377-3 Measures the organic content in soils, particularly peats.

Sulfate content of BS 1377-3 Assesses the aggressiveness of soil or groundwater to buried concrete.
soil and groundwater (See remarks on test for pH value and chloride content.)

Magnesium content [143] Supplements the sulfate content test to assess the aggressiveness of
soil or groundwater to buried concrete.

pH value BS 1377-3 Measures the acidity or alkalinity of the soil or water. It is usually
carried out in conjunction with sulfate content tests. This test and the
two above should be performed as soon as possible after the samples
have been taken.

Carbonate content BS 1377-3 Confirms the presence of carbonates, which often indicates cementing.

Chloride content BS 1377-3 Test recommended where pH of ground is less than 5.8. Results used in
conjunction with those for sulfate, nitrate and pH to assess
aggressiveness of ground, especially to concrete.

Total dissolved solids BS 1377-3 A general measure of salinity indicative of aggressiveness of ground
in groundwater and related to electrical conductivity or soil resistivity.
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Soil Mechanics, Lab Testing and Geology 35

Table 2.7 (cont’d )

Category Name of test or Where details Remarks

of test parameter measured can be found

Soil (a) Bacteriological BS 7361-1 Undisturbed specimens required in sterilized containers.

corrosivity (b) Redox pot BS 7361-1
tests BS 1377-3
(c) Resistivity BS 1377-3

Compaction- Dry density (or dry BS 1377-9 Measures the mass (or weight) of solids per unit volume of soil. Often
related tests unit weight) used as a quality control for compaction of fill.

Standard compaction BS 1377-4 Indicate the degree of compaction that can be achieved at different
tests moisture contents with different compactive efforts.

Maximum, minimum BS 1377-4 Density index indicates the stiffness and peak strength of coarse-
density and density grained soils. A number of different methods are available, so the
index of coarse- method used should be clearly stated.
grained soil

Moisture condition BS 1377-4 Determines compactive effort required to produce near-full

value (MCV) compaction. Used for control of materials for earthworks.

Pavement California bearing BS 1377-4 This is an empirical test used for design of flexible pavements. The test
design ratio (CBR) can be made either in situ (see 31.4) or in the laboratory.
tests
Chalk crushing value BS 1377-4 Similar in concept to the aggregate crushing value (ACV).
(CCV)

Frost heave test BS 812 Assesses susceptibility of compacted soil to frost heave.

Aggregate suitability BS 812 Physical and chemical tests for aiding the selection and assessing the
suitability of materials to act as bound and unbound aggregates.

Soil strength Triaxial compression: BS 1377 [141] Triaxial tests are normally carried out on nominal 100 mm or 38 mm
tests diameter samples with height to diameter ratio 2 : 1. If the height to
diameter ratio is reduced to 1 : 1 the end platens should be lubricated.
Undrained tests measure undrained strength su. Drained tests, or
undrained tests with measurement of pore pressure, evaluate the
Mohr Coulomb parameters c′ and f′. Since soil strength depends on
strain it is necessary to state whether the strength corresponds to the
peak state, the critical state or the residual [144].
(a) Unconsolidated BS 1377-7 Prior to triaxial shearing, samples may be consolidated in the
undrained apparatus to some specified state: these are then known as
(b) Undrained with BS 1377-8 consolidated undrained or consolidated drained tests as appropriate.
measurement Any drained or undrained test in which pore pressures are measured
of porewater should be consolidated before shearing.
pressure
(c) Drained with BS 1377-8
measurements of
volume change
(d) Multi-stage BS 1377-7 Several techniques have been used for both drained and undrained
multi-stage tests, details of which may be found in the references. The
test may be useful where there is a shortage of specimens. Multi-stage
tests are not recommended when single-stage tests can be carried out.
(e) Stress path tests [143] Stress paths other than those used in a) to c) may be applied to
reproduce the history of stress and strain in the ground before and
during construction.

Unconfined BS 1377-7 This simple test is a rapid substitute for the undrained triaxial test. It is
compression test suitable only for saturated non-fissured fine-grained soil.

Laboratory vane BS 1377-7 For soft clay, as an alternative to the undrained triaxial test or the
shear unconfined compression test.
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36 Approach and First Considerations

Table 2.7 (cont’d )

Category Name of test or Where details Remarks

of test parameter measured can be found

Soil strength Direct shear box BS 1377-7 Direct shear tests are an alternative to triaxial tests although the latter
tests are more versatile and more often used.
Disadvantages are: drainage conditions cannot be controlled nor pore
pressures measured and the plane of shear is predetermined by the
nature of the test. An advantage is that samples of coarse-grained soil
can be more easily prepared than in the triaxial test. In general only
drained tests should be undertaken.
Shear boxes are normally square with sides 60 mm or 100 mm but may
also be circular in plan. For very coarse-grained soils shear boxes with
sides 300 mm or larger should be used.

Residual shear BS 1377-7 The residual shear strength of clay soil is relevant for slope stability
strength: problems where previous sliding has developed residual slip planes
(a) Multiple reversal in situ.
shear box
The multiple reversal shear box test is the one that is most commonly
(b) Triaxial test with
used, although the ring shear test would be the more logical choice.
pre-formed shear
surface
(c) Shear-box test
with preformed
shear surface
(d) Ring shear test

Soil One-dimensional BS 1377 These tests measure soil parameters mv and cv for simple calculations of
deformation compression and the magnitude and rate of settlement of foundations.
tests consolidation tests:
(a) Standard BS 1377-5 The standard dead weight loading oedometer is the one in general
(incremental use. The alternative is the hydraulic oedometer (Rowe cell) in which
loading) the vertical loading and the pore pressures can be independently
oedometer test controlled.
Reasonable assessments of the magnitudes of foundation settlements
can be made if:
Class 1A samples are tested:
For stiff clay a careful load-unload and reload sequence is applied
using small increments and decrements.
For soft clay reliable determinations of the yield shell are made.
Estimates of settlement can be much improved if small strain triaxial
and pressure meter tests are used.
Estimates of the rate of settlement have been found to be highly
inaccurate with certain types of soil.
(b) Continuous [141] [145] Instead of applying the loads in discrete increments, as in the standard
loading test, stresses, strains or pore pressures may be varied continuously.
oedometer tests
(c) Swelling and BS 1377-5 Additional tests are carried out to determine the swelling pressure and
collapse on the swelling or settlement on saturation.
wetting

Shear and bulk [146] Stress/strain relations for soils are highly non-linear and the bulk
modulus modulus and shear modulus both vary with loading. For the relatively
small loadings, appropriate to most engineering applications soil
strains are relatively small (typically less than 0.1%).
Measurement of these small strains requires use of special apparatus
and procedures. These include use of local strain gauges attached to
the sample and application of stress paths closely resembling the field
stress paths.
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Soil Mechanics, Lab Testing and Geology 37

Table 2.7 (cont’d )

Category Name of test or Where details Remarks

of test parameter measured can be found

Soil Tests in BS 1377 The constant head test is suited only to soils of permeability normally
permeability permeameters within the range 10−4 m/s to 10−2 m/s. For soils of lower permeability,
tests the falling head test is applicable.
(a) Constant head BS 1377-5 For various reasons laboratory permeability tests often yield results of
test limited value and in situ tests are generally thought to yield more
reliable data.
(b) Falling head test [140] The triaxial cell and the Rowe consolidation cell allow the direct
Triaxial permeability BS 1377-6 measurement of permeability under constant head with a back
test pressure and confining pressures more closely consistent with the field
Rowe consolidation BS 1377-6 state. The Rowe cell allows either vertical or radial flow.
cell

All references within this table refer to the original document.

2.11 Analysis of results also its limitations. Soil strata vary in composition and
degree of consolidation, they are liable to change in pro-
A senior soils engineer, of the soil investigation firm,
perties with variation of moisture content, and may further
should study the test results, borehole logs and other data
change under foundation pressure. It is essential to use
and be able to give firm recommendations, agreed with the
engineering judgement, based on experience and know-
design engineer, in a soil report on the following:
ledge, in applying the results of small samples, of varying
(1) Soil classification, density, compaction, moisture content, degrees of disturbance, taken from isolated boreholes and
plastic and liquid limits, the permeability of the soil, and tested in laboratory apparatus designed to simulate the site
the effect of any variation in level of groundwater. conditions of the in situ and variable strata. To accept uncrit-
(2) Soluble sulfate and chloride content, pH value, cor- ically the results of too few and unreliable tests would be
rosive action from soil and/or wastes, methane and akin to accepting the computer print-out of an untested
other gases. finite-element analysis program based on unverified, theor-
(3) Presence of peat, possibility of running sand, presence etical and over-simplified assumptions for a real structure.
of possible cavities, boulders or other obstructions.
However, rather than rejecting soil mechanics, it should
(4) Strength, shear value and cohesion (drained and
be appreciated that, for example, design engineers can leap
undrained); bearing capacity.
to false conclusions after a casual inspection of a trial pit.
(5) Settlement characteristics – magnitude and rate.
Soil mechanics tests can act as a safety net, and alert the
(6) Need for any type of geotechnical processes to improve
engineer to re-examination of possibly false assumptions.
the soil or ease excavation.
(7) Possible difficulties in excavation. The laboratory test data must be checked against the
(8) Whether, in clays, the soil is naturally consolidated or borehole and trial pit logs, site tests, site investigation, any
overconsolidated. specialists’ reports and, wherever possible, previous experi-
ence of similar local soil. Where there is conflict between the
It is strongly advisable that the soils engineer should dis-
engineer’s estimate from observations and the results of
cuss the soil report with the structural design engineer
testing, the engineer must re-examine predictions and have
where there is a possibility of conflict, dispute or difference
a check carried out on the tests and the test procedure.
of opinion on the recommendations. This is particularly
important when other specialists (geologists; piling engin- Laboratory testing is costly and time-consuming – its
eers; mining and brine extraction experts; ground treatment justification is more economical design, better pre-planning
specialists in stabilization, dewatering, compaction, etc.) and costing of construction, and a reduction in the possibil-
are called in, since specialization can lead to limited ity of foundation failure.
outlook, conflicting advice and a tendency to ignore altern-
atives. Over-reliance on impressive scientific specialist SECTION C: GEOLOGY
reports can fog engineering judgement. The engineer
should exercise judgement on the reliability, relevance and 2.13 Introduction to geology
practicality of the information and make their own inter-
The subject of geology is very briefly treated here to refresh
pretations and recommendations.
designers’ memories, increase awareness of its relevance,
assist in choice of sites, help in site investigations and to
2.12 Final observations on testing
know when to call on specialist advice. It must be appreci-
It is hoped that this very brief description of soil mechanics ated that at the very least some knowledge of engineering
and testing will show the importance of the subject – and geology is essential for sound assessment and application
SFDC02 1/8/06 11:01 AM Page 38

38 Approach and First Considerations

of soil mechanics. Many foundation failures have been due More rain can enter, penetrate deeper, freeze and expand
to ignorance of geology, and not due to inadequacies in the and break off chunks of rock.
study of soils. To restrict the size of this manual the authors
Heavy rain and floods can roll and wash the lumps of rocks
have had to limit the discussion of this important subject;
to streams and down rivers and finally to the sea. In this
nor is there any discussion on rock mechanics, since the
transportation the rocks are rolled along against other rock
overwhelming bulk of building structures, as distinct from
particles, etc. and become more and more broken down
civil engineering works, are founded on soils. Where rock is
into fragments – boulders, cobbles, sand particles and mud.
encountered in building structure foundations the strength
The load-carrying capacity of a river is approximately pro-
of even weak, fractured or decomposed rock is not usually
portional to the square of its velocity, so as the river reaches
a serious foundation design problem.
the plains or dries up in the summer, the boulders are
deposited and will remain until the next flood. When the
2.14 Formation of rock types
river reaches the sea and the velocity drops, the cobbles are
As the original molten mass of the earth cooled to form a deposited on the beach, the sand is deposited further out
hard, dense crust, igneous rock was formed. This contained and the clay particles further still. (In a silt content test
all the mineral elements to form sand, clays, silts, chalk, etc., for concreting sands, when the sand is stirred up in water
and under erosion and weathering (see section 2.16) formed and allowed to settle, the coarser grains of sand settle first,
sediments of these materials. These sediments under high followed by the finer grains and finally by the silt.) The
pressure over a long length of time created sedimentary rocks, calcium content dissolves, is absorbed by marine life to
i.e., sandstone, chalk, limestone, etc. Under the action of form their skeletons, and on their death they sink to the
extreme heat (from phenomena such as volcanic activity) floor of the ocean to form beds of chalk.
and exceptionally high pressures these rocks could change,
metamorphose, to form metamorphic rocks – limestone 2.16.3 Wind
changed to marble, clay deposits metamorphosed to slate.
Sand-blasting is an effective technique for scraping off the
As the earth continued to cool and shrink it ‘crinkled’ (like
surface of dirty deteriorated stone masonry. Sandstorms
a drying orange) to form hills and mountains, and these
are erosive as is evident from the scouring of the Egyptian
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks were again attacked
Sphinxes and other stone artifacts. A measurement of
by weathering and erosion. Vegetation and forests grew on
building exposure is the driving rain index – the combination
some of the sedimentary rocks, and as the forests decayed
of rain and wind velocity.
they formed layers of peat which were sometimes meta-
morphosed to coal and other deposits. Storms at sea erode the coastline where sea cliffs are subject
to a barrage of beach cobbles, hurled by the wind. Sand,
2.15 Weathering of rocks drifted by the wind, forms sand dunes.
Young engineers ‘know’ that rocks weather – because they’ve
been told so – but it can be difficult to believe that such 2.16.4 Glaciation
strong dense material can be worn away by rain, wind and In previous Ice Ages, deep rivers of ice (glaciers) spreading
sun. They believe it when they examine old gravestones in from both the north and south poles have eroded deep
a cemetery where inscriptions are difficult to read due valleys and transported large quantities of stone and soil
to weathering of the stone, and in excavation they find that huge distances. At the ends of the glaciers the melt
rock overlain by soil invariably has the top metre or so water has formed large outwash plains of boulder clay – i.e.
shattered, disintegrated, etc., due to weathering. Those fine particles of clay containing some boulders. When
interested in mountaineering can see ample evidence the glaciers terminated for any length of time, a jumble of
of weathering and erosion in even the old rocks, in a tem- boulders, clay, stones and sand have left an undulating
perate climate, in Snowdonia and the Lake District. The mass, termed a moraine. These terminal moraines are highly
evidence is even more striking in the relatively new moun- variable in content, and are practically impossible to invest-
tains of the Alps and the Himalayas, where glaciation and igate with precision.
extreme cold is wearing away the rock more swiftly.
The Ice Ages, being relatively recent geologically, have spread
2.16 Agents of weathering their deposits over earlier sedimentary and other rock.

2.16.1 Temperature 2.17 Earth movement

The mineral constituents of igneous rocks have varying The earth is not static. Great land masses have split apart
thermal coefficients of expansion and contraction, so that – England was once connected to Europe. Land masses, in
under heat and cold they expand or contract differentially splitting, move relative to one another, as suggested by the
which sets up internal strains and stresses in the rock, caus- plate theory. As the movement takes place, earthquakes occur
ing it to shatter and fracture. in such areas as the San Andreas fault in California, USA.

2.16.2 Water 2.17.1 Folds, fractures and faults

Rain water enters the fractures in rocks, freezes to ice and As the earth contracts, the strata are subject to lateral pres-
expands and levers the rock apart and deepens the cracks. sure causing them to fold – like a tablecloth pushed from
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Soil Mechanics, Lab Testing and Geology 39

anticline

N
strike 235°

dip

syncline

Fig. 2.23 Synclines and anticlines.

horizontal
projection
North South 40° of dip line
Downs Downs Calais Cliffs dip

English Channel
Fig. 2.26 Dip and strike.

London basin
domed anticline

Fig. 2.24 Erosion of anticline to form London basin.

throw of
upthrown fault
block
downthrown
block

joints

Fig. 2.27 Jointing.

fault
angles to the dip (see Fig. 2.26). The dip angle is expressed
Fig. 2.25 Faulting.
in degrees from the horizontal and its compass orientation
should also be stated. In Fig. 2.26 the stratum dips 40° at
235° to N.
both ends. The peaks of the folds are termed anticlines and
the inverts synclines (see Fig. 2.23). 2.17.3 Jointing
The anticline, in tension, is seriously weakened and cracks. Joints are fractures in the rock where the rock, either side
(The London basin was once covered by a dome or anticline of the fracture, has not moved differentially as occurs in
of chalk which has been eroded back to the North and faulting. Joints are due to the contraction in cooling of
South Downs (see Fig. 2.24).) igneous and volcanic rocks, the shrinkage in drying out of
sedimentary rock (particularly chalk and limestone), and
The syncline, under enormous compression, can crack and
the fracture of the rock in folding, particularly in domed
shatter. This folding can lift strata up thousands of metres
anticlines. The joint patterns are frequently a mesh of cracks
from the sea bed (and the discovery of marine fossils on
often at right angles to each other and perpendicular to the
mountain tops caused Victorian Christian fundamentalists
bedjoints. Joint patterns can cause areas of weakness in the
problems with theology!). The folding and resulting stresses
strata, and provide easy access to the ingress of water and
create joints in the rock at right angles to the bedding plane
accelerate the weathering process, see Fig. 2.27.
and can form planes of structural weakness, and are more
prone to attack by weathering and erosion.
2.17.4 Drift
The fracture and movement of rock is termed faulting and
Drift is the term used for superficial (surface) deposits
the plane of fracture is termed a fault (see Fig. 2.25).
overlying the solid rock. The drifts may be deposits from
glaciers, rivers (alluvium), old lagoons and beaches, etc.
2.17.2 Dip and strike
The drift covers, or blankets, the underlying rock which
The slope of the folded rock is known as the dip. Dip is the may be faulted, folded, eroded and otherwise weakened,
angle of maximum slope, and strike is the direction at right and examination of the drift alone could lead to false
SFDC02 1/8/06 11:01 AM Page 40

40 Approach and First Considerations

boulder clay boreholes

boulders mistaken
bedrock for bedrock

true profile assumed profile

Fig. 2.28 Mistaken bedrock.

fault

true profile assumed profile

Fig. 2.29 Unchecked fault.

conclusions about the ground behaviour. Drift can vary in sharply dipping
thickness from a few metres to 30 m or more. stratified rock

Geological maps, for many areas, are of two types: one,

showing the type and condition of the underlying rock, is
known as a solid geological map, and the other, showing the retaining wall
type, depth etc., of the overlying deposits, is known as the
drift geological map. It is advisable in site investigation,
particularly for heavy structures on shallow drifts, to study
both types of map.

2.18 Errors in borehole interpretation

Some typical errors, due to ignorance of geology, are given
below:
(1) Mistaken bedrock. Boulders in boulder clay are Fig. 2.30 Unchecked dip causing overloading of
assumed to be bedrock, see Fig. 2.28. retaining wall.
(2) Mistaken strata formation. An unchecked fault, see
Fig. 2.29.
(3) An unchecked dip. The retaining wall shown in Fig. 2.30 It was decided to use piles for the structure, and
was not designed to take extra pressure from rock because of false interpretation the piles had to be
inclined to the wall. extended beyond their estimated length, resulting in a
(4) Folded strata mistaken for level strata, see Fig. 2.31. large claim for extras on the contract.
SFDC02 1/8/06 11:01 AM Page 41

Soil Mechanics, Lab Testing and Geology 41

proposed
structure boreholes

poor
ground

rock
true profile assumed profile

Fig. 2.31 Folded strata mistaken for level strata.

sand silt
clay
clay
clay
sand
silt
silt silt
sand

sand
clay silt

boulders
boulders

Fig. 2.32 Highly variable borehole information.

loose backfill shaft

clay

coal clay

Fig. 2.33 Clay overlying sound coal seam.

clay

bell-pit workings
in coal
chalk
Fig. 2.35 Bell-worked coal seam.
Fig. 2.34 Clay overlying sound chalk.

(5) Highly variable borehole information, see Fig. 2.32. caused extensive foundation problems, extra costs and
When boreholes show little correlation and high site delays. The coal seam was later found to be extens-
variability this frequently indicates morainic deposits ively bell-worked (see Fig. 2.35) and this frequently occurs
(i.e. terminal moraines). where coal seams are at relatively shallow depths from
(6) Drift underlain by uninvestigated rock. the surface.
Figure 2.33 shows clay overlying coal seams and In the case of the chalk the site was riddled with
Fig. 2.34 shows clay overlying chalk. In both cases swallow-holes (sink holes) – see Fig. 2.36. Swallow-holes
the clay was found to be firm and consistent. It was frequently occur at the intersections of joints in chalk
thoroughly tested and assumed to overlie firm strata. and limestone, where groundwater can seep through
In both cases the assumption was wrong – and easily to lower bedjoints. As the water seeps through it
SFDC02 1/8/06 11:01 AM Page 42

42 Approach and First Considerations

occasional slight subsidence moving layer can vary from 200 mm to several metres
at ground level in depth. The soil can remain static for years, then,
without apparent warning, start to creep again; this is
often due to excessive increase in groundwater due to
unusually heavy rainfall, interference with the natural
clay drainage, or new construction works affecting stability.
Warning signs of a creeping slope area are tilted
boundary walls, fences, trees and sometimes a
crumpled appearance of the ground surface. Such sites
chalk should be avoided where possible. If there is no option
swallow-hole
but to build on such sites then attention must be given
to the uphill drainage of the site, the use of raking piles
cavern to increase passive resistance, excavation being kept
to a minimum, retaining structures designed for high
surcharge, and similar precautions.

Fig. 2.36 Chalk containing swallow-holes. 2.19 Geophysical investigation

Geophysical investigation, in addition to the normal boring
and sampling, employs specialist techniques not commonly
used by designers. Satellites and aerial photographic tech-
clay
niques can record the energy of the electromagnetic
sliding spectrum; infra-red photography aids the assessment of
surfac moisture contents and flooding danger; seismic reflection
e
and refraction surveys determine depths of strata as do
slate
electromagnetic techniques. Many of these techniques
were developed to aid the exploration for oil, natural gas
trench for and mineral deposits, and have since been applied to site
services investigation for major civil engineering works.

Some site investigation boreholes should, in discussion

slide o
f with the geologist, be left open to allow further penetration
strata
for taking rock cores. The top metre or so of the bedrock is
frequently severely weathered, and it can be difficult to
withdraw good undisturbed samples of weathered rock.

2.20 Expert knowledge and advice

Fig. 2.37 Slope failure due to trench construction. Most experienced engineers have sufficient knowledge
of geology to interpret geological maps, records and local
dissolves the chalk thus forming a shaft in it. The water
knowledge. Furthermore, geological causes of failures to
having travelled down through the strata may then
building foundations (as distinct from some civil engineer-
travel along the strata on a weak bedding joint. Again
ing foundations) are fortunately relatively rare. However,
the chalk is dissolved and underground caverns and
when the geological conditions are suspect or beyond the
caves are formed (to the delight of potholers!). Often the
experience of the engineer, then advice should be sought
shafts are filled with a mixture of stones and gravel
from expert geologists. Even though this advice may be
transported by rain run-off, and may not be detectable
affirmation, reassurance or confirmation, it is still neverthe-
from casual inspection of the ground level.
less advisable to obtain it. The ever-increasing breadth of
(7) Slope failure. Where clay overlies sloping slate or sim-
knowledge required by senior designers increases the diffi-
ilar rock the ground may be stable before construction
culty of acquiring specialized, deep expertise, and designers
and the soil stiff, dense and strong, but construction
should not feel inadequate in seeking such assistance.
work or foundation loading may disturb the equilib-
rium (see Fig. 2.37). 2.21 References
The removal of passive resistance due to excavating
the trench for services may result in the clay strata slid- 1. Burland, J.B. (1987) Nash Lecture: The teaching of soil mechanics
– a personal view. Proceedings of the 9th European Conference on Soil
ing over the smooth, and possibly wet, surface of the
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Dublin, vol. 3, pp. 1427–47.
slate. Such trenches should only be opened in short sec-
2. Weltman, A.J. & Head, J.M. (1983) Site Investigation Manual.
tions, provided with extra strong walings and strutting, CIRIA Special Publication 25.
and backfilled as quickly as possible with lean concrete. 3. Terzaghi, K., Peck, R.B. & Mesri, G. (1996) Soil Mechanics in
(8) Soil creep and landslides. Soil can creep (i.e. the upper Engineering Practice, 3rd edn. Wiley, New York.
layers move downhill) even on slopes as little as 1 in 10, 4. British Standards Institution (1999) Code of practice for site invest-
particularly when the sub-soil is stiff, fissured clay. The igations. BS 5930, BSI, London.
SFDC03 1/8/06 11:10 AM Page 43

3 Ground Investigation

3.1 Introduction The ground information is obtained by means of a site

This chapter is a summary of experience in dealing with a investigation. Site investigation, like X-rays and other tests
large variety of ground conditions on which to build a wide on a sick patient, is not an exact science. The investigation
range of structures. It may help young engineers who tend of the ground – as laid down by geological processes, some-
to deal with soil properties, geotechnical engineering and times modified by previous construction, mining, etc., and
superstructure design only – but sometimes give too little possibly subject to future change – requires detailed plan-
attention to ground investigation on which such engineer- ning, careful collection of information, testing and analysis,
ing topics are dependent. This chapter may also be a helpful to be as reliable as possible. Most importantly, it requires
recapitulation for the experienced engineer. the application of engineering knowledge, judgement and
experience.
The ground or sub-strata material needs to be considered as
part of the structure, for, like the superstructure, it will be The results need to be reported clearly, precisely and
subject to stress, strain and deformation and also possibly without ambiguity – but it should be appreciated that the
to deterioration. If that part of the ‘structure’ is defective or result of the most thorough investigation is an estimate
fails then experience shows that it can be the most expens- and not necessarily an accurate forecast. (It has been stated,
ive structural failure to remedy. Furthermore, no matter cynically, that ‘there is only one way to determine the
how well or expertly the superstructure is designed, if the exact soil conditions and that is to dig it all out, examine it
foundation fails it is possible that the superstructure will and replace it’ – the designer would then be faced with the
also fail. Foundation failure is one of the largest causes problem of building on a fill!)
of cost claims. For example, claims for subsidence damage Even the most thorough, detailed and careful survey and
to foundations and buildings following the 1995–96 period investigation can sometimes lead to false conclusions.
of dry weather in Britain rose to £475 million.(1) It has been Isolated pockets of peat, meandering channels of loose,
stated that piling contractors do not have adequate site saturated sands, fissures, filled-in shafts and wells, etc., can
investigation details for over half the projects for which remain undetected. It is always advisable, therefore, to
they are invited to tender. Before a foundation can be include in the project estimate a contingency item to cover
designed it is necessary to know what load the ground can the possible additional expense of dealing with unforeseen
support, how it will react under the load, both in the short- foundation construction difficulties. The engineer should
term and over the structure’s life, and also the effect of this remember that no two samples of soil will have identical
new loading on adjoining structures. Without this informa- properties and that most of the soil tested and reported
tion, safe and economic design is difficult and may not be on will now be in the testing laboratory and not left on site.
possible. Further, the design should be practical and build- The soil encountered on site is likely to differ (in varying
able so the designer should be aware of the contractor’s degrees) to that previously tested and due allowance
likely construction methods and possible problems. (Site should be made for this at all stages of the design and
construction progress can be slow until the foundations are construction process.
complete, i.e. the building is ‘out of the ground’.)
Since investigation, analysis and reporting (i.e. interpreta-
Before a foundation can be constructed the contractor needs
tion of the results of the investigation) should be based on
to tender for the project, plan methods of excavation, tem-
readily available knowledge and established soil investiga-
porary works and ground treatment, and be forewarned
tion procedures – it may be difficult to plead ignorance in a
of possible problems, etc., to enable skilful, safe and rapid
later dispute over a failure. The designer must obtain the
construction of the foundations. Standard forms of agree-
available and relevant data from reliable sources and must
ment between the design engineer and his client usually
interpret that data, not necessarily with over-sophisticated
state that the designer should exercise ‘reasonable skill and
mathematics but with sound judgement and skill.
ability’ and meet the standard of a ‘reasonably competent
practitioner’. The designer is not expected to be an expert in The costs of a site investigation are low in relation to the
construction or a specialist in ground treatment. The designer overall cost of the project. Engineers can find it difficult to
should be wary of non-standard forms with clauses which get their client to agree to spending upfront monies result-
increase the duty of care to ‘fitness for purpose’. The ing in nothing more than a report. The fact that the informa-
fact that a cause of failure could not have reasonably been tion contained within this report can be crucial in saving
foreseen is no defence with such a clause, nor would pro- significant sums of money in the design and construction
fessional indemnity insurers accept any obligation. stages of the project is often overlooked. Engineers need to
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44 Approach and First Considerations

educate their clients on the costly results of cheap, inade- Table 3.1
quate soil surveys. (a) Site investigation tenders as received

Though a percentage of the capital cost is useful as a Firm 1 Firm 2

preliminary estimate it must be appreciated that it is not a (£) (£)
true guide for every site and sufficient funding should be
allocated to site investigation to ensure both economic Set-up etc. 400 500
foundation design and construction. Sites and the struc- Boring to z metres 350 750
tures built on them are so varied that it is not possible to
Obstructions (6 hours) Rate only Rate only
fix firm cost percentages without details of the site and
Tests/samples on site:
proposed structure. For example, a low-rise housing estate
10 standard penetration tests 100 150
to be built on well-known and tested London clay overlying
20 disturbed samples 50 25
Thames ballast is likely to incur less investigation cost 10 water samples 200 120
than that for a multi-storey, heavily loaded structure on a 20 undisturbed samples 250 200
suspect, highly variable glacial deposit. Contractors tender-
Laboratory tests:
ing for excavation without adequate (or with suspect) site 6 No. sulfates Rate only Rate only
information may gamble, ‘load’ the tender or claim high 6 No. pHs Rate only Rate only
rates for ‘extras’ and variations. 3 No. particle size distribution Rate only Rate only
6 No. PL/LL Rate only Rate only
Clients who object to the cost of a survey or foundation
6 No. triaxial tests Rate only Rate only
design should be informed of the risks of such cost-cutting.
Clients rarely accept the responsibility of the risk or refuse Engineer’s site visit 200 150
the additional finance for survey and design. Site investigation report 300 250
Insurance 50 incl.
Delays in construction due to inadequate investigation can 1900 2145
easily cost more than any money ‘saved’ by cheap surveys.
Extra-over costs in amending foundation design or con- (b) Analysis of site investigation tenders
struction methods to cope with undetected problems
can substantially exceed the total cost of an inadequately Firm 1 Firm 2
funded investigation. Time spent in advising the client to (£) (£)
provide adequate funding is therefore worthwhile and
Set-up etc. 400 500
often essential. In addition, it is advisable that the client
should be made aware that the survey cost begins as an Boring to z metres 350 750
estimate which may need revising as the investigation Obstructions (6 hours) 350 240
proceeds. Tests/samples on site:
10 standard penetration tests 100 150
Many clients are in a hurry for early handover of the com- 20 disturbed samples 50 25
pleted project (with the increasing need for early return 10 water samples 200 120
on capital investment) and can find time spent on site 20 undisturbed samples 250 200
investigation to be an irksome and unnecessary delay to Laboratory tests:
construction start. The engineer should resist any tempta- 6 No. sulfates 250 150
tion to skimp the survey and have regard for the client’s 6 No. pHs 75 50
long-term interests. 3 No. particle size distribution 220 100
6 No. PL/LL 210 150
When analysing tenders it is important to have a clear under- 6 No. triaxial tests 275 200
standing of the kind of sampling and test regime which will
actually be required. In the following example (Table 3.1 Engineer’s site visit 200 150
Site investigation report 300 250
(a)), Firm 1 appears cheaper initially because their set-up on
Insurance 50 incl.
site and rates of boring and sampling are lower. But when
3280 3035
an analysis is undertaken to include the anticipated labor-
atory testing requirements (Table 3.1 (b)), Firm 2 is the more
cost-effective, due to their lower testing rates.
3.2.1 The designer’s need
3.2 The need for investigation
The following information does not cover all of the
Site investigations can determine the soil properties and designer’s needs but it may assist in producing the most
behaviour which will affect the choice and design of the economical design:
foundations, the method of construction, and can also
(1) Is the site suitable for the proposed structure, i.e. can it
affect the design of the superstructure as an economic and
be built economically on the soil or should an altern-
viable proposition. So the designer, the contractor and the
ative location be investigated or has the right price
client all have a ‘need to know’.
been paid for the land in the first instance?
Site investigations are also necessary prior to carrying out (2) The load-bearing capacity, settlement and behaviour
remedial measures to a failed existing foundation. characteristics of the soil.
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Ground Investigation 45

(3) The effect of the new foundation loading on adjoining 3.2.4 Site investigation for failed, or failing,
structures and sub-structures. existing foundations
(4) The presence of aggressive chemicals in the soil, e.g.
high sulfate content which could attack concrete. Failures of existing foundations are often due to changes
(5) Possible changes in settlement behaviour, i.e. future in local environment such as re-routing of heavy traffic,
and past mineral extraction, changes in permeability leaking drains and water mains, new adjoining construc-
and moisture content, danger of running sand. tion work (e.g. piling, inadequately shored excavations),
(6) Shrinkage and swelling characteristics, frost heave new fast-growing tree planting, extra load on sub-soil
susceptibility and vibration sensitivity of the soils. from new buildings and similar. Before carrying out a
(7) Water-table fluctuations, tidal effects, sub-surface soil investigation it is usually worthwhile examining such
erosion, seasonal and possible long-term variations. possible causes of failure in the same way that a desk
(8) Change in behaviour of the soils due to exposure study and a site walkabout should precede any other soil
during foundation construction. investigation.
(9) The advisability and economy of ground treatment.
3.3 Procedure
3.2.2 The contractor’s need The stages of a ground investigation are given in Table 3.2.
Similarly the following information assists the contractor in A ground investigation consists, basically, of four main
producing the most economical construction: operations:
(1) The stability of the soil during excavation and founda- (1) Study of existing information (known as desk-top study)
tion construction, i.e. soft mud and similar material and preliminary site reconnaissance (site walkabout).
will not support heavy piling frames without matting. (2) Soil investigation and testing.
(2) The amount of timbering and shoring necessary to (3) Analysis and appraisal of results.
support the sides of excavations. (4) Writing and distribution of soil reports.
(3) The need for geotechnical processes such as dewater-
ing, freezing and chemical injection. In the same way that structural design is a continuous
(4) The presence of any fill material which must be treated decision-making process and interactive with detailing, other
or removed, including health and safety implications members of the design team, building control and services
inherent in dealing with contaminated ground. authorities and the client, so too is the site investigation.
(5) The presence of useful excavated material such as
Decisions must be made:
broken rock for hardcore, sand for concreting or suit-
able backfill material. (1) At the start of the survey to determine objectives and
(6) The suitability of the ground at excavation inverts as a methods to achieve the objectives.
base for poured concrete. (2) On choice of site equipment, where and how best to use
(7) The need for special plant such as rippers and drills for the equipment.
decomposed rock, or draglines and grabs where the (3) On choice of samples to be tested, how to test and inter-
ground is too weak to support scrapers. pretation of the test results.
(8) The ground levels relative to a known datum. (This is (4) On methods of analysis and recommendations to lead
particularly important for piling operations where pile to efficient and economic design and construction.
cut-off levels are specified.)
There should be interaction between the designer and site
(9) The need for any special health and safety precautions
investigator:
due to ground conditions, e.g. dangerous shafts, run-
ning sand, etc. (1) The preliminary design should give the investigator
(10) The position and other details of existing services, old an indication of the proposed positioning of the struc-
foundations, etc. ture on the site, an estimate of foundation loading, any
special requirements of basements, services, vibrating
3.2.3 The client’s need or stamping plant and similar information.
(2) The investigator should report periodically to the
The client needs to know:
designer on the findings so that, if necessary, the scope
(1) If it is worth buying the site. of the site investigation, the position of the building,
(2) If the foundations will be slow and expensive to construct. the foundation loading, or the preliminary foundation
(3) If the soil conditions are such that there are planning proposals may be amended.
constraints on the proposed building. (3) When the designer has the final site investigation
(4) If the site contains contaminants for which he is legally information the final design can be refined.
responsible. (4) The site investigator, given the final design, can refine
(5) If the soils on the site are combustible. the report.
(6) If methane gas or other dangerous gases exist beneath (5) Either the designer alone or in collaboration with the
the site. site investigator can then write the final report.
(7) If the site is subject to flooding, subsidence or landslides. (6) Both the designer and investigator should monitor
(8) If the developable area is likely to be restricted by mine- the progress of foundation construction and post-
shafts or other sterilized zones. construction structural behaviour. This will determine
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46 Approach and First Considerations

Table 3.2 Stages of a ground investigation

DESIGN CONCEPTS

PRELIMINARY INFORMATION (DESK STUDY)

aerial photographs old and new topographical maps

geological maps and memoirs soil survey maps
mining and mineral records public utility records
consult public bodies adjacent site investigation reports

SITE INSPECTION
land ownership, access and services

PRELIMINARY GROUND INVESTIGATION SAFETY

boreholes and excavations geological mapping Safety is of paramount importance
for every activity in a site investigation.
A safety plan should be prepared and
soft ground boring trial pits
implemented for all stages of a site
rotary drilling geophysical surveying investigation to ensure the safety of
sampling probing all personnel involved, including the
general public

in situ testing

laboratory testing

preliminary report

ASSESSMENT

MAIN GROUND INVESTIGATION

special field tests further boreholes trial embankments

excavations
and geophysics
vane tests
plate bearing test piles
Dutch cone areas for special
pressuremeter investigation
pumping tests
in situ shear instrumentation
in situ stress laboratory testing

final report and recommendations

INVESTIGATION DURING CONSTRUCTION

INVESTIGATION DURING OPERATION

N.B. all stages demand consultation with the

design engineer

whether the ground conditions were as predicted; (i.e. no cracking, undue settlement, etc.). It is difficult
whether there were any unexpected excavation prob- for a busy designer to find time to go back and examine
lems; whether the magnitude and rate of settlement was past projects, but from long experience it has been
as calculated; whether movement joints performed satis- found beneficial for progress in foundation design to
factorily and if the structure remained fully serviceable make time to go back and look critically at past projects.
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Ground Investigation 47

3.3.1 Site survey plan conditions to be discharged before redeveloping a

previously used site.
If a site survey has not been done, or provided by the client,
(8) Public Services Authorities. Utility services for tele-
then a topographical survey should be carried out. The
communications, gas, water and electricity usually
survey should show the site location and access, give site
keep up-to-date records.
boundaries, building lines, position of proposed structure,
(9) Local street and area names. Sometimes local place
levels and contours, benchmarks and survey stations or
names may indicate previous use. Typical names are
reference points. In addition, information should be shown
Brick Kiln Lane, Quarry Bank and Marsh Street.
on such conditions as previous workings, overhead lines,
underground services, evidence of drainage or flooding, Since many people in the above list of information sources
condition of adjacent structures and other easily detectable are busy it has been found from experience that it can be
and useful evidence. quicker and more efficient to go and see them to discuss the
site rather than engage in long drawn-out correspondence.
3.3.2 Study of existing information It is not uncommon in such discussions to discover valu-
able information which may have been unexpected, not
There is often quite a surprising amount of information
known to exist or not asked for.
available for many sites and the surrounding area – even
green sites in undeveloped areas – and a study of this For further information see Reference 2.
information can be invaluable in planning an efficient
and economical soil survey. 3.3.3 Preliminary site reconnaissance and
Valuable sources of information are listed below: site walkabout
(1) Ordnance Survey maps (old maps are often useful in With the above information, presented clearly in an easily
providing information on any previous use of the site digested report, the senior design engineer should visit the
which may not appear on revised up-to-date maps). site and the immediate neighbourhood to develop a feel for
(2) Geological survey maps, both solid and drift; the the site. It is sometimes advisable for the senior engineer to
Institute of Geological Science Records; Soil Survey and visit the site before the ‘study of existing information’ so that
Land Research Centre (SSLRC); The Land Utilization assistants can be advised on important points, such as
Survey; The Coal Authority can often supply informa- where there is a particular need for detailed study and the
tion on proposed mining, present, past and abandoned like in carrying out the investigation.
workings, and finally the Institute of Materials, Minerals
The senior engineer would note the soil type and condition
and Mining may have records of other extractions such as
in any adjoining cuttings (road, rail and stream banks),
tin mining in Cornwall and brine extraction in Cheshire.
adjacent buildings showing signs of foundation distress,
(3) Aerial survey photographs which may be of use can be
uneven ridge lines, tilting or settled boundary walls,
sourced via the National Association of Aerial Photo-
unstable or creeping slopes, depressions in the ground
graphic Libraries (NAPLIB).
and their possible cause, type and changes in vegetation
(4) Local authorities’ building control offices and inspec-
on green sites, previous use and ground behaviour of
tors often have detailed information on any previous
abandoned sites and similar points. Typical warning signs
use of the site, local conditions and records of previous
of possible foundation difficulties are:
investigations.
(5) Local contractors frequently know of behaviour and (1) Unused sites in built-up pre-war housing estates
construction difficulties of excavation, together with which can indicate that local builders had encountered
records of ground condition and type in the locality. site problems.
(6) Local people, such as miners, quarry workers and (2) Flat, rubble-strewn derelict sites in inner-city housing
grave-diggers, can be helpful (sometimes they can be areas which may be riddled with backfilled base-
‘overhelpful’ in telling what they think the investigator ments, cellars and bomb craters (unexploded bombs
wants to know with the temptation to embroider their remain a distinct possibility).
information). (3) Dry, firm ground in summer which is sprouting marsh
(7) Local Planning Authorities. It is essential to contact grass may be a quagmire in winter. Many cases of
them to determine any planning conditions or restric- landslip slope failure are caused by water, so the
tions for the proposed structure and such matters as identification of possible sources of groundwater on
rights of light, way and support. They can also advise both historic maps and on site is most important.
on site access for plant and transport, noise and other (4) Undeveloped areas around the outskirts of towns and
nuisance restrictions. They may also have information not encroaching on green-belt boundaries which can
on existing or proposed services below ground level, indicate problem sites.
i.e. water mains, sewers, other service pipes, etc., and (5) Backfilled quarries; domestic refuse and industrial
similar information on overhead power lines, and can waste tips.
put the investigator into contact with the public utility (6) Bumpy, irregular ground surface which can be indic-
authorities. The planning process will now generally ative of glacial terminal moraine deposits.
result in a number of detailed requirements for the (7) Evidence of ‘bell-working’ where mineral seams are
implementation of a site investigation and a list of near ground level.
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48 Approach and First Considerations

(8) ‘Blow holes’ in chalk soils. a dozen pits, or trenches, in a day to a depth of 3–6 m and
(9) Subsidence in areas of brine extraction. can be hired on a daily basis at cost-effective rates. The cost
(10) Evidence of erosion or deposition. Where structures of replacing services damaged during excavation can be
are to be founded on coasts, estuaries or tidal rivers, substantial, especially in the case of optical fibre cables, and
then full hydrographic information on extremes of the responsibility for adequate insurance cover should
tides, velocity of currents, seasonal levels, flooding therefore not be overlooked.
danger, etc., must be obtained.
(11) Warm soils in winter months or burnt shales indicat- 3.4.1 Borehole layout
ing possible combustion.
Three bores are the minimum necessary to determine the
Problems of confined access, overhead cables or steeply dip of a plane strata (where known with confidence to
sloping sites should be noted since this can affect the soil be plane) and as a rough guide this is the minimum for a
investigation equipment and the contractor’s excavation proposed investigation (it is almost self-evident not to have
and piling plant. too many!). The more bores drilled then the more is known
about the soil and the risks of meeting difficulties and the
Knowledge of the position and type of the proposed struc-
greater surety and economy of the foundation design. But
ture is important so that particular attention can be given to
obviously once enough is known to design an economical
areas where deep excavations for basements, heavy loads
foundation then any further bores are an added-on cost
and the like are to be located.
to the project. This assumes, of course, that the stratum
It is useful for the senior engineer when visiting the site are accurately recorded, described and positioned, etc. by
to be assisted by a young engineer to make notes of any a competent supervisor during the drilling operations.
observations and to take photographs and soil samples. Inadequate or inexperienced supervision could lead to
This saves the senior engineer time and gives the young expensive errors.
engineer valuable experience. The senior engineer should
On large sites, say for an industrial estate, when the posi-
write up the notes and report any findings while they are
tions of structures have not been defined it is advisable to
fresh in the mind. Where possible the findings from the
establish a grid of boreholes as shown in Fig. 3.1 (c). The
study and reconnaissance should be shown diagrammatic-
spacing of the grid depends upon the site study and recon-
ally on the site survey plan. This enables a clearer image of
naissance. A common grid spacing is about 30 m but, if the
site conditions and aids the planning of the soil survey.
site is well-known and of uniform strata, the spacing may
This section should be read in conjunction with Chapter 4 be increased. If the site is unknown, suspect and variable,
on site topography.

3.4 Soil investigation heavy item

of plant
A soil survey can range from a few trial pits inspected by
the designer and the soil untested by laboratory analysis to
an extensive borehole investigation with deep and numer-
ous bores and extensive sampling and testing of the soil
usually by specialist investigation contractors.

The factors affecting the investigation are the amount of

existing information available, the known uniformity or
likely variability of the sub-soil in the area, the foundation
loading and the type of structure, the general topography
and likely groundwater conditions of the site. (a) (b)

Subsidiary factors such as the amount of time and money

available, the site access and other matters should not
inhibit the planning of a thorough (and as reliable as is
backfilled
reasonably possible) investigation. pond
No matter what kind of investigation is carried out, the
authors, from experience, recommend the digging of
trial pits as a first stage. Trial pits have over the past few
decades fallen into almost contemptuous dismissal by some
with the increased sophistication of boring techniques, (c)
increased cost of labour in digging pits and increased borehole
awareness of the limitations of pits (e.g. they do not detect probing
underlying soft soils which can be affected by foundation
loading). But during the same period there has been Fig. 3.1 Typical borehole layouts for (a) multi-storey
increased adaptability, mobility, etc., of relatively small flats, (b) factory building, (c) large development area
excavators. Such machines can easily excavate and backfill where building layout is not decided.
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Ground Investigation 49

the spacing should be decreased. Where the findings are (3) Whether there is a possible need for piling. Then the
not uniform and difficulties are unknown, or are expected, bores should be taken down to 3 m below preliminary
then the grid centres should be closed up. Where the site estimated pile base level.
has been mined, an irregular grid is advisable since the (4) Whether there is a possible need for foundations to be
workings may be on a regular grid. taken down to bedrock. It is advisable to prove that it is
in fact bedrock and not boulders (in glacial or flood
The boreholes enable soil profiles (cross-sections) to be
deposits or quarry backfill) or relatively thin layers of
drawn noting the strata classification, thickness and level,
cemented rock-hard soils (shales in mining areas). This
and samples taken from the borehole enable the properties
can mean that drilling should continue for at least 3 m
of the soil in each strata to be examined. The bores can also
into the rock. There have been a number of spectacular
enable observations to be made on groundwater levels and
failures in mistaking isolated boulders as bedrock.
variations. The depth of the borehole depends on:

(1) The foundation load. Light, single-storey structures 3.4.2 Trial pit layout
founded on known firm ground of thick strata need
investigation to a depth of about 3 m – and this can be Trial pits should be located near to the proposed or exist-
done effectively by trial pits. Tall, heavily loaded struc- ing foundations but not so close as to adversely affect
tures may need bores taken down to proven firm soil of foundation excavation or to disturb existing underground
adequate strata thickness. services and drains. They should straddle the proposed site
(2) The width of the structure. At a depth of 1.5 times the of the building to give cross-sections along the major axes.
width of the structure the vertical pressure on the soil Generally five or more pits are necessary.
can be about 20% of the foundation contact pressure. Trial pits yield such information as soil classification, how
Closely spaced (i.e. at centres less than about 4 times well the sides of the excavation stand up, the position of
their width) strip or pad foundations due to pressure the water-table, whether seepage of groundwater will be a
distribution overlap would have the same pressure problem, the ease of level, ram and trim, the invert of the
effect at such a depth as a raft foundation. The wider excavation, possible deterioration of the soil on exposure to
the structure the deeper the effect of vertical pressure the atmosphere, the presence and depth of fills, and the
(see Fig. 3.2) and it may be necessary to bore down to ease or difficulty of excavation. (Boreholes can discover
1.5 times the width of the structure. sandstone, for example, which contractors will tend to
price with high excavation rates yet the trial pit excavator
may well be able to excavate the rock easily.) Percussion
B p /unit area boring may compress thick layers of peat into thin slices
and it is not uncommon to receive descriptions such as
‘sand with traces of peat’ when trial pits would disclose the
layer of peat within the stratum of sand. For this reason it is
good practice to excavate several trial pits in the vicinity of
proposed boreholes so as to check the correlation of the
1.5B findings of the two techniques. It is easier to take good
undisturbed soil samples from a trial pit than a borehole; to
carry out in situ tests (such as the standard penetration test
and shear vane test) and to give the soil the apocryphal kick
0.2p pressure with the heel to estimate its strength.
contour
Trial pits should be excavated down to at least the expected
p /unit area excavation level and on difficult sites (subject to thorough
B1
boring, sampling and testing) the information obtained can
be used as a useful additional aid to foundation design and
construction. They can also provide a visual check on the
likely reliability of test information. If the sides of the pit are
liable to collapse and access is required, then propping
should be carried out to protect the investigator, or the
1.5B1 sides should be battered or stepped by the excavator.

Where the site is open to access by people or animals, the

pits should be backfilled or protected at the end of each day.
Where it is necessary to check, over a period of time, seep-
age or deterioration, the pit should be planked over and
0.2p pressure covered with tarpaulins or otherwise adequately protected.
contour
The position, ground level and invert level of the
Fig. 3.2 Vertical pressure at a depth of 1.5 times pits should be noted together with the findings of soil
foundation width. classification, properties and levels of the strata. Colour
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50 Approach and First Considerations

photographs of the sides of the pits can be useful and 3.4.6 Soil sampling
the photographs have increased value if a ranging rod is
Samples of the soil are taken from boreholes and trial pits
included to confirm the scale. Where the presence of ser-
so that the soil can be described and tested. There are two
vices is suspected, trial pits can be used to detect them,
types of samples:
preferably by careful hand-digging.
• Disturbed samples. Samples taken from boring tubes or
Where, from past experience, the ground is known to be
hand excavated from the sides and bottom of trial pits
firm clay or dense gravel of considerable depth, then trial
where the soil structure is disturbed i.e. broken up, cut,
pits may be all that is necessary to investigate the suitability
pressed, etc. These samples are placed in airtight jars
of the site for a lightly loaded structure. They must be dug
(similar to screw lid jam-jars), labelled to identify the
to an adequate depth, to prove the stratum and to detect
borehole or pit number, the position of the sample, the
soft lenses or layers likely to be affected by the foundation
number given to it in the records, and the date taken.
loading. Trial pit information is also invaluable in deter-
Failure to label samples in standard format will obvi-
mining the borehole grid layout.
ously lead to confusion at the laboratory so the label
must be secure and the information noted on it must be
3.4.3 Hand augers
legible and written in waterproof ink.
Hand augers are sometimes used in preliminary reconnais- Disturbed samples are tested to determine, mainly,
sance since the equipment is light, cheap and immediately the type and description of the soil. The sampling and
available, and so that overall, time can be saved in planning testing of disturbed samples is relatively inexpensive
a full survey. They can, in soft to firm soils, bore a hole and the test results are used to determine the test
about 150 mm diameter to a depth of 3–4 m and provide programme of undisturbed samples.
disturbed samples of the soil. They can be used in restricted If the disturbed samples are to be used to determine
spaces, which is useful in investigating foundation failure the moisture content of the soil it is important that the
below a confined basement. However the work can be sample jar should be completely filled by the sample to
physically hard, somewhat slow and very difficult, or prevent it drying out. As a further precaution the air-
impossible, in stony clays and gravels. tight cap should be wound round by a water-resistant
tape.
3.4.4 Boring • Undisturbed samples. The term undisturbed is somewhat
Most bores are carried out using light cable percussion of a misnomer for even with refined equipment it is
plant backed up, when necessary, with rotary coring and difficult to obtain a true undisturbed sample. Certainly,
other equipment and attachments. The cable percussion rig undisturbed samples are generally superior to disturbed
commonly uses an 8 m high tripod and employs a friction samples in representing more closely the actual in situ
winch to raise and lower the boring tubes and tools. Rotary structure and moisture content of the soil. The soil struc-
coring is used when hard shales, boulders or rock strata are ture and moisture content are important factors in soil
encountered. strength and behaviour under load. Disturbed soil is
trimmed from the ends of the sample tubes, the ends are
There is an increasing variety of plant, sampling methods then covered by foil and waxed before screwing on the
and tools, with particular advantages in cost, quality of tube cap or lid. Labels, giving the same information as
sampling, speed of operation, use in conditions of limited for disturbed samples, should be placed both inside
access or headroom, etc., and the choice of rig is affected by the cap and outside the tube.
the likely soil conditions to be encountered. Further details Undisturbed samples are tested to determine mainly
are given in References 3 and 4. the strength and behaviour of the soil. Undisturbed
samples are relatively expensive to obtain and test and it
3.4.5 Backfilling of trial pits and boreholes is generally not necessary to test all the samples. Never-
If bores and particularly pits are positioned sufficiently theless it is advisable to obtain at least one sample for
close to the proposed structure so as to affect foundation each stratum at each borehole. The test programme is fully
excavation then they should be carefully backfilled. A strip determined after study of borehole logs and soil profiles.
footing founded on firm clay and passing over an inade-
quately compacted backfilled trial pit is effectively passing 3.4.7 Storage of samples
over a soft-spot. A borehole can sometimes act as an artesian
Preferably samples should be sent to the testing laboratory
well or as a seepage point. Trial pits or trenches should be
immediately – and this, of course, is not always possible.
backfilled in layers with controlled compaction. Boreholes
If they are just left lying around the site they could be sub-
should be backfilled, as the casing is withdrawn, with
ject to drying out, impact, etc. so they should be carefully
selected excavated material and punned with a weighted
stacked and stored in a cool and somewhat moist site hut or
shell. Grouting boreholes is sometimes necessary with 4 : 1
container box.
cement : bentonite. The quality of backfilling of trial pits
is however often unreliable and if the pits are close to the
3.4.8 Frequency of sampling
foundation they should be re-excavated along with the
foundation excavation and backfilled again after comple- The soil investigation engineer, preferably with the design
tion of foundation construction. engineer’s report on site study, reconnaissance and trial pit
SFDC03 1/8/06 11:10 AM Page 51

Ground Investigation 51

10
0
0
30
10
0
0

ND

%
SA

CL
10

90

AY
20

80

15
30

70

0
10

0
0 55 100

60
40
ND

% SILT

%
SA

CL
clay
50

50
%

AY
example:
60

40
sandy silty a soil with 30% sand,
clay clay 15% clay, 55% silt,

30
70

is classified as a
sandy silty silty-loam
clay-loam
clay-loam clay-loam
20
80

loam 10
90

sandy-loam silty-loam
sand silt
0
10

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
% SILT

Fig. 3.3 The MIT classification for clay, silt and sand.

findings if available, can decide on an economic frequency in some cases if these were to die out. Where there is a mix-
of sampling. Generally undisturbed soil samples should be ture of clay, silt and sand the MIT (Massachusetts Institute
taken at 1.5 m intervals and at change of stratum level and of Technology) classification should be used (see Fig. 3.3).
disturbed samples taken at 1 m intervals. This is not a rigid
rule and should be varied to suit soil and foundation condi- 3.4.9 Appointment of specialist soil
tions. When trial pits have not been excavated, these inter- investigator
vals should be halved from ground level to 2–3 m below the
Most design offices do not have sufficient demand for soil
anticipated depth of foundation excavation. It is at or near
investigations to warrant the capital costs of obtaining site
ground level that the soil is usually most variable due to
and laboratory equipment, nor the current costs of employ-
exposure to weather, change in moisture conditions and
ing site and laboratory personnel. It is therefore generally
variations in the water-table level.
necessary to appoint specialist firms – and this may not
The foreman driller should keep a log noting the type always be as easy as it might appear.
(classification) of soil, its depth, change of stratum level,
The work should be carried out by competent soil survey
position of obstructions, changes of soil conditions within a
specialists of good reputation, staffed by experienced engin-
stratum, groundwater level, seepage and similar informa-
eers (and drillers) who will not only supervise the borings
tion. Experienced and reliable foremen drillers are becom-
but also the testing and can be relied upon to report accur-
ing, unfortunately, rarer and it is essential that the soil
ately and advise soundly on their findings. The specialist
survey investigator backs up the foreman’s observations by
firm should carry adequate indemnity. In the past a num-
adequate inspection visits by site supervision engineers.
ber of excellent firms have been driven out of business
The log should give a continuous description of the soil in
by cut-throat competition from ‘cowboy’ firms savagely
the borehole from ground level to base of bore. It is import-
undercutting sensible rates. This is a deplorable situation
ant that the foreman is aware of the standard classification
which could cost the client, in the end, far more than has
and description used in References 3 and 4 and does not
been saved by employing such firms. (On more than one
solely employ (the often colourful) local terms such as cow-
occasion the authors’ practice has been asked to investigate
belly, sludge, mucky clay, cobbly clay. While these terms may
foundation failures and found that borehole logs are a
be well-known to local engineers they can be unfamiliar
complete fabrication – because they were not done!)
and totally misleading to others. The local terms are often
an invaluable guide to experienced local engineers in There should be detailed discussion between the design
describing the soil and its properties and it would be a pity engineer and the soil specialist on the survey specification,
SFDC03 1/8/06 11:10 AM Page 52

52 Approach and First Considerations

cost and time. Soil specialists may not have wide experi- see References 5 and 6. It is not possible therefore in a
ence of foundation design, behaviour of structures, eco- book on foundation design to discuss fully in depth any one
nomics of alternative designs, construction difficulties, etc., test; discussion is limited to the broader considerations.
so the discussion is essential for reliable investigations. Furthermore the site and laboratory testing of soils is
the contractual responsibility of the soil survey specialist.
It is also strongly advisable for the design engineer in
Hence the following sections outline and summarize the
person to inspect the boring during progress to see first-
tests and the main references are given for designers wish-
hand the condition of the soil samples and sampling methods.
ing for more detailed information. Experience is necessary
to estimate what and how to test, the test results need engin-
3.5 Site examination of soils
eering judgement in assessing their application and relev-
Trial pits allow the soil to be examined in situ. Similarly the ance and in forecasting estimated behaviour – for none
soil can be examined from borehole samples which may be of the tests give scientifically accurate results applicable to
of a disturbed nature. Examination methods to identify and the actual strata under the real pressure. The theories, as in
describe the soil should be based on the guidance given in structural theory, are based on simplifying assumptions
BS 5930(3) (see Table 2.4). not fully related to the reality of practice. But to dismiss
tests and theory and rely on outdated rules of thumb
3.6 Field (site) testing of soils methods is inappropriate to modern structures and is as
foolish as blind faith in science.
No matter how carefully soil samples are taken, stored,
transported to a laboratory and tested, some disturbance is
possible and even likely – and therefore many engineers
3.6.1 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
prefer the alternative of testing the soil in situ. As with The SPT is a useful method of indicating the relative
sampling techniques there have been advances in sophist- density of sands and gravels. It is based on the fact that the
ication and variety of field testing techniques and the most denser the sand or gravel the harder it is to hammer a peg
common types are briefly described here. into it. A standard weight is dropped a defined distance on
Site testing has come a long way from kicking the clay at the a tube, with either a split tube or a cone head (cone penetra-
bottom of a trial pit with the heel of the investigator’s shoe – tion test, CPT), placed in the borehole. The tube is driven
though this can still be a useful, if crude, assessment when 450 mm into the soil and the number of hammer-blows taken
carried out by an experienced engineer familiar with local to drive the tube into the last 300 mm of soil is termed its
conditions. N value. Care in interpreting the result is particularly
necessary where boulders, very coarse gravel or bricks in
In foundation design less is known of soil as a structural backfill may be present, for the measurement may be of the
material than is known of concrete and steel. It is not pos- resistance of the obstruction and not of the soil.
sible to analyse and forecast, with certainty, the stresses in
the soil or the soil’s reaction to those stresses, since the Approximate values of the relationship between sand
foundation loading can only be a reasonable assessment. properties and N values are given in Table 3.3 and a
summary of the test is given in Table 3.4.
Foundation design is therefore based not solely on analy-
sis but also needs the application of sound engineering CIRIA Publication The Standard Penetration Test (SPT):
judgement. Methods and Use(7) is a comprehensive reference.

In a sensible and valuable search to understand the mater-

3.6.2 Vane test
ial it must be tested and some researchers have devoted
their careers to this essential cause. In each of the following If a garden spade is driven into clay and then rotated it will
field and laboratory tests there has been extensive research, effectively shear the clay and the higher the shear resistance
literally thousands of learned papers and many international of the clay then the greater the force (torque) required to
conferences – some devoted to just one test, for example, rotate the spade. This is the principle of the vane test.

Table 3.3 Relationship between N values and sand properties(8)

Very loose Loose Medium dense Dense Very dense

SPT N value (blows/0.3 m)a <4 4–10 10–30 30–50 >50

CPT cone resistance (MN/mm2)b <5 5–10 10–15 15–20 >20
Equivalent relative density (%)c <15 15–35 35–65 65–85 85–10
Dry unit weight (kN/m3) <14 14–16 16–18 18–20 >20
Friction angle (degrees) <30 30–32 32–35 35–38 >38
Cyclic stress ratio causing liquefaction (τ/σ′) <0.04 0.04–0.10 0.10–0.35 >0.35 –

a At an effective vertical overburden pressure of 100 kN/m2

b There is no unique relationship between CPT and SPT values – it should be reassessed at each site
c
Freshly deposited, normally consolidated sand
SFDC03 1/8/06 11:10 AM Page 53

Ground Investigation 53

Table 3.4 Standard Penetration Test (Weltman, A.J. & Head, J.M., Site Investigation Manual, CIRIA (1983),(4)
Section 4.1.1)

Method Application Advantages Disadvantages

Standard Derivation of a standardized blow Simple, robust equipment. Simplicity of the equipment belies
Penetration count from dynamic penetration in Procedure is straightforward and sensitivity to operator techniques,
Test granular soils (silts, sands, gravels) permits frequent tests. equipment, malfunctions and poor
and in certain cases, other materials A highly disturbed sample obtained boring practice.
such as weak rock or clays when the shoe is used, permitting Equipment and technique are not
containing gravels which are not identification of the soil. standardized internationally.
readily sampled by other means. A number of empirical relationships Tests below 6 m in water-bearing
Convenient both above and below exist to convert the N value to sands may not be fully representative
the groundwater table. The blow approximate various soil and in other materials as the depth
count (N value) may be used characteristics or indications of increases. If solid cone used instead
directly in empirical formulae for performance. of the shoe to prevent damage, the
bearing capacity and settlement Widespread use. results may not be comparable.
estimates: relative density and Inexpensive. Test values may vary with diameter of
estimation of φ. Approximate borehole. Results require interpretation.
values of cohesion may be inferred Test insensitive in loose sands.
using empirical relationships. Misleading results in fissured clays. N
values are affected if a sample liner is
used with a 38 mm diameter spoon.

Table 3.5 Vane test (Weltman, A.J. & Head, J.M., Site Investigation Manual, CIRIA (1983),(4) Section 4.1.2)

Method Application Advantages Disadvantages

Vane test Measurement of undrained shear Permits in situ measurement of the The results are affected by silty or
strength of clays and measurement undrained strength of sensitive sandy pockets or significant organic
of remoulded strength. The results clays with cohesions generally up to content in the clay.
should be used in conjunction with 100 kN/m2. The remoulded shear There is some dependence on the
laboratory derived values of strength may also be measured in plasticity index (PI) of clay. Anisotropy
cohesion and measurement of situ. Causes little disturbance to the effects can give rise to values of
plasticity index in order that an soil. Can be used direct from the cohesion unrepresentative of the
assessment of the validity of the base of a borehole. engineering problems being studied.
results may be made. Results are direct and immediate. Poor maintenance of equipment gives
Tests can be rapid. excessive friction between rods and
Small hand-operated vane test guide tubes, or in bearings. To be used
instruments are available for use in in conjunction with careful soil
side or base of excavations. description and backed up with high-
quality sampling and laboratory
testing. Results are in terms of total
stress only. Specialist technicians
required.

The vane is a cruciform of four blades fixed to the end of the load can be measured and also the pressure required to cause
boring tube’s rod. It is pushed into the undisturbed soil at shear failure of the soil. The test is summarized in Table 3.6.
the base of the borehole or trial pit and the torque required
to rotate the vane is measured. Table 3.5 gives a summary 3.6.4 Pressuremeters
of the test. A pressuremeter could be considered as basically a vertical
When the height of the vane is twice its diameter, D(m), the plate test. If an expanding cell is placed in a borehole and
relationship between shear strength of the soil, τ, and the pumped up to exert pressure against the sides of the bore
maximum applied torque, M(kN m), is generally: then the stronger the soil the greater the pressure required
to expand the cell. Summaries of different pressuremeters
M are given in Table 3.7. See Reference 9.
τ= kN/m2
3.66 D3
3.6.5 Groundwater (piezometers and
3.6.3 Plate bearing test standpipes)
A plate, of known area, can be placed at the bottom of a trial The presence of moisture in, and the magnitude of moisture
pit or borehole and loaded. The settlement of the soil under content of, soils has a pronounced effect on soil properties
SFDC03 1/8/06 11:10 AM Page 54

54 Approach and First Considerations

Table 3.6 Plate bearing test (Weltman, A.J. & Head, J.M., Site Investigation Manual, CIRIA (1983),(4) Section 4.1.3)

Method Application Advantages Disadvantages

Plate bearing For determination of elastic modulus Gives close simulation of A number of tests are required to
test and bearing capacity of soils and weak actual loading condition obtain coverage with depth for
rock, with minimum disturbance. typically found in application to foundation designs.
foundations. The loaded Upward seepage pressures at the
volume of soil or rock is large test level reduce effective stress and
by comparison with other have significant effects. Specialist
tests, and therefore more technicians are necessary.
representative. An expensive and time-consuming
There is close control of test.
loading intensity, rate and Equipment not widely available.
duration. Scale effects should be considered.
More representative results Possibility of ground disturbance
than laboratory testing. during excavation.
Can be carried out in pits or Excavation causes unavoidable
boreholes. change in ground stresses which may
be irreversible. Large-diameter hole
desirable for tests in boreholes.
Results difficult to interpret in some
soil types.

Table 3.7 Pressuremeter test (Weltman, A.J. & Head, J.M., Site Investigation Manual, CIRIA (1983),(4) Section 4.1.3)

Method Application Advantages Disadvantages

Pressuremeter Three similar main types of In situ low-disturbance In some soils and rocks the operation
test pressuremeter are available: measurement of important of the equipment can be uncertain,
(a) The Menard pressuremeter, installed soil and weak rock particularly in granular soils.
into a borehole. parameters. In some weak rocks, unstable walls
(b) The Camkometer, self-boring type. Less expensive than direct can give rise to results which are
(c) The Stressprobe, pressed into the soil bearing tests and larger difficult to interpret (Menard type).
from the base of the borehole. volume of rock stressed than The loading direction is radial, in a
The Menard pressuremeter is particularly laboratory testing methods. horizontal plane, which may not
suitable in weak rock, for modulus creep Depth limitations vary with correspond to the condition in the
pressure and limit pressure. subsoil, but could be carried foundation considered.
The Stressprobe and Camkometer give out at any depth in Where porewater pressures are not
similar information, the former being appropriate circumstances. measured, drainage conditions have
particularly suited to measuring the Direct bearing capacity to be assumed.
shear strength of stiff clays, the latter measurements can be taken. A large number of tests with depth
also containing a porewater pressure Rapid test procedure. are required if the results are to be
transducer to enable effective stress used for typical foundation designs.
measurements to be carried out. Tests not suited to coarse granular
It is suitable in clays, silts and sands. materials.
Lateral stress and K0 (coefficient of earth Drilling disturbance cannot be
pressure at rest) measurement are detected and may lead to unusually
possible. Becoming more widely used low results (Menard type).
and expected to be used more Specialist technicians necessary.
extensively in future.

and behaviour. Since the moisture content can vary so too together with level and variations in level should be
can the soil. It is essential therefore to investigate the ground- recorded. Piezometers or standpipes should be employed
water conditions and possible variation. Groundwater when groundwater problems are anticipated.
variations are likely on coastal, estuarine and tidal river
sites; sites subject to artesian conditions and variable water- A standpipe can at its simplest be the open borehole, and
table levels; sites with permeable granular soil where bored the outline of the test is summarized in Table 3.8.
piles or bentonite diaphragm walls are to be used, and par-
Piezometers, of varying sophistication, are basically per-
ticularly sites founded on fills.
forated tubes lined internally with porous tubing, and
The rate of seepage of groundwater into pits and bores details are summarized in Table 3.9.
SFDC03 1/8/06 11:10 AM Page 55

Ground Investigation 55

Table 3.8 Open borehole test (Weltman, A.J. & Head, J.M., Site Investigation Manual, CIRIA (1983),(4) Section 3.3.1)

Method Application Advantages Disadvantages

Open borehole For estimation of permeability in Relatively low cost method Methods very approximate particularly
test medium and course grained soils and of obtaining permeability falling or constant head tests where
fissured or fractured rock where information and additional sedimentation or loosening can occur.
appropriate. The approximate grain size information. Rising head tests are markedly affected
particle size of granular soils may be Conventional equipment by poor boring techniques which leave
estimated from the results (e.g. using utilized. loosened soil, or by piping, should it
the Hazen11 formula). Broken or No specialized personnel occur during the test.
fissured zones in rock may be necessary. Results may require close scrutiny,
identified. Seepage conditions likely Widely used. particularly in variable sub-soil.
during construction and under Yields more reliable data Accurate permanent groundwater
foundations may be estimated. than laboratory tests in some levels necessary.
The need for dewatering schemes cases. Hydraulic fracturing can occur.
may be assessed.

Table 3.9 Piezometer test (Weltman, A.J. & Head, J.M., Site Investigation Manual, CIRIA (1983),(4) Section 3.3.2)

Method Application Advantages Disadvantages

Constant head For estimation of permeability and Large-scale determination of The tests are most conveniently carried
test from consolidation parameters in fine permeability and out with a positive head.
piezometers grained soils. When combined with consolidation parameters. Swelling conditions produced are not
laboratory determined values of mv Generally more reliable than appropriate to the foundation problem.
(coefficient of volume laboratory values in alluvial The tests are time-consuming and
compressibility), better estimates of soils. expensive.
cv (coefficient of consolidation) may The radial drainage conditions require
be made. to be carefully assessed relative to the
stratigraphy detail at the test location
and the full-scale drainage conditions.
Specialist technicians required.
The groundwater must be at
equilibrium in the borehole before
starting the test.

3.6.6 Other field tests results of any site tests. A typical borehole log is shown in
Fig. 3.6.
There are a number of developments, refinements and
adjustments to the above tests as well as geophysical Trial pits, trenches and boreholes should be given reference
tests, aerial infra-red photography, video photography in numbers, located on plan, their ground level noted and the
boreholes, etc. These newer tests can sometimes be less date of excavation recorded. It is advisable to record the
expensive, less time-consuming and yield more informa- following additional information:
tion than the traditional tests. The interested reader should
(1) Type of rig, diameter and depth of bore or width of
refer to specialist soil mechanics literature for details. See
bucket.
Reference 10.
(2) Diameter and depth of any casing used and why it was
necessary.
3.7 Recording information – trial pit and
(3) Depth of each change of strata and a full description of
borehole logs and soil profiles
the strata. (Was the soil virgin ground or fill?)
Before embarking on expensive laboratory testing of soil (4) Depths at which samples taken, type of sample and
samples it is advisable to record (log) the information sample reference number.
gained on site in order to plan the test programme. To facil- (5) In situ test depth and reference number.
itate the reading of logs and boreholes the soils and rocks (6) The levels at which groundwater was first noted;
should be indicated by standardized symbols. Widely the rate of rise of the water; its level at start and end of
accepted diagrammatic symbols are given in Fig. 3.4. each day. (When more information on permeability,
porewater pressure, and the like is required, then it is
A typical trial pit log of the engineer’s observations is given
vitally important that the use of piezometers should
in Fig. 3.5.
be considered.)
A borehole log should give details of the foreman driller’s (7) Depth and description of obstructions (i.e. boulders),
log, the observations of the supervising engineer and the services (drains) or cavities encountered.
SFDC03 1/8/06 11:10 AM Page 56

56 Approach and First Considerations

SOILS SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

made ground chalk

boulders and limestone

cobbles

gravel conglomerate

sand sandstone

silt siltstone

clay mudstone

peat shale

note: composite soil types

are signified by combined
symbols e.g.

silty sand

Fig. 3.4 Recommended symbols for soils and rocks (BS 5930, Table 15).(3)

(8) Rate of boring or excavation (useful to contractors and Many foundation failures can be traced back to faulty
piling sub-contractors as such information gives some visualization of the ground conditions due to inadequate
guidance in ease of excavation or pile driving). soil profiles or misinterpretation of them. A typical soil
(9) Name of supervising engineer. profile is shown in Fig. 3.7.
(10) Date and weather conditions during investigation.
Most experienced designers would tend to study the soil
profile first before reading the site report, studying the test
3.8 Soil samples and soil profiles
results and checking other data. This makes for efficiency,
It is a wise precaution to take more soil samples than neces- better assessment of site conditions, improved judgement
sary to determine the ground conditions (and increasing of data, it warns of problems and can indicate the need for
the frequency of samples does not proportionally increase possible further investigation.
the cost of the soil survey). It is not however necessary to
test every single sample. If the surface soil is weak and Some typical misinterpretations or inadequate data leading
underlain by good rock or dense gravel there may be little to false conclusions and similar errors are shown in Fig. 3.8
point in testing the weak surface soil if piling down to the (see also Figs 2.28, 2.29 and 2.31).
good strata is proposed.
3.9 Preliminary analysis of results
Soil profiles (section through boreholes) are extremely
helpful in enabling the designer to visualize the ground It is often necessary in practice to save time to issue a pre-
conditions. This valuable aid is, in the authors’ opinion, too liminary report before the results of laboratory tests are
often given inadequate attention in site investigations. available or even planned and programmed. This must be
SFDC03 1/8/06 11:10 AM Page 57

Ground Investigation 57

TRIAL PIT LOG Job no. Job name

Date Co-ordinates
Weather Logged by

0 1m 2m
DESCRIPTION OF FACE
legend
0
1 (J) black sandy TOPSOIL 1
0.40

2
medium dense, brown and black
1 clayey fine SAND with angular
(B) gravel and cobbles

2
1.70 water
(1.7 m)
3 soft to firm mottled grey CLAY
3
(B) 2 with traces of angular gravel

4 2.20
soft to firm sandy CLAY with
fine gravel and occasional cobbles
(B)

3 4
3.15 end of
pit

NOTES KEY TO SAMPLE PLAN OF PIT

NUMBERS

A
Walls – generally stable J – Jar sample
Faces – B, C as A. Face D without B – Bulk sample depth
CLAY 3 D 3.15 m B
Water – seepage for first 20 minutes
Trial pit dug in centre of firm grass field C
m
te fro

Access for excavator is satisfactory

ga 5 m
1

Fig. 3.5 Typical trial pit log (Weltman, A.J. & Head, J.M., Site Investigation Manual, CIRIA (1983),(4) Fig. 66).

done by an experienced engineer who would appreciate If the soil investigation engineer cannot make firm reliable
that boreholes give only information on the soil at the bore- recommendations he must either ask for further informa-
holes and not factual information on the soil between them. tion or qualify his preliminary recommendations to the
The engineer interpolates what might be the soil profile designer (and state why he qualifies his recommendation).
between bores.
The preliminary analysis must produce adequate data
The formulation of an accurate (as possible) ‘picture’ of the for preliminary foundation design, if necessary, and draft
ground and water conditions is necessary for a good analy- information for the contractor’s initial costing. Though
sis and all the data from the preliminary investigations, the contractor normally has a contractual responsibility to
history of the site, local experience, borehole logs, field test examine the site, it is sensible to give him the information
results, etc., must be collected, sorted, appraised and assessed. acquired.
SFDC03 1/8/06 11:10 AM Page 58

58 Approach and First Considerations

Start date 17 October 1989 Casing diameter 200 mm to 8.00 m BOREHOLE No. 1
150 mm to 12.00 m National grid 5423.0 E
End date 21 October 1989 100 mm to 14.00 m Coordinates 4256.0 N
Drilling method Cable percussion to 12.00 m Borehole diameter 200 mm to 8.50 m
Rotary coring to 21.50 m 150 mm to 12.00 m Ground level 33.68 m OD
Equipment TH6 core barrel, water flush 100 mm to 21.50 m
U 100
Depth Sample details
Date Casing Blows Rec. Depth
to Level
and depth (thickness) Legend
water Depth (m) Type No. SPT Description of strata (m OD)
time (m) (m)
(m) from to
Blows/N Drive
17/10 NIL DRY (0.40)
D 1 – Friable brown gravelly TOPSOIL
15.00 0.40 33.28
0.50 Stiff fissured brown mottled yellow and light
grey CLAY.
NIL DRY 0.50–1.45 U 2 40 450 Frequent rootlets. Fissures are very closely
spaced, subvertical, rough.
(ESTUARINE DEPOSITS – DESICCATED
1.50 D 3
CRUST)

2.00–2.50 B 4 (2.70)

NIL DRY 2.90–3.35 U 5 32 450

3.40 D 6
3.10 30.58
18.00 Firm brown and dark grey mottled CLAY.
17/10 2.50 DRY Occasional rootlets.
4.00 D 7 (ESTUARINE DEPOSITS) (0.80)
18/10 DAMP
08.00
2.50 DRY 4.50–5.50 D 8 – 1000 3.90 29.78
Soft grey and dark grey CLAY with closely
spaced sub-horizontal partings and thin
laminate of light grey fine sand.
(ESTUARINE DEPOSITS)
5.40 HV (22/6)

5.50 DRY 6.00 D 9 FV (25/6) Occasional shell debris, from 6.00 m to

8.50 m
6.00 DRY 6.50–7.50 NR – (4.60)

8.00–8.45 D 10 – 450

8.50 25.18
8.00 6.50 8.70 D 11 Possibly medium dense, light brown slightly
8.70 D 12 gravelly fine and medium SAND, gravel is
9.00 0.00 9.00 D 13 fine and medium or rounded quartz and (1.50)
sub-angular limestone
(ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS)

10.00 0.00 10.00 D 14 C 30 10.00 23.68

Remarks 1. See key sheets for explanation of abbreviations and symbols Logged by DRN 23/10/89
2. An inspection pit was excavated by hand to 0.6 m
Compiled by ANO 23/10/89
3. Small amounts of water were added to assist boring from 0.6 m to 3.50 m
4. Ground water was encountered at 8.50 m rising to 6.50 m to 3.50m Checked by VIP 23/10/89
5. SPT blows were at 9.00 m 1,1,0,1,3,5,5,8,9,7. Test was extended due to initial blows.
Final 300 m was used to derive N value
Project CATCAIRN BUSHES, HAMPSHIRE Contract No. 5903
Notable Developments Limited Sheet No. Sheet 1 of 2

Fig. 3.6 Example of a typical borehole log (BS 5930, Fig. 22).(3)
SFDC03 1/8/06 11:10 AM Page 59

Ground Investigation 59

Start date 17 October 1989 Casing diameter 200 mm to 8.00 m BOREHOLE No. 1
150 mm to 12.00 m National grid 5423.0 E
End date 21 October 1989 100 mm to 14.00 m Coordinates 4256.0 N
Drilling method Cable percussion to 12.00 m Borehole diameter 200 mm to 8.50 m Orientation Vertical
Rotary coring to 21.50 m 150 mm to 12.00 m Ground level 33.68 m OD
Equipment TH6 core barrel, water flush 100 mm to 21.50 m
Depth SPT
to water Sample/core recovery blows Fracture
Date Casing (m) /N spacing Depth
Level
and depth (minimum Description of strata (thickness) Legend
Flush Depth (m) Type No. Core (m OD)
time (m) average (m)
return AL/ size measurement)
(%) from to TCR SCR RQD (mm)
10.00–10.50 D 15 kV (k = 1.0 10.00 23.68
10.00–11.00 B 16 × 10.6) 10.20 23.48
SAND (as sheet 1)

C 103 25 mm Probably dense, slightly sandy angular to (0.55)

11.00 1.35 11.00 D 17
11.00–11.40 B 18 (k = 5.5 rounded GRAVEL and COBBLES of quartz
11.00–11.50 × 10.6) and limestone. (ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS)
kV 11.30 22.38
Very weak to moderately weak very thinly bedded
17.00 11.60 D 19
grey fine and medium grained LIMESTONE.
18/10 12.00 9.30 11.80–12.00 D 20 10 mm Fracture surfaces stained orange brown.
(0.70)
20/10 12.00 2.50 76 NI (CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE)
12.00–12.50 30 0 0
08.00 (100)
Recovered as gravel size fragments from
11.30 m to 12.20 m
12.70 20.98
(100) Moderately weak thinly laminated black
12.50–14.00 95 30 5 carbonaceous MUDSTONE. Fracture closely
spaced 45° dip, smooth lightly orange stained.
NI (CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE)

14.00–14.45 D 21 50
S 46 Sub-horizontal very closely spaced polished
(1.15)
175 striated surfaces from 13.30 m to 14.20 m
(100) 18.58
14.45–15.50 100 50 25
15.00
Strong thinly to medium bedded dark grey medium
(0) grained LIMESTONE. Fractures medium spaced,
C 50 20 mm dip 45° and 60° rough, stained. Fractures dip 90°
15.00–16.10 CS 1 50 up to 0.5 m long, stepped rough, tight, clear
175 (CARBONIFEROUS LIMESTONE)
200
Sub-horizontal very closely spaced polished
striated surfaces from 13.30 m to 14.20 m
(0) 15.50–18.00 90 80 80

17.31–17.49 CS 2
80 65° fracture with 50 mm clay infill at 17.50 m
18.00 250
20/10 14.00 10.00 350 (2.00)
18.00–19.50
kP (L = 50)
21/10 14.00 11.00
08.00

(0) 18.00–20.00 100 85 80

19.00 14.68
0.40 19.20–19.73 CS 3 LIMESTONE
(0.50)
(75)

20.00–21.50 kP (L = 10) 20.00 13.68

Remarks 6. In situ borehole vane test carried out at 6.00 m Logged by DRN 21/10/89
7. In situ variable head permeability tests (kV) were carried out from 10.00 m to 10.50 m and
Compiled by ANO 25/10/89
11.00 m to 11.50 m depth
8. In situ ‘Packer’ water injection tests (kP) were carried out from 18.00 to 19.50 m and 20.00 m Checked by VIP 26/10/89
to 21.50 m depth
9. Geophysical borehole logging was carried out by ANO on completion
Project CATCAIRN BUSHES, HAMPSHIRE Contract No. 5903
Notable Developments Limited Sheet No. Sheet 2 of 2

Fig. 3.6 (cont’d )

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60 Approach and First Considerations

Table 3.10 Typical example of explanation of symbols and abbreviations to accompany borehole log (see Fig. 3.6)(1)

Samples
U Undisturbed driven tube sample, 100 mm nominal diameter unless noted
P Undisturbed pushed piston sample, 100 mm nominal diameter unless noted
TW Thin wall tube (pushed)
CBR CBR mould sample
BLK Block sample
D Small disturbed sample
B Disturbed bulk sample
WS Water sample
CS Core sample (from rotary core) taken for laboratory testing
Test results (detailed test results normally presented elsewhere in report)
S Standard penetration test, split spoon sampler
C Standard penetration test, solid cone
K Field permeability test, type of test to be indicated, e.g. kFH indicates falling head, kPI indicates packer injection
V, PP Field vane test, vane shear strength quoted for natural (n) and remoulded (r) tests in kN/m2, e.g. IVp for peak in
situ vane, HVr for residual hand vane, PP for pocket penetrometer
Ia or Id Point load strength quoted for axial (a) and diametral (d) tests in MN/m2, corrected to 50 mm reference diameter
CS Core sample for laboratory testing
Drilling records
W or F Flush returns, estimated percentage returns together with colour where relevant
TCR Total core recovery, %
SCR Solid core recovery, %
RQD Rock quality designation, %
lf Fracture spacing, mm. The term non-intact (NI) is used where the core can be fragmented. Additional detail can be
often given by quoting minimum, average and maximum fracture spacings
Strata/sample description details (general)
(Fg) (Fine gravel size) sp spaced
(Mg) (Medium gravel size) cl closely
(Cg) (Coarse gravel size) occ occasional
(Co) (Cobble size) v very
Vert. Vertical sl slightly
Subv. Subvertical lt light
Horz. Horizontal dk dark
Subh. Subhorizontal pkt pocket
deg. Degrees wk weak

BH1 BH5
BH2 BH4 20.000
BH3

1.800 0.750 1.400

1.200 17.500
1.400
2.700 2.750
height above datum (m)

15.000
3.350 4.900
5.500
5.500
6.200 5.300 12.500

10.000
9.900 9.000
9.700 10.400

7.500
11.500
peat
silty sand 5.000

stiff boulder clay

sandstone and shale bedrocks note: the horizontal and
vertical scales may differ
groundwater level for ease of presentation

Fig. 3.7 Soil profile for a typical site.

SFDC03 1/8/06 11:10 AM Page 61

Ground Investigation 61

borehole region of inferred

observations of similarity
similar soil type
in borehole
supplementary dip observation
borehole

B
correct interpretation (an extra
borehole at position B permits
correct correlation and
interpretation of data)
g thickness
strata of varyin

misinterpretation

strat
a of
cons
tant
thick
ness

Fig. 3.8 Misinterpretation of soil profile (Weltman, A.J. & Head, J.M., Site Investigation Manual,
CIRIA (1983),(4) Fig. 74).

The analysis should also enable the contractor to assess of the facts from experience. The facts and opinions must be
the need for specialist operations such as dewatering. The clearly separated. Since the report is likely to be subject to
final results, after laboratory testing, should be given to hard and frequent usage it is advisable to bind it between
such specialists along with the invitation to tender for the stiff covers rather than merely stapling a mass of A4 sheets.
project. (It is a wise precaution to state in the invitation to
The script, drawings and layout should be checked and
tender the specified results and not the method of operation.
re-checked just as carefully as calculations and drawings
For example, unscrupulous dewatering sub-contractors
from the design office.
may tender to hire dewatering equipment to the site and not
necessarily quote for dewatering it.) A recommended procedure is as follows:

3.10 Site investigation report (1) Collect data, categorize it and rough out a preliminary
draft.
The report should contain the information gained in re- (2) Edit the draft and seek methods of visual presentation
connaissance, survey, investigation, testing and soil survey and tabulation.
recommendations and the design engineer’s recommenda- (3) Polish re-draft and check for improvements in pres-
tions. Since the report is the property of the client his per- entation, check for typing errors and appearance.
mission should be obtained for its distribution to invited
main and appropriate specialist sub-contractors and any 3.10.1 Factors affecting quality of report
public authority collecting soil data.
The restraints of time and funding that need to be allowed
The report will contain a mass of information which must
for in the investigation have been discussed in earlier
be presented in an orderly, easily digested manner and
sections. There are other factors which can affect the quality
written in clear, unambiguous, good English. Since most
of the investigation, recommendations and the engineering
of the intended readers are mainly visually orientated, the
judgement. Among those which may affect some engineers
use of photos, maps, soil profiles, borehole logs and other
are:
visual aids is to be recommended as is the tabulation of test
results and other information. The report is not a thesis nor (1) Uncritical acceptance of well-presented opinion, results
a scientific treatise, but a factual report with comments, of sophisticated (but not necessarily relevant) tests and
opinions and recommendations based on the interpretation over- and unqualified respect for some specialists.
SFDC03 1/8/06 11:10 AM Page 62

62 Approach and First Considerations

(2) Allowing site difficulties to dictate the investigation in utilities and the like, and the field survey. It should
an attempt to keep the investigation simple and cheap. detail the position and depth of trial pits and boreholes,
(3) Lack of recognition that piling and other foundation equipment used and in situ testing and information.
techniques can be used to economic advantage even on (2) Boreholes, trial pits and soil profiles. This section will be
good sites. mainly a visual presentation of the logs and profiles
(4) Lack of recognition that some fills, possibly upgraded together with colour photographs of the trial pits.
by ground improvement techniques, can provide an Where possible, written information should be given in
adequate and economic bearing strata. note form on the soil profiles.
(5) Lack of appreciation that advances in structural design (3) Soil tests. This should list the site and laboratory tests
can accommodate relatively high settlements. drawing attention to any unusual, unexpected or spe-
(6) Under-estimation of the importance of the designer, cial results. The results of the tests should be tabulated,
at least, visiting the site during the investigation or for ease of reference, and diagrams of such information
dismissal of trial pits as unscientific or out-dated. as particle size distribution, pressure–void ratio curves
and Mohr’s circles should be given. If such form of pre-
3.10.2 Sequence of report sentation is not fully adequate then test descriptions
and results should be given in an appendix.
Foundation reports follow the normal sequence of items
of engineering reports in having a title, contents list,
3.10.5 Results
synopsis, introduction, body of the report, conclusions and
recommendations. Lengthy descriptions of tests and sim- This must give details of ground conditions, previous
ilar matters are best dealt with in appendices and the test use of site, present conditions, groundwater and drainage
results tabulated in the body of the report. The client tends pattern.
to read the synopsis and recommendations; the main and
The tests must give adequate information to determine the
sub-contractors concentrate on the body of the report and
soil’s bearing capacity, settlement characteristics, behavi-
the design office on its conclusions and recommendations.
our during and after foundation construction and, where
If the brief imposed such limitations on cost and time necessary, its chemical make-up and condition.
allocation for the investigation that the engineer was not
able to carry out an adequate survey this should be tact- 3.10.6 Recommendations
fully pointed out. It should also be made clear in such cases
that the engineer’s conclusions and recommendations are This is both comment on the facts and also opinions based
qualified – this is unfortunately advisable in the present on experience; the difference should be made clear. Since
litigatious climate. the discussion is usually a major part of the report it should
be broken down into sections for ease of reference and
3.10.3 Site description readability.

This, as far as possible, should be given on small-scale plans The first section should briefly describe the proposed main
showing site location, access and surrounding area. The and subsidiary structures and their loading, a description
proposed position of the buildings and access roads should and assessment of the ground conditions and the types of
be shown. The site plan should also show the general layout appropriate foundations.
and surface features, note presence of existing buildings, The second section should advise on foundation depths,
old foundations and previous usage, services, vegetation, pressures, settlements, discuss alternatives giving advant-
surface water, any subsidence or unstable slopes, etc. ages, disadvantages and possible problems keeping in
Written description of the site exposure (for wind speed mind cost and buildability considerations.
regulations) should be given together with records of any Typical main recommendations are:
flooding, erosion and other geographical and hydrographic
information. (1) Safe bearing capacities at various depths, estimates
of total and differential settlement and time-span of
Geological maps and sections should, when they are neces- settlement.
sary, be provided, noting mines, shafts, quarries, swallow- (2) Problems of excavation (fills, rock, water ingress, toxic
holes and other geological features affecting design and and combustible material).
construction. (3) Chemical attack on concrete and steel by sulfates and
Photographs taken on the site, preferably colour ones, can chlorides or acids within soil.
be very helpful and should be supplemented by aerial (4) Flotation effect on buoyant or submerged foundations.
photographs if considered necessary. (5) Where the proposed structure houses plant which
could vibrate or impact shock the soil, the effect on the
soil must be assessed.
3.10.4 The ground investigation
(6) Details of any necessary geotechnical processes to
(1) Background study and location of holes. This should give improve the soil’s properties.
a full account of the desk-top study, examination of (7) Where piling is necessary, information must be given
old records, information from local authorities, public on founding level, possible negative skin friction,
SFDC03 1/8/06 11:10 AM Page 63

Ground Investigation 63

obstructions, appropriate type and installation of piles The main problem of foundation design is usually the
and the effects of piling on adjacent constructions and estimate of likely large and/or differential settlement and
existing buildings. the presence of aggressive chemicals which could attack
(8) Where a foundation is subject to lateral loading, the the foundation concrete and could cause health or environ-
magnitude and position of the loading must be given mental hazards.
together with the skin friction between the soil and the
The test for settlement is better carried out by site
passive resistance of the soil.
tests using a larger test area than a plate test. This can
(9) Where retaining walls are required, information is
be achieved by the use of refuse skips of base area of about
needed on active pressure, passive resistance, sur-
2–5 m2. These are placed on a levelled area of the fill
charge, factor of safety against slip circle failure, pos-
covered with a levelled, 100 mm, layer of sand to ensure
sible landslides or slips.
uniform pressure. The skip can be either filled with water
(10) Where road construction is involved requiring CBR
or damp sand, of known density, and the settlement of the
values, etc., though this is outside the scope of this book.
fill measured over a period of a month or so.
The final section should give firm recommendations on the
The presence of aggressive chemicals is determined by
foundation type or types to be adopted.
chemical analysis of samples from the pits or bores. It is
even more important on contaminated sites to determine
3.11 Fills (made ground)
the possible changes in water movement since deep-lying
Filled ground can vary from carefully backfilled selected contaminants can be leached to the surface and attack the
material placed in relatively thin layers which have been foundations.
properly compacted to indiscriminate tipping of domestic
Though the foundation costs on such sites are very likely
or industrial waste. Fills vary so widely that it is impossible
to be higher than normal sites, this can be compensated
to standardize investigation procedure. Details are given in
for by lower land costs and the possibility of grant funding
Chapters 5 and 7 where health and safety aspects relating to
via Regional Development Agencies. As is shown in later
the carrying out of the investigation are highlighted and
chapters, such sites can be successfully reclaimed and
discussed. Further reference should be made to these chap-
developed using ground treatments and foundation tech-
ters before embarking upon any ground investigation.
niques such as vibro-stabilization, dynamic consolidation,
Fills can contain highly toxic chemicals, dangerous asbestos, preloading, buoyant rafts, piling, etc.
voids caused by rusting containers and old cars, biodegrad-
Such sites are a challenge to the designer’s ingenuity and
able materials, obstructions such as old girders and existing
provide job-satisfaction in changing an eyesore into a
foundations, waste from collieries and gas works with high
social amenity. The authors’ experience on such sites, for
sulfate content, material liable to spontaneous combus-
example, the Liverpool International Garden Festival site,
tion when exposed to the atmosphere – and similar horrors.
Birkenhead Docks, the abandoned Tate and Lyle works at
Boring through and sampling such material can be difficult,
Liverpool and many others, testify to this.
hazardous and, more, be unreliable in forming an assess-
ment of behaviour and properties of such fills.
3.12 Legal issues
Such sites would not have been considered economically
As stated earlier site investigation is not an exact science;
or technically suitable for development in the recent past,
it provides a reasonable estimate and predictions and not
but with the growing demand for building land, the drive
an accurate forecast. Therefore, on occasions, unexpected
for inner-city regeneration and increased resistance to
difficulties can occur causing increased costs and construc-
encroaching on green belts around cities, such sites do
tion delay. Most major clients appreciate this possibility
now have to be considered. Obviously for such sites the
and are aware of the need for contingency funds. However
preliminary investigation is of even greater importance
some clients (and some contractors) are ‘claim-happy’ and
though it can be more difficult. For derelict industrial sites
may be liable to proceed with litigation. Provided that the
efforts should be made to contact the former owners and
engineers have been prudent, have given normal profes-
for abandoned inner-city sites the local authority may have
sional skill and thoroughness, have advised the client on
old records.
limitations and of the need to amend the brief, then it is
Where the depth of fill is relatively shallow (up to about very unlikely that claims against the engineer would be
5 m), as in old filled-in cellars and basements, the probable substantiated. Should a claim be likely or threatened, the
best method of investigation is by trial pits dug by excav- company should immediately advise its indemnity insurers.
ators. When the depth of possibly contaminated fills exceeds
Since boring, sampling, testing and analysis have become,
5 m, it is expensive to excavate trial pits and it is better to
and are continuing to be more highly specialized and
employ specialist soil survey firms who should attempt to
sophisticated, specialist engineering skills beyond the
identify the material, its toxicity, concentration and extent.
experience and knowledge of many structural designers
The taking of samples (unless the fill is uniform) is difficult are called for. It is therefore advisable to employ specialist
and site and laboratory testing of the normal small samples firms. Reputable, experienced site investigation firms, pro-
does not generally enable a reasonable assessment of the vided with adequate indemnity, should be invited to quote
fill’s strength and behaviour to be made. for the survey. While attention and study should be given
SFDC03 1/8/06 11:10 AM Page 64

64 Approach and First Considerations

to the rates for boring, extra-overs for drilling through exact science – but no engineering activity is exact, and soil
boulders, costs for sampling, standing time, etc., care must mechanics tends to be somewhat less exact than structural
be exercised in not attaching over-importance to individual design.
rates – it is analogous to ask a designer to quote for A3, A2
In order to simplify structural design, simplifying assump-
details and A4 calculation sheets and to use such quotes in
tions have to be made to develop theories – e.g., the
assessing the design fee. It is the thoroughness and reliab-
material is assumed to be perfectly elastic, the loadings
ility of the survey that is important and value-for-money
are known with exactitude, the end conditions are firmly
takes precedence over individual rates.
postulated, etc. These simplifications do not reflect the
practicalities of construction but are helpful to the designer
3.13 Time
in his assessments to which factors of safety are applied.
The last part of the structure that can be designed and
Exactly the same process occurs in soil mechanics with
detailed are the foundations but they are the first working
a range of simplifying assumptions being made in the
details the contractor needs. So time is usually of the
sampling, testing and interpreting of results in order to
essence. Generally if enough is known of the site to be
obtain soil parameters for bearing pressure and settlement
assured that it is suitable to build on then planning and
calculations.
design of the structure can start while the site and soil are
being examined. If the site is suspect or likely to require Similarly, the testing should be subject to engineering
exorbitantly expensive foundations it is right to delay assessment and not accepted passively and uncritically.
design until sufficient information is available to decide on The concrete cube test is a somewhat simple and crude
the feasibility of the project. assessment of concrete strength but its correlation with the
strength of the real concrete in the actual structure is reason-
Obtaining preliminary information from the sources men-
ably well established from long experience. Few engineers
tioned in section 3.3.2 can be a slow process so the earlier it
would order the demolition of recently built concrete
is started the better.
simply because an occasional cube failed to reach a specified
Clients negotiating to buy the land often urgently need an strength. The engineer would probably check first the test
approximate cost of the proposed foundation. Frequently, procedure, method, etc., then check the materials, mixing,
cheap land is only cheap because it is thought that the founda- etc. on site and finally examine the concrete in the structure.
tion costs are likely to be high. It is not advisable for engin- Similarly many engineers would check, by physical feel,
eers to commit themselves to an unequivocal foundation the strength of clay on site in addition to relying on tests.
cost but rather to provide an estimate based on the avail- A typical example is shown in Table 3.11.
able knowledge at the time of estimate and to inform the
As with the interpretation of concrete cube results it is not
client that adjustment to the estimate may be necessary
likely that an experienced engineer would condemn a soil
when the results of the full investigation are available.
on the result of one test alone without examining the other
Foundation construction can be the major cause of delaying data as well as the test and sampling procedure method.
completion of the project and thus expense to the client (in Nor would an experienced engineer reject the results of a
delay on return on capital) and to the contractor (adding to sound test merely because it contradicted preconceived
site overheads). assessment of the soil strength and characteristics.

This discussion is not meant in any way to denigrate or dis-

3.14 Conclusions
miss the very valuable research and theoretical analyses
It should be apparent from the foregoing discussion carried out with devotion over the past 60 years. Without
that neither ground investigation nor soil mechanics is an such work it is likely that with heavier structures built on

Table 3.11 Field classification of clays (Weltman, A.J. & Head, J.M., Site Investigation Manual, CIRIA (1983),(4)
Table 4)

Consistency Field test Undrained shear Equivalent Na value

strength range (kN/m2) (very approximate)

Very soft Exudes between fingers when squeezed in hand under 20 under 2

Soft Moulded by light finger pressure 20 to 40 2 to 4

(soft to firm) (40 to 50)

Firm Can be moulded by strong finger pressure 50 to 75 4 to 8

(firm to stiff) (75 to 100)

Stiff Cannot be moulded by fingers. Can be indented by thumb. 100 to 150 8 to 15

Very stiff or hard Can be indented by thumbnail over 150 over 15

a
Such a relationship should only be used as a preliminary evaluation of clay consistency, and should be reassessed at individual sites
SFDC03 1/8/06 11:10 AM Page 65

Ground Investigation 65

poorer ground there would have been far more foundation 4. Weltman, A.J. & Head, J.M. (1983) Site Investigation Manual.
failures. CIRIA Special Publication 25.
5. Proceedings of the 2nd European Symposium on Penetration
The object of this discussion is to caution young engineers
Testing, May 1982, Amsterdam.
not to be ‘blinded by science’ but to use critical assessment 6. British Geotechnical Society (1970) In situ Investigations in Soils
in applying the results to design. and Rocks: Proceedings.
7. Clayton, C.R.I. (1995) The Standard Penetration Test (SPT):
3.15 Further information Methods and Use. CIRIA Report 143.
In addition to the references quoted in the foregoing text, 8. Nixon, I.K. (1982) The Standard Penetration Test: A State-of-the-
Art Report, Proceedings of the 2nd European Symposium on
the reader is also directed to References 11–13 for further
Penetration Testing, May 1982, Amsterdam.
information.
9. Mair, R.J. & Wood, D.M. (1987) Pressuremeter Testing: Methods
and Interpretation. Butterworths, London.
3.16 References 10. Terzaghi, K., Peck, R.B. & Gholamreza, M. (1996) Soil
1. Observer (2003) Quote from the Association of British Insurers. Mechanics in Engineering Practice, 3rd edn. John Wiley &
4 May. Sons Inc.
2. Dumbleton, M.J. & West, G. (1976) Preliminary sources of 11. British Standards Institution (1990) Methods of test for soils for
information for site investigations in Britain. Transport and Road civil engineering purposes. BS 1377, BSI, London.
Research Laboratory Report LR403, 2nd edition, Department 12. British Standards Institution (1986) BS 8004, Code of Practice for
of the Environment. Foundations. BSI, London.
3. British Standards Institution (1999) Code of practice for site invest- 13. Meigh, A.C. (1987) Cone Penetration Testing: Methods and
igations. BS 5930, BSI, London. Interpretation. Butterworth-Heinemann, London.
SFDC04 1/8/06 11:10 AM Page 67

Part 2
Special and Further Considerations
SFDC04 1/8/06 11:10 AM Page 68
SFDC04 1/8/06 11:10 AM Page 69

4 Topography and its Influence on

Site Development

4.1 Introduction 4.2 Implications from surface observations

Topographical and physical features on a site can be a An initial site inspection will reveal the obvious physical
product of the sub-soil and below-ground conditions. An features occurring or influencing the site. The main points
engineering interpretation of topographical features can will fall into the following categories:
give an important insight into these conditions and high-
(1) Changes in level, ground slopes and movement.
light potential problems for development. For example, the
(2) Mounds, depressions and disturbed ground.
types of vegetation which have established themselves
(3) Past or current activities – mining, quarrying, filling,
on the site, the vigour of their growth and colour variation,
buildings.
all express information on quality and type of soils and
(4) Vegetation.
water content below surface level. Natural ground slopes
(5) Surface ponding or watercourses.
can provide information on likely soil strengths; ground
contours, depressions and ripples can indicate past and These points are discussed individually below, although
possible future ground movements. Surface deposits overlaps are inevitable.
and obstructions can provide information on previous site
use and possible man-made conditions to be overcome. 4.2.1 Changes in level, ground slopes and
Water ponding, streams or dry ditches can suggest areas movements
where sub-soil conditions and strengths differ from sur-
Abrupt changes in level may mean discontinuity of sub-soil
rounding areas. Additional site investigation should be
conditions which will require localized investigations. The
implemented at these locations to confirm the nature and
angle of slopes for stability varies and is dependent upon
extent of variations.
soil type. Granular soils such as sands have a natural angle
Useful information can be collected from records, for of repose of approximately 30° while hard rocks can be
instance, surface features from Ordnance Survey (OS) vertical or overhanging. Rock strength is wide-ranging and
maps, sub-soil details from geological maps, below-ground for sedimentary rocks can vary greatly depending on the
services from statutory authorities, mining operations from angle of the force to the bedding plane (see Fig. 4.1).
The Coal Authority/the Mineral Valuers Office, sub-soil Cross-section (a) in Fig. 4.1 is less stable than cross-section
conditions/substructure constructions from local authority (b), relative to the direction of the applied load. This is due
building control offices. to the weakness in the bedding plane to shear forces. In
A site visit however, is essential to gain a real appreciation the case of groundwater percolation parallel to the bedding
of actual conditions. A walk around the site and observa- planes, the upper layers of the rocks shown in section (a)
tions of the adjacent areas can give a better feel for the are also more exposed to frost and weathering than those in
extent and nature of sub-soil checks which should be imple- section (b).
mented. The type of developments on adjoining areas Cohesive soils are influenced more by factors such as mois-
and how the constructions have performed, can also give ture content, which can vary and affect slope stability.
valuable information when it comes to consideration of
development proposals for the site. Steep slopes on site therefore, can be an indication of likely
soil strength but it should be noted however that strong
Some features can be more easily seen from the air vegetation can stabilize slopes which would fail at such
and aerial surveying techniques are useful for identify- steep angles if unprotected. Conversely, removal of such
ing fault lines, outcropping strata and buried features. vegetation can cause instability. Observations in less pro-
Archaeological sites and mine shafts have been located tected or wet areas will often reveal signs of movement in
from air surveys when ground level checks have proved the form of embankment slippage or surface ripples (see
inconclusive. Fig. 4.2), which would indicate that long-term stability of
the slope is questionable.
The following sections highlight points to look out for
and the implications of various features. Some features Other signs of movements relate to shrinkage cracking, hill-
can be the product of a combination of the causes discussed side creep or heave affecting surface coverings of pathways
and it should be appreciated that the following comments or fissures in the landscape. These often indicate clay sub-
are intended for general guidance only. strata sensitive to moisture changes or creep. Other surface
SFDC04 1/8/06 11:10 AM Page 70

70 Special and Further Considerations

load
original level

inclined bedding
plane

local slippage
(a)
Fig. 4.2 Ground slippage.

load
numerous pipes with loose fills of clay, sand and flint
debris (see Fig. 4.3). Typical diameters vary from 2 metres
to 10 metres or more.

level bedding The pipes tend to be conical or cylindrical in shape and can
plane be disturbed by adjacent constructions or changes to water
drainage and collapse of adjacent voids. The installation of
soak-away drains is commonly responsible for subsidence
activity in chalk especially where the drain is in a cover
of sand above the chalk. The conditions which develop in
these debris filled pipes and voids is similar to that of fill
containers discussed in Chapter 7 and reference should be
(b) made to that chapter for further information.

Fig. 4.1 Angle of force to bedding plane. Surface observations, geological maps and historical re-
cords of the area should be used to provide information
on the likelihood of collapse from these conditions. From
movements can be the result of settlements from mining
this information the requirements and details of the ground
activities or brine extraction (see Chapter 6).
investigation can be decided.

4.2.2 Mounds, depressions and disturbed (1) Additional boreholes may reveal hidden pipes such as
ground in Fig. 4.3 (b) which can prove expensive to locate on a
blind basis.
Surface depressions may be produced as a result of the
(2) It is far simpler to dig trial pits in the area of a proposed
formation of swallow-holes which occur in chalk sub-
building, which will reveal types (a), (c) and (d) in Fig. 4.3
soils. Water flowing through chalk strata forms voids in
which have the greatest effects on shallow footings.
the chalk. These features are called swallow-holes, pipes
and sink holes and tend to be related to topography. Steep Type (b) in Fig. 4.3 can then be catered for by designing
slopes and drainage channels create concentrations of water reinforced footings to span over a notional future soft spot
flow which form voids in chalk. Some chalk areas contain without the hit and miss expense of numerous boreholes.

ground level

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 4.3 Swallow-holes.

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Topography and its Influence on Site Development 71

disturbed
ground disturbed
ground

bomb crater hole from large

fallen tree

Fig. 4.4 Surface depressions.

Surface depressions can also be the result of bomb craters 4.2.3 Past or current activities
or fallen trees. In wooded countryside recognition of bomb
craters and other ground disturbances are a little more Mining
obvious than in inner-city sites (see Fig. 4.4). On inner-city
The most obvious signs of past mining activities are
sites the disturbed contours have often been re-levelled but
the foundation and superstructures of winding gear and
not in rural areas. The exploding bomb deposits disturbed
buildings along with dirt tracks and mounds of excavated
ground on the circumference of the depression (bomb
debris. Many derelict mines however, have been levelled to
crater), whereas the hole left by a fallen large tree causes
the ground and topsoil has been imported and deposited
disturbed ground to one side of the depression.
over the original site. The only evidence for these situations
On developed sites it is more likely that the hole would at surface level is likely to be a variation in vegetation
have been levelled with fill material. The bomb crater there- colour and vigour of growth. It is most important therefore,
fore, is likely to have a different fill in the top to that of the to make the relevant enquiries and desk studies recom-
disturbed ground in the bottom and recognition of the true mended in Chapter 6.
depth of the disturbed ground below the fill is not easy.
Most mines will still have quantities of excavated material
This is due to the lower layers of the fill being very similar
such as shale and poor-quality coal scattered around the area,
to the virgin ground (see Fig. 4.5).
which can be recognized from ground contours, vegeta-
Recognition of the location of such backfilled depressions tion and exposed shaley deposits. The implications of such
relies upon observation of type and colour of vegetation, observations are that it is possible and probable that mining
followed up with trial holes. A common surface filling of has taken place and that addits, shafts, bell-pits, shallow or
these depressions was fire ash with the depression being deep workings may exist below the site. The danger of
used as a convenient container for fire ash waste in built-up subsidence, methane gas, combustion, collapse of shafts and
areas. The result of this activity has tended to favour vegeta- underground tunnels should be investigated (see Chapter 6).
tion in the form of nettles and other growths which do
not rely upon a high-quality soil. Nettle growth has helped Quarrying and filling
locate many backfilled holes and depressions during a site
Rock quarries are often partly or totally unfilled, and there-
walkabout.
fore the steep sides and access ramps are obvious remnants
of past activities (see Fig. 4.6).

additional filling Sand and gravel quarries often penetrate below the water-
table and lakes develop, of which many are now used for
water sports. Other quarries however, have been used for
tipping of refuse and rubbish and in some cases are totally
filled back to the original ground level. Topographical evid-
ence in such cases can often be seen in surface subsidence
and cracking around the quarry/fill interface or in vegeta-
tion variations along a clear line at the edge of the filling.
Also quarry waste or fill materials may litter the surface.

Tipping and fill

Site mounds and hillocks are features usually indicative

of possible surface tipping. In most cases on inner-city sites
the fill will vary from soils and building rubble to house-
backfilled disturbed original disturbed
hold refuse. On inner-city sites old basements are often
ground ground
filled with demolition rubble, and this can be seen when the
Fig. 4.5 Backfilled depression. topsoil is scraped off the surface.
SFDC04 1/8/06 11:10 AM Page 72

72 Special and Further Considerations

surface drift the condition of existing structures so that any deteriora-

deposits tion or damage can be identified.

The sensitivity of the occupants of any buildings to con-

struction noise and vibration must not be overlooked.
Hospitals, housing and offices are more sensitive than
factories and warehouses, and the use of construction
rock rock methods such as heavy sheet piling may be precluded, or
at least the inclusion in the contract requirements of silent
or vibrationless techniques may be required.

4.2.4 Vegetation
Vegetation growth relies upon plant food and an appro-
priate water supply. Different plants prefer varying soil
Fig. 4.6 Rock quarry. conditions, some prefer acidic conditions, others alkaline
conditions. Some like water-logged ground and others
well drained soils. Disturbance of the ground changes soil
Shafts, wells and culverts drainage, imported fill changes the food and acidity from
that of the surrounding ground. The results at surface level
Surface identification of filled underground shafts is very
can vary from a total change of plant species, to colour
difficult but vegetation variation may give some indication.
and vigour variation in similar species. Reed grasses and
In some areas shafts and wells may be visible at ground
willow trees prefer wet conditions, nettles will grow in
level, for example, mine shafts are sometimes kept open for
ash and filled areas where other plants will not. Grasses
groundwater observations or ventilation purposes, and
often become yellow in poor food areas or dry soils. Aerial
these may have been extended upwards using brickwork
photography can identify even less obvious variations than
or other forms of masonry. In the case of mine shafts it
ground level inspections, and such topographical observa-
is often necessary to cap the shaft and isolate (sterilize) an
tions can save endless abortive trial pit excavation by hom-
area around the shaft from development. Wells, like shafts,
ing in on a likely location of a filled area.
can be filled, grouted and capped to prevent settlement (see
Chapter 6).
4.2.5 Surface ponding or watercourses
Culverts and field drains are less obvious at ground level,
Surface ponding, rivers and streams reveal valuable
but their presence should always be suspected on low-lying
information relating to soil conditions and likely water-
sites, boggy ground, or sites with names such as Marsh
table levels. Eroding banks of streams and rivers reveal
Lane, or Spring Fields, etc. The identification of the line of
more direct information on the actual soils at these levels.
existing culverts usually relies on historical records for
The drainage of soil after rainstorms combined with stream
location, unless the outfall is on or near the site. Others may
embankment observation can create a picture of the ground
only be uncovered by excavation since no records exist
conditions below.
of many of the old stone culverts used for drainage. The
need to alter foundation designs locally over such culverts For instance, free draining sub-soils such as sand and gravel
or to divert them means that their position can be critical will only pond if a clay or partly impervious topsoil over-
to development and it is important to locate these lines as lies these sub-soil conditions or the water-table is very high.
accurately as possible, or at the very least to include for
possible diversion within the contract. Example

One of the practice’s engineers, having lived in the area of a

Adjoining buildings and retaining walls
particular site since childhood, remembered that when it
Existing buildings and structures on or local to the site can was, in former times, a farmer’s field there was often a pond
be affected by future site development. It is therefore very in wet weather at one corner of the field.
important to record the locations and types of buildings
The development in question was multi-phased and spread
for consideration in conjunction with the soil reports and
over many years, and the site investigation for the whole
other topographical observations. Existing foundations and
area had been carried out before phase 1. Phase 8 was
retaining walls undermined by the reduced level dig of
partially over the area of the former pond, now landscaped
the new development will require underpinning. Moisture
as part of the developed works.
changes from dewatering in sensitive soils affect the load-
ing capacity of adjoining sites, which in turn causes settle- Because of this memory, a reluctant client was persuaded to
ment. Buildings on soils sensitive to changes in stress from pay for a further site investigation. This revealed consider-
overlapping bulbs of pressure also restrict and affect the able depths of peat below the former pond area, which the
proposals for new developments. original site investigation had missed.
Prior to the commencement of building works or develop- The practice was asked to investigate the cause of major
ment of the site it is advisable to prepare detailed records of cracking which had developed in a newly built detached
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Topography and its Influence on Site Development 73

property. The scenario was exactly as described above, In the case of cut-and-fill, the level to be adopted for the
but the engineer employed by the developer had failed to ground floor slab of the development depends on a number
identify the peat problem from an inadequate desk study of criteria. The main criterion is the level to suit the function
and trial pit investigation. of the building, and secondly, achieving an economical
cut-and-fill operation. The economics are influenced by the
The property had to be underpinned and the resulting
ease of excavation of the sub-strata, the suitability of the
indemnity claim was costly.
removed material for re-use as filling (both the material
properties and potential contamination should be con-
4.3 Effects on development arising from sidered), the cost of retention of the cut-and-fill faces and
topographical features the implications on the building services and infrastruc-
Following (or during) the site inspection the implications ture. Where excavation of the materials is relatively simple
of the features observed can be considered with regard and the material easy to compact, the cut-and-fill can be
to development proposals. Dependent upon the stage of balanced to avoid either importing of fill materials or
development plans it may be possible to introduce modi- removal of them from site (see Fig. 4.7).
fications to the buildings which will overcome difficulties Figure 4.7 shows a gently sloping site with a gravel sub-
or problems on the site. It may even be possible to exploit strata, in this case the materials can be balanced and
particular features, such as trees, ponds, or changes in level, re-used. In other cases where excavated material is not
by incorporating them into the overall development plan. suitable for re-use, a balance between cutting and filling
The main points for consideration which arise from the may not be achieved. From an economic point of view each
topographical features are discussed below. site must be dealt with on its own merits, depending upon
retention conditions, local disposal of excavated material,
4.3.1 Sloping sites and availability of imported hardcore. The retention of
cut-and-fill depends very much on the size of the site relat-
The location of a building on a sloping site can be very
ive to the building. Retaining walls are much more expens-
important for both cost and function. Exploiting close con-
ive to construct than the cost of regrading the sub-soil
tours where a change in level is required while keeping
materials, provided sufficient area is available to allow
level areas to more widely spread contours can be effective
shallow regraded slopes to be achieved. Figure 4.8 shows
to achieve an economical solution. However, it is necessary
an example of a school building constructed by the authors’
to consider this in the overall context of the development
practice.
and other factors may have significant cost implications.
Building on a sloping site will usually involve a cut-and- Retention of materials by semi-basement walls/founda-
fill operation or retaining wall constructions or stepped tions is discussed in Chapter 15 but a possible conflict with
foundations. mining requirements is mentioned here.

cut
raft foundation

fill – well compacted

in layers

Fig. 4.7 Cut-and-fill – graded cut slope.

sloping site

school
building
embankment
level play area

Fig. 4.8 Cut-and-fill – retained cut slope.

SFDC04 1/8/06 11:10 AM Page 74

74 Special and Further Considerations

loose coke
filling

building compressed by
mining ground strain

sand slip-plane for forces

greater than normal ground
retention limits compression
from mining strain

Fig. 4.9 Basement/retaining treatments.

original ground
level

finished ground
level

stepped foundation to
reach bearing strata

Fig. 4.10 Cut-and-fill – level slab/stepped foundation.

In mining areas a conflict can develop between the need to construct than reinforced concrete and therefore unless
to resist lateral pressure from the retained earth and the reinforcement is essential it should be avoided. The soffit of
need to prevent and control lateral strains from the ground the foundation is often stepped to limit the tendency to
due to mining activities. The details of basements and slide. This requirement however, does not usually apply to
semi-basements in mining foundations become complex, ground beams between piles and piers, since they do not
and in many cases it is almost impossible to resolve the generally bear upon the ground and can be cast with a slop-
conflicting forces. In such areas double sided basements ing soffit. It should be noted however, that where a founda-
are best avoided and one sided retention only is preferable tion design combines the use of piles and partial ground
(see Fig. 4.9). support then the level of the underside of ground beams
may be critical. The design of step foundations requires a
In the examples already considered, the cut-and-fill solution
balance to be struck to achieve buildability, economy and
and retaining condition provide a level floor slab through
structural integrity.
the building. Changes in ground floor do occur and can be
desirable in some buildings and in these situations changes
Fundamentally the steps in the foundation should be
or steps in the foundation can occur as shown in Fig. 4.10.
placed as far apart as is practical. Where the ground slope is
Steps in the foundations can also occur in conjunction with
reasonably consistent the steps should be spaced with a
level ground slabs, as shown in Fig. 4.11.
regular going and rise to suit the dimensions of the super-
If steps in the foundation produce a significant change in structure construction, for example, if a brick masonry
bearing strata then the introduction of joints through the superstructure is to be built from the foundation the step
building and foundation should be considered to avoid going and rise should be based upon brick coursing and
problems of differential settlement. From a buildability horizontal brickwork dimensions. Step positions should be
point of view, mass concrete step foundations are simpler set to avoid any intersecting foundations.
SFDC04 1/8/06 11:10 AM Page 75

Topography and its Influence on Site Development 75

stepped foundation to
reach bearing strata

Fig. 4.11 Cut-and-fill – stepped slab and foundation.

4.3.2 Slope stability sub-strata at the reduced level at the back of the site is
totally different to that at the front of the site. The variation
In addition to points already discussed a further important
can be such that completely different strata with different
consideration when building on a sloping site is the long-
consolidation, moisture content and bearing capacity are
term stability of the slope itself. Stability of cohesive soils
encountered. In addition, the effect of cutting a level founda-
on sloping sites requires detailed investigation to gather all
tion into a sloping site is to reduce the length of the slip
the relevant sub-soil parameters to carry out slip circle ana-
circle and hence the shear resistance (see Fig. 4.12).
lysis. Topography observations sometimes locate stability
problems, such as a distorted fence line up the slope or For sands and gravels the influence of loading tends to
ripples in the surface. Where the balance between adequate compact the granular materials to a denser consistency
stability and inadequate resistance to the disturbing move- which improves the frictional resistance. However, when a
ment is triggered by the development, it is sometimes pos- level foundation is cut into the site, the surface area of slip
sible to transfer the vertical loads to a suitable lower level and the mass resisting slip is much reduced in a manner
by the use of piling. It is important however, to prevent the similar to that of clay (see Fig. 4.12). Stability of sand slopes
transfer of loads via friction to the upper zone. It is also can therefore be sensitive particularly when shear resist-
necessary to check stability of the lower levels where the ance is critical. In addition, the danger of surface erosion
load has been transferred. from water and wind demands a protective apron, particu-
larly at the down slope edge of the foundation, to avoid
When detailing foundations in cohesive soils of sloping
undermining, especially where the sub-strata is fine sand.
sites it should be appreciated that certain locations are
particularly sensitive to weathering and frost damage, such As already mentioned the stability of rock slopes depends
as the down slope edge of the foundation. In addition level greatly on the angle of the bedding planes and water per-
foundations cut into a sloping site can reveal that the colation through the rock. It is essential that changes in

load P

line of
level surface

founding reduction in slip

level circle length from
that of level site

possible slip circle

Fig. 4.12 Reduced slip circle on sloping site.

SFDC04 1/8/06 11:10 AM Page 76

76 Special and Further Considerations

pivot point site contours

load P

timbered
slip excavation
circle

Fig. 4.13 Slip circle – embankment effect.

direction, folding, tilting and weathering are all recorded

when slope stability is in question, so that measures such Fig. 4.14 Trench excavations on sloping site – at right
as rock anchors or other face protection methods can be angles.
assessed.

A further factor affecting stability is surcharge loading; the line of

stability of a slope is generally adversely affected by load- original slip circle
ing placed upon it. In particular large point loads placed
at shallow levels should be avoided. The design of the trench
foundation for sloping sites should therefore reflect in the
superstructure design to ensure the ground condition influ- ground slope
ences are considered within the general solution. Smaller
shortened slip
point loads and uniformly distributed loads are often more
circle
easily dealt with, and these loads can be further distributed
by the designer using rafts, step foundations or piles.

Soils are at their most vulnerable to the initiation of a col-

original
lapse mechanism when level changes and embankments
length
occur. Slip circle failure can be critical in embankments
particularly when loaded by new constructions. (A typical
Fig. 4.15 Trench excavations on sloping site – parallel.
failure mechanism is indicated in Fig. 4.13.)

It is important in such situations to ensure, by analysis,

consideration, i.e. short failure lines through the strong axis
that the soil strength is adequate for the worst mechanism
and longer failure lines through the weaker axis.
(i.e. that which gives the lowest safety factor). The analysis
should be based upon thorough soil testing including the Loose soils or soils containing silt veins or shrinkage
effects of moisture movement and drainage. cracks tend to become particularly unstable at changes in
direction of trench excavations. These stability problems
While the long-term stability of the slope is critical, further
however, tend to be temporary and only apply during con-
consideration must be given to the temporary conditions
struction, the engineer should therefore be aware of them
which may develop during the construction stage. Tempor-
since they may influence the choice of foundation. Under
ary works for foundation construction are not covered by
the CDM Regulations(1) any such potential hazards and
this book other than where relevant to buildability. It is
risks should be considered at the design stage. Any residual
therefore only intended to deal with weakening effects
risk must be notified to the contractor.
in order to guide the engineer towards a buildable and
economical solution. Similarly, stiff clays and strong rock formations can be
criss-crossed with thin veins of silt through which moisture
On sloping sites it is generally less weakening to slope
has percolated for many years. These veins form lines of
stability to excavate at right angles to the contours (see
weakness which when orientated critically to the excava-
Fig. 4.14), provided that the normal propping requirements
tion can be crucial to stability (see Fig. 4.16), especially
for trench stability are in place. The reason for this is that
temporarily during heavy rainfall.
excavations parallel to the contours tend to shorten the
length of the slip circle resisting failure (see Fig. 4.15). Lenses of weaker material, cracking or faulting can be
crucial to stability and it is therefore important to record
This weakening must also be taken into account in the
sand lenses, silt veins, shrinkage cracking or faults in the
permanent solution if such excavations are necessary. It
soil investigation.
is not only the length of the slip circle which is critical, for
certain rock formations, the strength of the sub-strata is Slip circles are a wide subject and are often a civil engineer-
different relative to the direction of the bedding plane. ing problem, not one for the structure/foundation designer,
In such cases a number of failure alternatives may need and so it is not proposed to labour the subject any further in
SFDC04 1/8/06 11:10 AM Page 77

Topography and its Influence on Site Development 77

are. The young engineer in charge decided wisely upon

untimbered excavation stiff clay trench fill footings of the order of 2 m in depth. But addi-
tionally, due to concern about swelling and lateral move-
ment of the clay, he also included compressible material
down the sides of the trench fill. Such material is not only
an unnecessary cost in itself in a non-shrinkable area, but
is also labour intensive to secure in position. This negates
the advantage of trench fill which is based upon simply
digging a trench and filling it with concrete.

A common sense approach is therefore needed, based upon

realistic data for the site location. Past performance of the
silt vein soil along with information and observations from trial
holes noting desiccation and fissures is most important.
Fig. 4.16 Trench excavation – stability.
When collecting samples, it is crucial to maintain the mois-
ture content by sealing each in a container immediately
upon excavation. Tests on samples are valuable in assess-
this chapter. An example is included in Chapter 15 where
ing the likely characteristics of the soil, however observa-
the subject of basement wall/foundations is also discussed.
tions on soil behaviour through periods of drought and
in locations of low-rise buildings close to large trees are
4.3.3 Groundwater
essential for a realistic assessment of likely sensitivity.
Where similar buildings have been unscathed by cracking
Sands
over previous years, the clay is unlikely to be sensitive.
The effect of water on sub-soil performance is such that
Structures of high mass and small plan shape tend to move
water levels and water flow can be crucial to foundation
as one when subjected to swelling and shrinkage, these
design. Granular soils such as sands are weakened by water
buildings give little away with regard to the characteristics
to the extent of halving the bearing capacity of stable sands.
of the soil. Smaller structures with sudden changes in mass
Running sand can develop due to the movement of fine
stiffness or large plan shapes are much more sensitive.
sands and silts as a result of water flows which can cause
Cracking and movements tend to be more common on
the collapse of trenches and loss of material from below
these types of buildings. It is therefore these types of build-
adjoining areas. These movements are not only crucial to
ings in particular which the engineer should inspect during
the proposed excavation but also to the settlement of
the initial site visit.
adjoining properties.

This is particularly the case when dewatering of sub-soil Plasticity Index

is implemented, since prevention of the loss of fines from
The main basis for judgement of shrinkable soils tends to
the soil structure is crucial in preventing settlements of
be the results of Plasticity Index tests (PI). The test for PI of
adjoining buildings. Soils which are not too fine (not less
soils is relatively crude but generally reasonably effective.
than 0.006 mm) and relatively free draining are suitable
However, the relationship between PI and shrinkage is not
for dewatering. A further option for some soils is to allow
conclusive nor totally reliable. It is therefore essential that
the groundwater to stabilize the trench and to concrete the
the engineer uses skill and judgement in gathering all the
foundations through the water with a tremie, but this only
relevant information before making a decision on the
applies to soils which do not run during excavation nor
combined results and not on the PI results in isolation.
soften from contact with water in the trenches. Typically
this would consist of firm to stiff wet clay or silt, the subject A guide to PI relative to shrinkage is shown in Table 4.1.
matter of the next section.
Moisture changes occur in soils for many reasons. Some
common causes are:
Clays
(1) Seasonal weather changes.
The effect of water content changes in clay soils is to pro-
(2) Extraction of water by trees and other vegetation.
duce ground heave or shrinkage (the best indicator to the
(3) Drainage.
likely shrinkage and heave characteristics of a clay-strata
(4) Flooding.
is historical performance, followed by PI (Plasticity Index)
(5) Water-table fluctuations.
see below). The effect of trees on shrinkable soils through
(6) Dewatering.
long dry summers has created a slight over-reaction to the
shrinkage characteristics of soils and has caused the use of Many of the above causes can be altered or controlled and
excessively deep foundations. (See also Reference 2.) can therefore be influenced by the design and the actual
development undertaken.
For example, on a site in the north of England and so not
noted for shrinkable clays, mature trees were being removed The effect of seasonal weather changes can be minimized
and new ones planted following site development. The PI by preventing soils from drying out in hot weather. Con-
results were borderline, as small numbers of samples often crete pavings and skirts around buildings help prevent
SFDC04 1/8/06 11:10 AM Page 78

78 Special and Further Considerations

Table 4.1
(a) Clay volume change potential(2)

Modified Plasticity Index Volume change potential

(%)

>60 Very high

40– 60 High
20– 40 Medium
<20 Low

This classification applies only to overconsolidated clays. A normally consolidated clay may have a considerably greater shrinkage
volume change potential than is indicated by this classification.

(b) Volume change potential of some common clays

Clay type Plasticity Percentage Modified Volume change

Index (%) passing 425 mm Plasticity Index, potential
test sieve (%)

Lower Lias 38 99 38 Medium

Oxford 44 96 42 High
Weald 43 96 41 High
Gault 77 100 77 Very high
Gault 54 100 54 High
London 63 100 63 Very high
London 46 100 46 High
Glacial till:
East Anglia 20 72 14 Low
East of Scotland 21 70 15 Low

drying out and frost damage to perimeter foundations. (1) Structure flotation.
The removal of trees early enough allows the balance of (2) Basement flooding.
moisture to return to the ground prior to commencement (3) Reduced effective pressure.
of substructure construction. Avoiding development near (4) Erosion and scouring of sub-strata and foundations.
existing trees can prevent moisture changes from this source
All these effects must be considered in the design of
affecting foundations.
foundations.
Major changes in drainage of sensitive soils should be
avoided if possible. If land drainage is essential to a devel- The diversion of streams through culverts from within
opment it should be carried out sufficiently in advance to to around a development will create backfilled areas to
allow a new equilibrium of moisture content to be reached. be overcome within the foundation design. In addition
The control of groundwater on site during construction by the new watercourse container must ensure that no water
pumping or dewatering should take into account the effects continues on the old familiar route. The diversion must be
on sensitive soils. It is advisable to avoid prolonged pump- total and permanent with no danger of erosion or leakage
ing which may promote shrinkage of sensitive strata. which may eventually affect foundations.

The effect of groundwater on the foundations of a devel- 4.3.4 Settlement

opment can also be wide ranging. Watercourses above
ground can be observed and measured during surveys and Further considerations for substructure and superstructure
are generally recorded on maps and other records. The performance relate to potential settlement problems.
extent of underground watercourses is less obvious and
often less well recorded. Above ground the watercourses Swallow-holes
can vary greatly depending on seasonal changes and rain-
Where ground investigation indicates only a remote risk
fall. It is therefore not only important to gather information
of collapse from swallow-holes, normal foundations are
from maps, surveys and other records but also to contact
appropriate. If an investigation reveals some risk of void
river authorities and others responsible for watercourses
migration and relatively small-diameter collapse, raft founda-
who may have valuable information on flow, flooding,
tions designed to span such collapses are appropriate.
pollution, culverts, drainage and other local knowledge.
In addition any voids found during investigation can be
Watercourses, tidal effects and water fluctuations can grouted to prevent collapse. Where the risk is greater, a sub-
cause: stantial development would require a system of grouting
SFDC04 1/8/06 11:10 AM Page 79

Topography and its Influence on Site Development 79

voids and/or sleeve piling. The danger of piles shearing off 450 thick r.c. cap fill rockhead
during sub-soil collapse must not be overlooked and steel
sleeving can increase robustness as well as allowing slip
to occur. In addition to foundation precautions it is most
important that no soakaways are installed within a risk
drift
zone and any drainage should be carried clear of the site
before discharge.

Mining rock

Mining operations are also a major factor affecting poten-

tial settlements on a site. Inspection of the site may have fill shaft
revealed evidence of past workings and discussions with
local people may reveal further information, some not
Fig. 4.17 Mine shaft filling and capping.
well remembered but nevertheless useful. In the authors’
opinion it is always worth taking the time to speak to locals
passing the site, especially the older ones; information The treatment of wells and shafts requires safety precau-
can be inaccurate, but often provides a clue for further tions to be observed during excavation, since collapse can
investigation. be sudden and devastating. The Coal Authority has special
precautions to be observed when dealing with mine shafts
If mining has taken place in the area it is possible that a and similar precautions should be adopted when dealing
shaft may be located on the site. The Coal Authority and with wells. Backfill in shafts and wells tends to settle and
other mining authorities keep reasonable records of recent void migration progresses towards the top of the aperture.
shafts. Other older shafts, wells and old culverts are less In deep shafts the suction forces produced by sudden
well recorded, but previous advice on gathering informa- collapse of the fills can suck down a funnel of material
tion applies. It is inevitable however, that some shafts, from the surrounding ground surface, taking machinery
culverts and wells will only be discovered during devel- and equipment with it. To reduce this risk to an acceptable
opment excavations. It is most important to approach level for development, the fill should have any voids
recorded information with caution since some records are grouted and shafts or wells should be sealed with a
based upon poor memory, others on poor quality measure- reinforced concrete cap at rockhead (see Fig. 4.17).
ment, some on mistaken mapping, but some are reliable.
When excavating for a shaft in a recorded location it is 4.4 Summary
important not to assume too quickly that recorded informa-
tion is wrong simply because excavation has not revealed It can be appreciated from the points covered in this
the existence of a shaft. It is equally important not to rely chapter that a visual inspection together with checks on
totally on the recorded information. If the shaft is not vis- recorded information is a vital point of the site appraisal
ible or obvious at ground level the recorded location should and a prerequisite to trial pits, borehole investigation and
be marked on site and a surface scrape down to virgin sub-soil testing. The information obtained from each of these
sub-strata should be made. This scrape should pass over the sources has implications on each of the other investigations
shaft location into the surrounding ground, to observe any which are carried out. Also the interpretation of informa-
evidence of disturbed or filled ground which would indic- tion from each source is influenced by the inevitable over-
ate any previous excavation or filling. Should this scrape lap with other sources, and the engineer should bear this in
reveal only virgin ground throughout the area, then the mind at all times during the site appraisal/investigations.
area can be extended and widened until the actual shaft is
found by the evidence of fill material. A grid of closely 4.5 References
spaced shallow boreholes could also be used. The fill can 1. Construction (Design and Management) (CDM) Regulations (1994)
then be excavated to locate and check that this is in fact the and Amendment Regulations (2000). The Stationery Office, London.
shaft or past mine workings. A similar approach should be 2. Building Research Establishment (1993) BRE Digest 240. Low-rise
adopted for wells and culverts as for shafts. Buildings on Shrinkable Clay Soils: Part 1. BRE, London.
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5 Contaminated and Derelict Sites

5.1 Introduction construction workers are particularly vulnerable to any

harmful chemicals that may be present. Construction
The general shortage of good sites for development pur-
workers can face the risk of explosion from methane, being
poses and the decline of industrial works in some areas has
overcome by fumes, and health risks from exposure to
led to old, abandoned, industrial sites and waste dumps
carcinogens and other toxic chemicals.
being considered for redevelopment. Engineers are being
asked to investigate sites for building development which There are well-known precautions that workers should
may have previously been considered unsuitable. take such as the wearing of protective clothing and respir-
ators. Making sure that precautions are observed at all times
In some locations it may be political decisions which
is difficult. It should also be appreciated that workers can
have provided the incentive to develop and reclaim an
be at risk in the act of gathering from site the samples from
abandoned industrial site, particularly in regenerating the
which the appropriate precautions can be determined.
inner-cities, even though reclamation costs may be high.
The risks involved in the development of derelict sites is
The redevelopment of such brownfield sites has the ad-
made greater by the fact that most abandoned sites and
vantage of bringing back into use derelict land, thus pro-
contaminants are considered to be a harmless nuisance and
viding local facilities, improving the urban landscape and
a false sense of security develops which causes a careless
avoiding the need to use scarce green field sites. The total
approach to investigation and treatment.
cost to society may, overall, be lower since the infras-
tructure (roads, transport services, schools, hospitals, etc.)
generally already exists. 5.1.1 State of the art
It is inevitable that these ‘less desirable’ sites will require Compared with soil geology, soil mechanics and founda-
some special consideration and treatment to ensure satis- tion design, the assessment of the associated risks and treat-
factory long-term use. The extent of this special considera- ment of contaminated sites is in its infancy. The following
tion and treatment will be dependent upon the previous sections give a brief overview of land contamination issues
use of the site and the proposed end use. The problems and set in the context of current UK guidance. This information
treatments associated with mineral extraction beneath the should be used as a general background for the engineer
site is covered in Chapter 6; the purpose of this chapter undertaking the design of foundations in the knowledge
therefore is to deal with problems arising from other forms that the information on acceptable thresholds, short and
of dereliction and contamination produced as a result of long-term risks, site solutions and treatments and code
earlier above-ground operations. The range of dereliction guidance is being updated as knowledge in this area
and contamination is extensive. Typical examples include develops. It is essential that the engineer reads, digests
old gas, power or sewage works, landfill sites, abandoned and applies the latest guidance and information and seeks
iron and steel works, scrap yards, chemical works, and specialist advice where this may be appropriate.
household refuse tips. Current UK statutory provisions with respect to con-
Derelict buildings or demolition materials on site may taminated land are contained within Part IIA of the
include asbestos, or other hazardous materials, and special Environmental Protection Act 1990(1) (which was inserted
precautions are necessary to remove these materials safely. by section 57 of the Environment Act 1995). This legislation
has created a new regime which requires local authorities
Researchers of many disciplines have been actively look- to identify contaminated land within their areas and also
ing at the problems and much work is ongoing to find provides a mechanism for remediating that land. A defini-
solutions. Ultimately it is often the engineer who has the tion of contaminated land has been introduced for the
responsibility to determine the best and safest method of purposes of Part IIA as:
reclamation and use.
‘any land which appears to the local authority in whose
Some industrial countries (such as Germany, Holland and
area it is situated to be in such a condition, by reason of
the USA) have suffered severe problems from unsuitable
substances in, on or under the land that,
reclamation and inadequate site treatment resulting in high
incidences of illness being reported. It is therefore essential (a) significant harm is being caused or there is a signi-
that the engineer should be aware of the difficulties of ficant possibility of such harm being caused; or
adequate assessment and treatment of contaminated sites. (b) pollution of controlled waters is being or is likely to
Besides the safety of eventual users or residents of the sites, be caused.’
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Contaminated and Derelict Sites 81

This means that before land can be declared contaminated, waste management licensing, which all serve to control
a significant pollutant linkage must be identified. There and limit pollution.
must be three separate components present for a pollution
Once identified, the regulations set out the responsibilities
linkage to be formed: a source of contamination (hazard),
of the enforcing authorities with respect to remediation,
a receptor for that contamination to affect (target) and a
namely:
pathway (via air, soil or water) for the source to be able to
affect the receptor (see Fig. 5.1). • To establish who should bear responsibility for the re-
mediation of the land (the ‘appropriate person’ or persons).
Unless all three elements of a pollutant linkage are identi-
• To decide, after consultation, what remediation is re-
fied, land cannot be declared contaminated. Consequently,
quired in any individual case and to ensure that such
land can only be contaminated land where it is causing
remediation takes place, either through agreement with
an unacceptable risk to human health or other specific
the appropriate person, or by serving a remediation
receptors such as rivers or groundwater. This means the
notice on the appropriate person if agreement is not
definition of contaminated land does not cover all land
possible or, in certain circumstances, through carrying
where contamination is present.
out the work themselves.
Statutory guidance (for England) is described fully in • Where a remediation notice is served, or the authority
DETR Circular 02/2000.(1) Part IIA has been implemented itself carries out the work, to determine who should bear
in Wales and Scotland, with only minor differences. The what proportion of the liability for meeting the costs of
Act also requires enforcing authorities to maintain a public the work.
register of contaminated land in their particular area. The • To record certain prescribed information about their
regulations specify the information to be included in regulatory actions on a public register.
the register as follows:
The responsibilities for paying for the remediation follow
• remediation notices the ‘polluter pays’ principle, whereby the person who
• site information and details of site reports obtained by caused the contamination will be the appropriate person
the authority relating to remediation notices to undertake and meet the costs of remediation. If it is not
• designation of sites as ‘special sites’ (see below) possible to find such a person, the responsibility will pass
• site-specific guidance issued by the Environment Agency on to the current owner or occupier of the land. The engineer
• remediation declarations, remediation statements and should therefore consider the effects of advice being given
notifications of claimed remediation to a prospective land purchaser since significant financial
• any appeals lodged against remediation and charging implications may arise in complying with the legislation.
notices This chapter should therefore be used for guidance on
• convictions for non-compliance with notices principles rather than definitive criteria and solutions.
• statement regarding the existence of confidential
information.
5.1.2 Contamination implications
The register will not include details of historic land use
For the purposes of this discussion a site will be considered
and other records used in the investigation of potentially
to be contaminated if it contains chemical, physical or
contaminated land. A register entry is generated when one
biological agents that may cause a nuisance, danger or
of the following happens:
health risk either during the development and construction
• the land is designated a special site (see below) stages, or in the longer term to end users of the site. The
• a remediation declaration is published risk-based, or suitable-for-use, source, pathway, receptor
• a remediation statement is published, or approach (see Fig. 5.1), contained within the current legisla-
• a remediation notice is served. tion applies only to chemical and toxic contaminants and is
A special site is one on which contamination may affect discussed in section 5.3 below.
controlled waters. This definition also covers possible The word contamination tends to suggest hazardous con-
contamination due to waste acid, tars, crude petroleum, ditions and is perhaps an emotive word often creating
explosives, nuclear sites, and military land. In general, overreaction by the public and engineers alike. In some
the procedures relating to the remediation of a special site cases the site contamination may be no more than re-
are the same as for any other contaminated land, with dundant shallow foundations of a previously demolished
the exception that the Environment Agency (or equivalent) development which can be dealt with relatively economic-
is the enforcing authority, rather than the local authority. ally and simply, and, too, presents no hazards to construc-
The main purposes of the Part IIA regime is: tion operations or end use. Chemical contamination of
sub-soil can have occurred but at such a low level as not to
(1) To identify areas of land subject to contaminative usage.
create hazardous conditions. It should be appreciated how-
(2) To complement the planning regime in respect of risks
ever, that the same chemical material can be safe in certain
to new development or land use arising from existing
conditions but hazardous in others, such as chemicals
contamination.
affected by water in a high or variable water-table.
(3) To complement other regulatory regimes including the
Pollution Prevention Control regime, Groundwater The problems to be considered arise from the remains of
Regulations, Consent to Discharge and the system of previous site use or building operations which have left
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82 Special and Further Considerations

4
3 1 1 2
4

5 5
River
Garden 6
7

8
Contaminated soil

Groundwater flow

Possible pathways
Ingestion: of contaminated soil/dust 1
of contaminated food 2
of contaminated water 3
Inhalation: of contaminated soil particles/dust/vapours 4
Direct contact: with contaminated soil/dust or water 5
Pollution of controlled waters 6
Attack on building structures 7
Attack on services 8

Fig. 5.1 Source-pathway-receptor concept (reproduced from Guidance for the Safe Development of Housing on
Land Affected by Contamination. Environment Agency/NHBC, R&D Publications (2000)(4).

behind foundations or filled areas which will produce 5.2 Redundant foundations and services
obstructions to new construction. Similarly industrial or
On its simplest level consider a new housing development
chemical processes carried out on the site may have pro-
on an abandoned area of previously demolished houses.
duced waste products which have been left on site in the
It is likely that these original houses were constructed off
form of unstable fills, obstructions or toxic material in
shallow masonry spread footings and some houses have
the sub-strata. It must be remembered that the industrial
cellars under part of the dwellings, the mains services, gas,
revolution started in earnest over 150 years ago and while
water, electricity and sewers being located in the roads and
many companies may have long since ceased to exist their
pavements.
legacy of dumped waste and toxic by-products can remain
active within the sub-soil. Demolition of the original houses would normally be
carried out down to ground level only, with the footings
To appreciate the range of contaminated sites and the
left in place and the cellars backfilled with demolition
implications of dealing with the subsequent problems
material of doubtful quality inadequately compacted to
which arise, it is perhaps easier to deal with these under
support new construction. The new layout of houses and
two headings:
roads will almost inevitably be arranged such that the
(1) Physical obstructions – non-toxic or hazardous, i.e., new houses straddle lines of demolished houses and
redundant foundations and services – (section 5.2). roads. Consideration of these constraints is necessary in
(2) Chemical and toxic contaminants, i.e., risk to humans, the structural design of new works above and below
animals, plants or building materials – (section 5.3). ground level.
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Contaminated and Derelict Sites 83

5.2.1 Identification breaking them down to a minimum of 500 mm below

surface level would be advisable under floor slabs to
To identify a site containing redundant foundations and avoid hard spots which can cause cracking in the ground
services an indication of the extent of the problems can floor slabs.
be determined by examination of record information. (2) In areas of old cellars, the removal of unsuitable backfill
Ordnance Survey maps provide reliable historical informa- and replacement with properly compacted hardcore
tion on old street and housing layouts and information material can support new floating floor slabs. Alternat-
on old or redundant services can be obtained from the ively suspended slabs may be adopted to avoid replace-
respective authorities. Previous treatment of redundant ment of cellars fills, but it should be remembered that
services can also be investigated and confirmed. On com- any material in the fills which may rot or deteriorate
pletion of an inspection of the record information it is and cause a health hazard will require removal.
useful to produce an overall layout drawing summarizing (3) If filled cellars are extensive and fill stable then treat-
all relevant information relating to below ground obstruc- ment of the fill with ground improvement methods
tions as follows: (see vibro/dynamic consolidation in Chapter 8) can
(1) Location of buildings and processes carried out. be made and the tops of obstructions removed to
(2) Existing foundations, plant bases, chimney bases, water accommodate raft or reinforced footings.
towers, foundations, etc. (4) The installation of joints in sub- and superstructures
(3) Areas of tipping and filling. to reduce the effective size of units can produce
(4) Lines of disused drainage and services. a more economical foundation solution. Joints located
(5) Extent of disturbed ground and boundary of virgin at changes in ground conditions or over obstructions
soils. can also produce a more economical solution than
designing a structure to straddle problem areas.
If from this information it is apparent that the contamina- (5) Where large or irregular obstructions occur then partial
tion is likely to be obstructive rather than hazardous, the or total removal may prove necessary. After removal of
trial holes and boreholes can proceed to check the reliability obstructions the use of a pile and beam or pier and
of the desk-top study by checking a number of key obstruc- beam foundation can be used to reach suitable bearing
tions, dimensions, directions and material information. strata. Suspended ground floor constructions can also
Drawings of record information and site investigations be used to avoid the need for load-bearing backfill. Pile
overlaid with proposed layouts can be used to build up installation can be seriously impaired by obstructions
detailed information for use in determining both founda- in the ground and this factor should be investigated
tion and superstructure proposals. Following this process if pile foundations are under consideration. An alternat-
costings can be carried out more realistically on alternative ive treatment is to import material to overlay the obstruc-
treatments or constructions to achieve the most economical tions and provide a cushion or blanket to accommodate
foundation. a raft and suitably designed superstructures.
(6) Old tanks, chambers and voids should be checked and
A similar exercise should be carried out for the develop- cleared of chemical contamination, and be filled if not
ment over a derelict industrial area. Obstructions from removed. Breaking through the tops of chambers will
old plant and large buildings may pose more extensive enable hardcore backfilling to be placed or alternatively
contamination problems and the selection of an economical p.f.a./cement injection treatments can be used.
foundation treatment will require a more detailed desk
study of record information. 5.3 Chemical and toxic contamination

5.2.2 Sampling and testing 5.3.1 Part IIA risk-based approach

The main investigations relating to redundant foundations Prior to the introduction of the current scientifically based
and services involve trial hole excavation to locate and framework for the assessment of risks to human health
record the actual positions and extent of obstructions which from land contamination, the approach was largely based
may affect the development. It is important to remember upon guidance contained in ICRCL guidance note 59/83
that normal soil samples and testing will be required to (2nd Edition),(2) prepared by the former Interdepartmental
establish soil strength, settlement criteria, and soil con- Committee on the Redevelopment of Contaminated Land
sistency. This may be required for both the disturbed and (ICRCL). This publication contained ‘trigger values’ for a
virgin soils on site. In addition, a check should be made series of substances commonly found in contaminated
on soil and water samples for naturally occurring chemicals land. These were a useful tool and were widely used, but
which can affect building materials (e.g. sulfates). These were withdrawn in 2002 as they were not considered suit-
items are discussed in section 5.3. able for assessing the ‘significant possibility of significant
harm’ to human health, as required by the current regime.
5.2.3 Site treatment
Current guidance issued by the Secretary of State(3) sets the
(1) If the old foundations are at shallow depth they can be definition of contaminated land within the context of the
removed (grubbed up) where they create obstructions ‘suitable for use’ approach, based on the principles of risk
to new foundations. Removal of these footings or assessment; the guidance defines ‘risk’ as the combination of:
SFDC05 1/8/06 11:11 AM Page 84

84 Special and Further Considerations

• the probability, or frequency, of occurrence of a defined than the ‘clean-up’ standard. The distinction between these
hazard (e.g. exposure to a property of a substance with two types of criteria is important.
the potential to cause harm); and
• the magnitude (including the seriousness) of the 5.3.2 Soil Guideline Values
consequences.
The primary purpose for the Soil Guideline Values is for
The legislation also introduces the concept of a pollution use as ‘intervention values’. They are intended to provide
linkage between contamination (source) and receptor, a means of assessing chronic risk to human health in
by means of a pathway. For each receptor the guidance accordance with the statutory guidance. This assists local
specifies what is to be regarded as ‘significant harm’ authorities in making determinations of contaminated land
and a ‘significant possibility’ of such harm. Appendix F, on the grounds of there being a ‘significant possibility of
Table F1 lists the types of receptor and the harm which significant harm’ but they cannot be used in isolation of
may be considered significant in each case. the statutory guidance. They are not binding standards,
For human beings, ‘significant harm’ is defined as ‘death, but may be used to make informed judgments about the
disease, serious injury, genetic mutation, birth defects or need for action, and to inform the selection of remediation
the impairment of reproductive functions’. standards or target values for individual sites. When con-
centrations of contaminants fall below the appropriate Soil
ICRCL concentrations of soil contaminants were presented Guideline Values, or site-specific criteria calculated using
in terms of two criteria: ‘threshold trigger values’ and the CLEA model (see section 5.3.3 below), individual
‘action trigger values’. The threshold trigger value indic- contaminants or areas of the site can be considered not to
ated a concentration of a contaminant in soil below which pose unacceptable risks to human health and can be elimi-
no action was required. The higher, action trigger value nated from further consideration. Where concentrations of
indicated the concentration under which action was always contaminants exceed the appropriate Soil Guideline Values,
required, the two values providing upper and lower the presumption is that there is sufficient evidence for
bounds to the region where professional judgment was the potential existence of an unacceptable risk to warrant
required to decide whether action should be taken and further action.
what form it should take. Threshold trigger values were
derived for 17 contaminants, but action trigger values were Soil Guideline Values have been developed for three
only defined for a proportion of these. types of land use: residential, allotments and commercial/
industrial. Information relating to recreational open spaces
The current risk-based approach, however, required the
has not yet been included. Research is ongoing on a wide
development of more extensive guidance covering a num-
variety of leisure land uses in order to develop a toolkit for
ber of different aspects of human health risk assessment,
developing conceptual exposure models. Table 5.1 sum-
including the development of new Soil Guideline Values to
marises the Soil Guideline Values currently available from
replace the ICRCL data (see section 5.3.2 below). These
the Environment Agency. These values are quoted here
values have now been incorporated within the legal
for information only and must not be used in isolation
framework for contamination in the UK. Other countries
from the explicit notes and guidance contained within the
have set different criteria and developed different risk
individual reports for the contaminant concerned. A rolling
assessment models for contaminated land. These generally
programme to publish additional Soil Guideline Value
reflect the particular environmental and legal conditions
reports is ongoing. The Environment Agency website should
that exist in those countries, so that simple comparisons of
be checked for updated information.
quantitative criteria used across different countries can be
misleading. In some countries different assumptions have
been used to reflect different behaviour patterns, local soil 5.3.3 CLEA Model
types and other technical factors. The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
Most countries have decided whether to assess on the basis (DEFRA) and the Environment Agency (EA) have devel-
of risk for all possible future uses (‘multi-functionality’), or oped a Contaminated Land Exposure Assessment Model
to assess on the basis of a particular use (‘suitable for use’) (CLEA) which estimates contaminant intake from soil as a
as adopted in the UK. These criteria then have to be used to function of the contaminant concentration and the potential
decide whether to take action on a particular site, and to exposure of adults and children living, working and play-
determine the remedial objectives. Deciding to take action ing on contaminated land. It derives Soil Guideline Values
might be determined on the basis of the concentration by comparing the calculated intake with the total daily
above which land might present an ‘unacceptable’ risk, i.e. intake or Index Dose. The key assumptions and under-
an ‘intervention value’. pinning conceptual models for each land use are described
in detail in CLR10 (see Appendix F, Table F9) to which the
Determining remedial objectives relates to a ‘remediation reader is referred for an overview of the development of
standard’ or ‘target value’. This could be either a standard Soil Guideline Values and related research.
to which the site could be treated, or a longer-term goal for
land as a whole. In some countries, intervention and target The model uses Monte Carlo simulations to examine dif-
values are identical. In others, regulatory ‘intervention’ ferent pathways by which humans can be exposed to soil
takes place at a higher concentration of contaminants in soil contaminants for the three site uses currently considered.
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Contaminated and Derelict Sites 85

Table 5.1 Soil Guideline Values (extracted from Environment Agency Publication R&D Reports – see Appendix F,
Table F.8)

Standard land use

Soil Guideline
Value (mg/kg dry Residential Residential Allotments Commercial/
weight soil)a with plant without plant industrial
uptake uptake

Arsenic 20 20 20 500

Cadmium
pH 6 1 30 1 1 400
pH 7 2 30 2 1 400
pH 8 8 30 8 1 400

Chromium 130 200 130 5 000

Ethylbenzene
1% SOM 9 16 18 48 000
2.5% SOM 21 41 43 48 000
5% SOM 41 80 85 48 000

Lead 450 450 450 750

Inorganic
Mercury 8 15 8 480

Nickel 50 75 50 5000

Phenol
1% SOM 78 21 900 80 21 900
2.5% SOM 150 34 400 155 43 000
5% SOM 280 37 300 280 78 100

Selenium 35 260 35 8 000

Toluene
1% SOM 3 3 31 150
2.5% SOM 7 8 73 350
5% SOM 14 15 140 630

a
These values are given here for information only and should not be used without specific reference to the notes and guidance
within the individual reports for the contaminants concerned.

It can therefore be used to assess risks for several pollut- approved Health Criteria Values or Soil Guideline Values
ant linkages forming part of the conceptual model of the are available.
site.
5.3.4 Risk to humans and animals
A number of contaminated land report guidance docu-
ments (CLR 7-10) are available from DEFRA and the EA, The risk to humans and animals from toxic contaminants
representing best practice in the assessment of the risks to occurs through ingestion or contact, inhalation of fumes,
human health from soil contamination. A summary of key dust or gases and explosion or combustion. Children tend
reports is given in Appendix F, Table F10. to be more sensitive than adults and more exposed because
of careless habits both dietary and behavioural. Edible
Associated CLEA software and documentation was
plants can absorb metal in quantities dangerous to humans
released in 2002 by DEFRA and the EA which could be used
and animals. Grazing animals take in appreciable quanti-
to conduct generic risk assessment for a limited number of
ties of soil, which can be direct ingestions of soil, contami-
contaminants, where human activity patterns and contamin-
nated drinking water or plant food. Skin contact may lead
ant characteristics conform to the set of broadly drawn
to absorption, chronic skin effects or acute skin irritation.
general scenarios. This has now been further developed and
released as a spreadsheet, ‘CLEA UK’, available from the Tables F4–F7 in Appendix F show key contaminants asso-
EA website (http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/). ciated with industrial use of land. They are based on com-
It allows engineers to derive generic assessment criteria, prehensive lists which appear in each of the Department of
derive site-specific assessment criteria and calculate aver- the Environment Industry Profiles. These tables are repro-
age daily exposure/health criteria ratios using the CLEA duced from the DETR CLR Report on the contaminants
methodology. It also enables assessment criteria to be for the assessment of land.(3) Contaminants representing a
derived for contaminants for which no Government- risk to human health are shown in Tables 5.2 and 5.3 and
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86 Special and Further Considerations

Table 5.2 Potential inorganic contaminants for the assessment of industrial land and their receptors

Receptors

Contaminantsa
Humans Water Vegetation and Construction
the ecosystem materials

Metals

Barium 3

Beryllium 3 3 3

Cadmium 3 3 3

Chromium 3 3

Copper 3 3

Lead 3 3 3

Mercury 3 3 3

Nickel 3 3 3

Vanadium 3 3

Zinc 3 3

Semi-metals and non-metals

Arsenic 3 3

Boron 3 3

Selenium 3 3 3

Sulfur 3 3 3

Inorganic chemicals

Cyanide (complex) 3 3 3 3

Nitrate 3

Sulfate 3 3 3

Sulfide 3 3 3

Other

Asbestos 3

pH (acidity/alkalinity) 3 3 3 3

Note:
a
The list should not be regarded as a comprehensive list that should be taken into account in any particular site investigation.
Some contaminants will be of no importance on certain types of site, while some sites may be contaminated by elevated
concentrations of particular substances, which may not be selected because of their infrequent occurrence generally.
SFDC05 1/8/06 11:11 AM Page 87

Contaminated and Derelict Sites 87

Table 5.3 Potential organic contaminants for the assessment of industrial land and their receptors

Receptors
Contaminantsa
Humans Water Vegetation and Construction
the ecosystem materials

Acetone 3 3

Oil/fuel hydrocarbons 3 3 3 3

Aromatic hydrocarbons

Benzene 3 3 3 3

Chlorophenols 3 3 3 3

Ethylbenzene 3 3 3 3

Phenol 3 3 3 3

Toluene 3 3 3 3

o-xylene 3 3 3 3

m,p-xylene 3 3 3 3

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 3 3

Chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons

Chloroform 3 3 3

Carbon tetrachloride 3 3 3 3

Vinyl chloride 3 3

1,2-dichloroethane 3 3 3 3

1,1,1-trichloroethane 3 3 3 3

Trichloroethene 3 3 3 3

Tetrachloroethene 3 3 3 3

Hexachlorobuta-1,3-diene 3 3 3

Hexachlorocyclohexanes 3 3 3

Dieldrin 3 3 3

Chlorinated aromatic hydrocarbons

Chlorobenzenes 3 3 3

Chlorotoluenes 3 3 3

Pentachlorophenol 3 3 3

Polychlorinated biphenyls 3 3 3

Dioxins and furans 3 3 3

Organometallics

Organolead compounds 3 3

Organotin compounds 3 3

Note:
a
The list should not be regarded as a comprehensive list that should be taken into account in any particular site investigation.
Some contaminants will be of no importance on certain types of site, while some sites may be contaminated by elevated
concentrations of particular substances, which may not be selected because of their infrequent occurrence generally.
SFDC05 1/8/06 11:11 AM Page 88

88 Special and Further Considerations

Table 5.4 Characteristics and effects of hazardous gases (Leach, B.A. & Goodger, H.K., Building on Derelict Land,
CIRIA SP 78 (1991)(5))

Gas Characteristics Effect Special features

Methane colourless asphyxiant flammable limits 5–15% in air

odourless can explode in confined spaces
lighter than air toxic to vegetation due to deoxygenation of root zone

Carbon dioxide colourless toxic can build up in pits and excavations

odourless asphyxiant corrosive in solution to metals and concrete
denser than air comparatively readily soluble

Hydrogen sulfide colourless highly toxic flammable

‘rotten egg’ smell explosive limits 4.3–4.5% in air
denser than air causes olfactory fatigue (loss of smell) at 20 p.p.m.
toxic limits reached without odour warning
soluble in water and solvents
toxic to plants

Hydrogen colourless non-toxic highly flammable

odourless asphyxiant explosive limits 4–7.5% in air
lighter than air

Carbon monoxide colourless highly toxic flammable limits 12–75% in air

odourless product of incomplete combustion

Sulfur dioxide colourless respiratory irritation corrosive in solution

pungent smell toxic

Hydrogen cyanide colourless highly toxic flammable

faint ‘almond’ smell explosive

Fuel gases colourless non-toxic but flammable/explosive

‘petrol’ smell narcotic may cause anoxaemia at concentrations above 30% in air

Organic vapours colourless carcinogenic flammable/explosive

(e.g. benzene) ‘paint’ smell toxic can cause dizziness after short exposure
narcotic have high vapour pressure

include those that are known to be toxic and those that are and rocks. It is particularly prevalent in granite. Exposure
known or suspected to be carcinogens, mutagens and/or to radon increases the risk of lung cancer.
teratogens, irritants or sensitizers.
Other hazardous gases can be present on derelict sites. For
If chemical contamination is judged particularly toxic on instance landfill sites can produce methane and carbon
a site, then it should be regraded to control run-off, dioxide from the decay and chemical breakdown of the fill
water mains should be protected, gas and water migration materials. Chemical reaction within the ground can also
controlled, dust suppressed, the site cleared of visible produce hazardous gases. The characteristics and effects of
contamination and warning signs and perimeter fences some gases which may be present on derelict sites is given
erected. The local authority, water, gas, electricity, police in Table 5.4.
and fire services should be informed, as necessary, and
A further hazard is the combustion or the presence of
contact names left for emergency information. The extent
potentially combustible materials below ground. Under-
and nature of contamination must be fully determined and
ground combustion has occurred in colliery waste mater-
suitable treatment devised.
ials where exothermic reactions have contributed to
In addition to contamination by man there are other self-ignition. The burning of combustible materials under-
naturally produced gases which can be a danger to health. ground leaves voids which may collapse later and result in
Radon is a radioactive gas naturally produced which needs settlements of surrounding sub-soils. During the combus-
special equipment to detect it, since it is colourless and has tion process, gases will be produced resulting in volume
no smell or taste. Radon comes from the radioactive decay changes. The gas production creates hazardous conditions
of radium which in turn originates from the decay of for buildings located on the site, its occupants and for
uranium. Small quantities of uranium are found in all soils construction personnel.
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Contaminated and Derelict Sites 89

5.3.5 Risks to plants and the wider ecosystem into it by capillary action, then a chemical reaction can
develop.
The toxic effect of harmful substances on plant life (phyto-
toxicity) is not directly a technical problem for building It is not unusual during site investigation operations to
works but affects gardens, landscaping, play areas, etc., confirm a water-table below the level of proposed founda-
and can be damaging to humans and animals. The effect on tions which consequently rises due to seasonal and long-
plant life can cause a build-up of toxic substances at ground term variations. Leakage from drains and services and local
level due to the annual die back of plant life. The effect on rain water run-off may carry chemicals in solution. Finally,
landscaping can be unsightly and expensive to rectify. The it should be appreciated that corrosive conditions can occur
engineer may find damage to plants (e.g. a poor yellowed on virgin sites and not only on derelict sites.
weak growth) during the topographic survey, a warning
to possible toxic site conditions and therefore a cautious Some chemicals which can cause deterioration of the
approach should be adopted. building materials used below ground are listed below and
protection against deterioration is discussed in section 5.4.
5.3.6 Risk to the water environment (1) Sulfates and sulfides. Solutions of sulfates can attack the
Contaminants may reach the water environment through a hardened cement in concrete and mortar. Sulfates occur
slow seepage or leaching to either groundwater or surface mainly in strata of ancient sedimentary clays including
waters. There are many factors including the physical London Clay, Lower Lias, Oxford Clay, Kimmeridge
and chemical characteristics and local hydrogeology which Clay, Gault Clay, Wealden Clays and Keuper Marl. The
may cause chemicals to migrate. Water-soluble substances most abundant salts are calcium sulfate, magnesium
which may leach are most likely to cause problems. Liquid sulfate and sodium sulfate. Sulfates can also be derived
substances which do not mix with water such as solvents by oxidation of sulfides, such as pyrite, by natural pro-
and fuel oil can reach and pollute the aquatic environment. cesses such as weathering. Sulfides can be converted
The erosion process can also carry soil contaminants to rapidly to sulfuric acid and sulfates if exposed to air
water courses where they may build up in sediments. and water by construction activities or mobile ground-
water. Sulfuric acid and sulfates in acid solution do not
Contaminants in the water environment can potentially
occur very often but may be found near marshy ground
affect humans and aquatic flora and fauna, as well as
or colliery tips where the soils contain pyrites which are
construction and building materials (see section 5.3.7).
being slowly oxidized. As well as occurring naturally,
Leaching chemicals may cause problems with drinking
sulfates are sometimes present in fill materials such as
water supplies. Soluble sulfate may also affect buried
ash or shale.
concrete in concrete foundations.
Water movements passing through soils containing
sulfates dissolve the salts which can then be carried
5.3.7 Risk to buildings and construction
in solution into contact with concrete or masonry ele-
materials
ments. Water movements can be vertical or horizontal
The composition of materials used below ground level depending on site geology and seasonal variations. The
in the construction of the foundations and services to chemical reaction between sulfates and cement occurs
buildings is such that deterioration can occur if contact and deterioration of the structure ensues. Further
with corrosive conditions occurs. The deterioration of mater- supplies of contaminated water lead to a continuing
ials above ground level can be seen and monitored and deterioration of the element until complete breakdown
engineers are familiar with the need to consider special and failure can occur (see Table 5.5).
precautions in extreme exposure conditions. Past problems Concrete is prone to two forms of sulfate attack,
with the durability of reinforced concrete have resulted the well-known type, sometimes known as the ‘con-
in increased cement contents and concrete cover to rein- ventional form of sulfate attack’ which leads to the
forcement, to ensure satisfactory longer term performance formation of gypsum and ettringite and the attack
of individual elements and the building as a whole. It can which produces thaumasite. The mechanisms and mani-
be appreciated therefore how much more critical are the festations of both types of attack are described in BRE
foundations, which cannot be readily seen or monitored, Special Digest 1, Concrete in Aggressive Ground.(6)
yet support the total structure. (2) Phenols. The presence of phenols may affect the setting
of concrete and aqueous solutions of phenols can attack
The durability of the sub-structure is obviously an import-
plastics in the ground. Soil Guideline Values given for
ant factor and appropriate British Standards give recom-
phenols (see Table 5.1) are human health critical and
mendations for timber, steel, concrete and masonry used
lesser values can be harmful to plastics, etc. Published
below ground level. The following section is intended to
values and recommendations made by public utilities
give additional guidance and background when dealing
suppliers should therefore be followed in the case of
with corrosive soils.
buried services. Phenols are a group of chemical com-
In the main it is the presence and movement of ground- pounds which are by-products of town gas, tar and
water which activates attack, by carrying the corrosive coke manufacture. The common name for phenol is
material in solution into contact with the foundation. carbolic acid. Phenols come in many forms and concen-
Once in contact with the surface of a foundation or drawn trations, therefore it is difficult to give a clearly defined
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90 Special and Further Considerations

Table 5.5 Aggressive Chemical Environment for Concrete (ACEC) classification for natural ground locationsa(6)

Sulfate Groundwater ACEC

Class for
Design sulfate 2 : 1 water/soil Groundwater Total potential Static water Mobile water location
class for location extractb sulfatec

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(SO4 mg/l) (SO4 mg/l) (SO4 %) (pH) (pH)

DS-1 <500 <400 <0.24 ≥2.5 AC-1s

>5.5d AC-1d
2.5–5.5 AC-2z

DS-2 500–1500 400–1400 0.24–0.6 >3.5 AC-1s

>5.5 AC-2
2.5–3.5 AC-2s
2.5–5.5 AC-3z

DS-3 1600–3000 1500–3000 0.7–1.2 >3.5 AC-2s

>5.5 AC-3
2.5–3.5 AC-3s
2.5–5.5 AC-4

DS-4 3100– 6000 3100–6000 1.3–2.4 >3.5 AC-3s

>5.5 AC-4
2.5–3.5 AC-4s
2.5–5.5 AC-5

DS-5 >6000 >6000 >2.4 >3.5 AC-4s

2.5–3.5 ≥2.5 AC-5

Notes:
a
Applies to locations on sites that comprise either undisturbed ground that is in its natural state i.e. is not brownfield – (Table C2)
or clean fill derived from such ground.
b
The limits of Design Sulfate Classes based on 2 : 1 water/soil extracts have been lowered relative to previous Digests (Box C7).
c
Applies only to locations where concrete will be exposed to sulfate ions (SO4) which may result from the oxidation of sulfides
(e.g. pyrite) following ground disturbance (Appendix A1 and Box C8).
d
For flowing water that is potentially aggressive to concrete owing to high purity or an aggressive carbon dioxide level greater
than 15 mg/l (Section C2.2.3), increase the ACEC Class to AC-2z.

Explanation of suffix symbols to ACEC Class

• Suffix ‘s’ indicates that the water has been classified as static.
• Concrete placed in ACEC Classes that include the suffix ‘z’ primarily have to resist acid conditions and may be made with any of
the cements or combinations listed in Table D2 on page 42.

nature for these materials. They generally attack plastic seeping through the concrete. Diversion pipes or culverts
and rubber based products and can have a detrimental in moorland waters containing high concentrations of
effect on concrete if they are in a concentrated form. aggressive carbon dioxide have been subject to erosion.
Phenols give off powerful fumes which can be danger- (5) Chloride ions. Levels of chloride found in the ground
ous to man in confined areas and are phytotoxic (i.e. are generally innocuous, but high concentrations will
they kill plants). Phenols have diffused through plastic increase the risk of corrosion to reinforced concrete. On
water mains and tainted the water supply, without brownfield sites the combination of a pH below 5.5
damaging the pipes. and the presence of chloride ions could indicate the
Unlike some forms of contamination, phenols are existence of hydrochloric acid.
degradable and will disperse in the long term if the (6) Metallic contaminants. The risk of corrosion through ele-
source of contamination is removed. ctrolytic action can be increased by metallic contamina-
(3) Acids. Natural groundwater may be acidic due to the tion in the ground. Metallic pipework in underground
presence of humic acid, carbonic acid or sulfuric acid. services, sheet piling and other metal components in
Naturally occurring calcium carbonate deposits pre- contact with the soil may become locally corroded by
sent in much of the UK act to neutralize the available electrolytic reaction with dissimilar metals present in
acid by the formation of calcium sulfate (gypsum). the ground.
(4) Aggressive carbon dioxide. May be a problem where (7) Gases. The presence of gases or combustible materials
water is highly mobile and continually flowing over or in the ground may not directly affect the building
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Contaminated and Derelict Sites 91

materials used in construction, however the health and engineer to get a feel for the likely problems. The desk
safety effects on construction workers and future occup- study should provide information on current and past use,
ants require consideration. Explosive risk or settlement identify receptors and look at the geochemistry, hydrogeo-
effects on the building should also be considered. logy and hydrology of the site. It is essential at this stage to
prepare an overall layout drawing on which can be shown
5.3.8 Toxic contamination – site relevant information with respect to potential contamina-
identification tion, including the following:

In order to identify potentially toxic contaminated ground (1) location of buildings and the processes carried out
the engineer must be aware of the likely sources of the (2) areas of tipping and filling
toxic materials and consider this during the study of record (3) lines of old watercourses and vegetation
information of the site. Reference to historical data may (4) existing/disused drainage runs.
give some indication of previous site usage, and when this
A conceptual model of the site, indicating likely contamina-
usage can be linked with operations which produced or
tion sources and pathways can then be prepared. Following
used potentially toxic materials then the site testing should
a risk assessment, the site can be divided into zones of high
be extended to check for the type or types of contamination.
and low risk, taking into account potential contaminant–
A walk-over survey can provide an indication of problems pathway–receptor linkages. This may show a requirement
and variations within the site, for example, unusual odours, for a preliminary exploratory investigation, ahead of the
discoloured soil surfaces or water can be an indication main investigation, to further clarify the conceptual model.
of contamination. The type of vegetation or lack of it can
The main investigation can then be planned to obtain data
suggest potential ground contamination. Deep rooted trees
relating to the nature and extent of contamination. The geo-
and heavy vegetation would not indicate high toxic levels
chemistry, hydrogeology and hydrology should be invest-
whereas a more barren or yellowed appearance might
igated, allowing the conceptual model and the preliminary
suggest problems.
risk assessment to be updated. Consideration should be
To assist the engineer in the identification of potentially given to the methods of sampling (see section 5.3.10 below)
contaminated sites, Tables F7–F10 of Appendix F give as sampling from boreholes rather than trial pits can reduce
comprehensive details of key contaminants associated the risks to site investigation personnel of toxic hazards.
with industrial uses of land. On an investigation carried out by the authors’ practice
in an area of an old tannery, checks were made for anthrax
In addition to manufacturing processes depositing chem-
spores. The site personnel wore appropriate personal
ical materials in the ground, fall-out from air-borne
protective equipment, including protective clothing and
pollution can also cause contamination. Therefore land
breathing apparatus and the boreholes were sealed on
adjacent to former factories can become contaminated.
completion of sampling in this area. It is essential that site
Examples encountered by the authors’ practice are:
investigations avoid the creation of nuisance to neighbour-
• Heavy metal contamination around a redundant foundry, ing residents or occupants, or the creation of a hazard to the
• Fluoride contamination adjacent to a clay works, environment.
• Asbestos contamination of disused railway sidings,
The spacing between sampling locations will be dictated by
attributed to the braking systems of the rolling stock.
the size of the site, the conceptual model and the stage of
Groundwater movements, in addition to mobilizing and the investigation. Exploratory investigations typically use a
activating toxic materials, can produce toxic solutions and grid spacing of 50–100 m centres. Spacings for main invest-
gases. For example, decomposition of refuse material pro- igations are typically 20 m centres, but analysis of results
duces methane which can also occur naturally in peat bogs, may indicate closing down the borehole centres to as little
etc. In addition to such gas emissions, other emissions due as 3–5 m centres if necessary.
to spontaneous combustion of landfill sites, colliery spoil,
Borehole layouts should be recorded on the overall plan
coke and coal storage areas can occur and prove hazardous,
and colour-coded to indicate the degree of contamina-
as can gas leakage from abandoned services and mine
tion risk present. Contours can also be plotted to show the
workings.
extent of contaminated material at various levels below
A contaminated site does not necessarily mean that the site the site surface, separate drawings being used for different
is unsafe or unusable; the application of sound engineering contaminants to avoid confusion. The test information
principles can solve the problems. should relate to the original site layout of buildings, filled
areas and watercourses, to identify any anomalous or
5.3.9 Contamination investigation inconsistent results.

An investigation strategy should be developed based upon The information gained from the main investigation
carefully considered objectives for the particular site under will provide the basis for the design of a remediation
consideration. The strategy should consider any site con- strategy. Further supplementary investigation may well
straints and investigation techniques that will be required be required to confirm the extent of a particular area of con-
to achieve the objectives. The preliminary investigation will tamination or the feasibility of potential remedial options.
involve a desk study and a walk-over survey to allow the Detailed guidance on the recommended methodology for
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92 Special and Further Considerations

the investigation of contaminated sites can be found in The testing for radon is generally carried out over a
BS 10175.(7) three-month period using detectors supplied by the
Health Protection Agency (HPA). A survey by the Agency
5.3.10 Sampling and testing has revealed the highest risk areas occur in parts of
Cornwall and Devon and new properties in these most
There are two principal approaches to the sampling of soils:
affected areas are being built to guidelines for low radon
targeted sampling which focuses on known or suspected
levels recommended by DEFRA and BRE.
areas of contamination such as tanks and underground
pipework; and non-targeted, which looks at a larger area of Underground combustion is difficult to detect. The slow
a site in order to profile the extent of contamination there. smouldering of materials can occur undetected over many
years with little or no evidence at surface level. Tests on
It is generally better to take more samples than required for
samples to determine calorific values of fill materials can
testing as once the sampling equipment is in place, the cost
identify potentially combustible materials.
of additional samples is small. Tests can then be carried out
as required with supplementary samples, properly stored, The actual testing methods are undertaken by specialists
being held for further examination if necessary. under laboratory conditions in accordance with the relevant
technical notes and standards. The analytical procedures
Test results should be compared with the current Soil
should be agreed at the outset and the testing programme
Guideline Values (see Appendix F, Table F10) in accord-
should be under constant review as the results are made
ance with the CLEA Model (see section 5.3.3). Table 5.1
available.
summarizes the Soil Guideline Values given in the
Environment Agency Publications R&D report.(4) These
5.3.11 Site treatment
values are given for reference only and should not be
used without specific reference to the notes and guidance Since each site must be treated individually, it is not
given with each individual report. possible at the present time to give definitive and detailed
advice on the treatment of a contaminated site. However,
The potential inorganic and organic contaminants and re-
this section is intended to give the engineer broad guidance
ceptors for industrial land are shown in Tables 5.2 and 5.3;
and advice with respect to the various checks and processes
Tables F4–F7 in Appendix F summarise key contaminants
to be considered.
and their associated industrial uses. The engineer should
keep abreast of the latest information relating to contam- The choice of a method for treating a contaminated site is
ination by reference to the websites of the Environment mainly dependent upon the end use of the site. Cost will be
Agency and DEFRA, amongst others. a major factor but the most cost-effective solution may not
be obvious so cost checks will be necessary to determine the
Since some water movements are often contributory to
solution.
problems arising from contaminated ground, monitoring
of groundwater levels and sample analysis over time is in- The following is therefore intended to give an indication of
valuable in determining final site treatments. Piezometers possible options and points for consideration:
should be installed as soon as the investigations com-
(1) The first process is to consider the site investigation
mence, and, if possible, left in place until development
results and implications with the client’s proposals.
starts.
While the client’s requirements must be met, altern-
Scrap metals and other visible evidence of metals in the ative layouts may be acceptable which can avoid areas
ground can be found by trial holes and inspection. Heavy of contamination and achieve satisfactory and more
metals in dust or in solution should be detected from tests economical solutions than the original proposals.
on soil and water samples taken from boreholes during the (2) The principal options for dealing with a contaminated
ground investigation. site are:
(a) Relocate the development.
The previous use of the site and smells are the best guide to
(b) Remove contaminated material to off-site licensed
potential problems from gases on the site, but it should be
landfill.
remembered that some dangerous gases are odourless (see
(c) Dilution by mixing with clean soil.
Table 5.4). Gases can also migrate from adjacent sites so the
(d) Containment on site by the use of cover systems,
surrounding areas must be researched to check for old
in-ground barriers or macro-encapsulation.
tips or quarries. Gases can be present in pockets on site as a
(e) Physical processes such as washing and sorting,
result of the accumulation of gas produced over a long
extraction and stabilization/solidification.
period of time or as a direct result of the current condi-
(f) Thermal processes.
tions which are continuing to produce gas. It is necessary to
(g) Chemical processes.
check for the presence of gas and then monitor the levels.
(h) Bioremediation.
Gases may be sampled in the atmosphere or in trial pits
(i) A combination of the above techniques may be
and boreholes. Below-ground presences and production of
possible.
gases should be monitored over a period of time from sam-
pling tubes sealed in backfilled boreholes or probes in voids If assessment shows an unacceptable risk to site users,
in the ground. relocation of the development may be an option. The
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Contaminated and Derelict Sites 93

engineering-based approaches (b) to (d) are the most Physical processes such as sorting and washing can reduce
common in the UK; however, with encouragement from the volume of contaminants and hence the costs of final
the Environment Agency, the process-based techniques treatment or disposal. Extraction treatments such as soil
(e) to (h) are becoming more frequently used. vapour extraction, electro-remediation, soil flushing and
chemical extraction are not widely used in the UK but have
Off-site disposal is generally only economic when volumes been used to remove volatile and ionic contaminants from
are small and hotspots can be identified. When considering contaminated soils. Contaminants can be trapped inside
removal of contaminated materials it should be remem- an inert material formed by mixing cementitious materials
bered that handling the material on site requires special with the soil. Portland cement, lime and fly ash are some
safety precautions including protective clothing for site of the more commonly used materials. Soil can be treated
operatives. Removal from site must be carried out in quickly and in large volumes by this method, but longevity
covered and sometimes sealed transport and the material of the treatment process needs to be assured to prevent
taken to licensed tips. Consideration should be given to the possible long-term leaching of contaminants.
pre-treatment of hazardous waste prior to disposal, as the
availability of suitable disposal facilities for ‘dig and dump’ Organic and mercury contamination have been success-
remediation continues to decrease. fully treated by thermal desorption (heating soil to 600°C).
Incineration at temperatures of between 880 and 1200°C
Dilution by mixing contaminated soil with imported clean has been used to detoxify contaminants and higher tem-
soil may prove a simple option for a lightly contaminated peratures (1200–1700°C) have been used to vitrify soils
site, but stringent quality control measures are required to contaminated by organics, heavy metals and asbestos.
check that the method is effective. Chemical reagents can be mixed with soil to create remedi-
ation by such processes as oxidation, dechlorination, acid
More extensive contamination and associated gas and/or
extraction and pH adjustment.
leachate can be dealt with by the use of containment on site
by a low-permeability barrier membrane, placed under, Much research is underway to further develop bioremedi-
over and around the contaminated material as required. ation techniques for the treatment of contaminated soils.
Cover systems use a layer or layers of selected material The aim is to turn contaminants into harmless constituent
to prevent migration of contaminants to potential targets. chemical components by the use of techniques such as com-
Materials such as granular fill, clay capping and fabric posting (biopiles), landfarming and the action of micro-
membranes are commonly used. The cover system adopted organisms the soil mass. Where treatment is successful, no
must be designed to suit the actual site conditions and a disposal costs are incurred, but treatment times can be long
satisfactory design depends upon sufficient detailed sub- with associated high costs.
soil data to enable accurate predictions of groundwater
movements. The design and selection of suitable materials 5.4 Foundation protection
for the cover system is based upon preventing percolation
In order to ensure the satisfactory performance of sub-
of contaminants to the surface. The cover system should
structures it is necessary to know:
incorporate drainage and monitoring systems to ensure its
satisfactory performance. The use of a cover system must (1) Which elements can cause deterioration of the materials
be considered in conjunction with foundation substructure used in the foundations.
proposals as the integrity of the seal must be maintained. (2) How and where the elements occur.
(3) How attack develops and its effect.
In the case of a naturally occurring contaminant such as (4) What checks and tests should be carried out to identify
radon, removal is impractical and other precautions must corrosive elements during site investigation works.
be adopted. Radon ingress into the building via floors, (5) What precautions can be taken to prevent attack.
walls and service entries must be prevented and any
radon-laden air trapped below the floor can be extracted With an appreciation and an understanding of the above
by mechanical means. Further information and details points it is possible to incorporate the necessary design and
concerning radon protection can be found in BRE publica- construction of the foundations thus ensuring satisfactory
tion, BR 211, Radon: guidance on protective measures for new performance and economy of the sub-structures.
dwellings.(8) (1) Aggressive ground conditions. If sulfates and other chem-
Vertical in-ground barriers such as sheet piles, slurry walls, ical agents in the soil cannot be prevented from reaching
clay and bentonite are used to contain contaminants within the structure the size of concrete members and quality
the site. of concrete requires careful consideration.
Fully compacted concrete of low permeability is
Macro-encapsulation techniques involve a combination essential in resisting chemical attack. Massive forms of
of cover systems, vertical and horizontal barriers to com- construction will deteriorate less quickly than thin or
pletely isolate a contaminated site from the surrounding small sections. The rate of attack can increase if mois-
ground. The use of gas control systems may need to be ture can be lost by evaporation or leakage from any part
considered on methane-producing sites. Where there of the concrete surfaces and replenishment can occur
are sufficient volumes of gas, these can be used for energy from other parts. Ground slabs and retaining walls are
generation purposes. therefore more vulnerable than foundations and piles.
SFDC05 3/8/06 12:37 PM Page 94

94 Special and Further Considerations

A number of protective measures are available to scenarios and the recommended methodology for in-
prevent deterioration of concrete in aggressive ground vestigation in accordance with the code of practice. The
conditions. The use of an enhanced concrete contain- following example is reproduced in Appendix F9 for
ing more cement and a reduced water/cement ratio is reference.
the first option. Other options range from the use of
Former industrial site
controlled permeability formwork, through the provi-
sion of surface protection (coatings and water-resistant Development option (1) supermarket
barriers) to the use of a sacrificial outer layer of con- (2) private housing with gardens
crete designed to provide protection for the life of the
structure. 5.6 References
(2) Phenols. The use of plastic pipework to carry services 1. Department of Environment, Transport and the Regions (2000)
should be avoided if phenols are present (or suspected). Implementation of Part IIA of the Environmental Protection Act 1990.
Alternative materials or protective coatings are neces- DETR Circular 2/2000 Contaminated Land Available at: http://
sary if plastic or rubber materials are used in areas www.defra.gov.uk/environment/land/contaminated/circ2-
contaminated by phenols. Increased sizes of concrete 2000/.
members, and additional depths of concrete cover to 2. Interdepartmental Committee on the Redevelopment of
reinforcement should be considered if phenol concen- Contaminated Land (1987) Guidance on the Assessment and
trations are very high. Redevelopment of Contaminated Land, ICRCL Guidance
(3) Metals. To prevent metallic corrosion through elec- Note 59/33, 2nd edn. DoE, London.
3. Department of Environment, Transport and the Regions (2000)
trolytic action the following alternatives should be
Potential Contaminants for the Assessment of Land (CLR 8). DETR,
considered:
London.
(a) Do not use metals in below-ground construction. 4. Environment Agency/NHBC (2000) Guidance for the Safe
(b) Remove the metallic contaminants from the critical Development of Housing on Land Affected by Contamination.
areas of the ground. R&D publication 66. The Stationery Office, London.
(c) Use protective coatings and layers for all metals in 5. Leach, B.A. & Goodger, H.K. (1991) Building on Derelict Land.
below-ground locations. CIRIA SP 78. PSA Specialist Services, London.
6. BRE Construction Division, The Concrete Centre (2005) Concrete
An evaluation of each option can be undertaken and the in Aggressive Ground (3rd edn). BRE Special Digest 1. BRE,
most suitable treatment adopted. Garston.
7. British Standards Institution (2001) Investigation of potentially
5.5 Examples of site investigations contaminated sites – Code of practice. BS 10175. BSI, London.
on potentially contaminated sites 8. Building Research Establishment/Department of Environment,
Transport and the Regions (1999) Radon: guidance on protective
The reader is referred to Annexe A of BS 10175, which measures for new dwellings. BRE Report BR 211. Construction
contains examples illustrating typical site investigation Research Communications Ltd, Garston.
SFDC06 1/8/06 12:16 PM Page 95

6 Mining and Other Subsidence

6.1 Introduction skill and sites should not be rejected, out of hand, because
they are liable to subsidence.
Subsidence due to mining of coal and other materials and
the extraction of other minerals by pumping (i.e. brine The most common and widespread cause of subsidence is
pumping) can cause more severe stressing of structures that due to coal mining and an understanding of this cause
than that caused by differential settlement. In addition to is not only helpful to the designer but it also facilitates the
the vertical settlement there can also be horizontal move- understanding of other forms of subsidence.
ment of the supporting soil causing strain and stress, both
in tension and compression, which can be transferred to the 6.2 Mechanics of mining subsidence
foundations with serious results to the superstructure.
The determination of the magnitude and rate of settlement
The authorities responsible for the underground workings, is a complex and specialized topic and advice should be
i.e. The Coal Authority and the Brine Authority, will obtained from engineers specializing in subsidence. Never-
usually give advice on the magnitude and distribution theless it is advisable that the designer of the foundation
of the likely movement due to past, present and proposed and the superstructure understands the ground behaviour
future workings. The structure and its foundations must due to mining subsidence since this will make for fuller
be designed to be robust enough or sufficiently flexible to understanding of the specialist engineer’s report and help
safely withstand the effects of movements. It is even more to anticipate the effects on the project.
important than normal that the foundation and superstruc-
When coal, or other minerals, are extracted a sub-surface
ture design should be closely linked under the supervision
cavity is formed and the surrounding strata will flow into
of one engineer responsible for the project.
the cavity (see Fig. 6.1).
Long buildings should be broken up into shorter lengths
The action is, of course, three-dimensional and not merely
by jointing and extensive buildings of larger plan area
two-dimensional, as shown for convenience in Fig. 6.1. The
should be divided into smaller, independent units. When
resulting surface subsidence forms a trough- or saucer-like
relatively shallow mining has ceased it may be possible
depression covering a much wider area than the extracted
to backfill the workings (known as stowing) or to take the
area. It will be appreciated that the wider the extraction
foundations below them. In some cases the extra cost of
or width of workings, W, then the wider will be the subsided
providing strong, rigid foundations for houses and other
surface (known as the zone of influence). Similarly the
small, lightly loaded buildings may far exceed the cost
shallower the depth of seam from the surface, H, then
of repairing the possible minor cracking of such build-
the greater will be the magnitude of the maximum sub-
ings with traditional or possibly semi-flexible foundations.
sidence, S. (These points can be considered in some detail
Where this is inadvisable or uneconomic the superstructure
by examination of Fig. 6.2.)
design can be amended to resist safely the effects of sub-
sidence (see also section 1.6). Typical examples are:
subsided surface
(1) The use of three-pinned arches in lieu of rigid portals.
(2) Simple supports instead of fixed end supports.
(3) Articulated structures and foundations (see section
6.10.7).
(4) Adding reinforcement to superstructure walls so that
they act as deep, stiff beams.
(5) Groups of buildings should be kept separate, and isol-
ated. If connections are unavoidable, such as covered
corridors, concrete paths, they should form flexible
links.
(6) Shallow raft foundations, particularly for low-rise seam
buildings, can form the best resistance to tension and extraction
compression strains in the supporting ground.

Further examples are given in section 6.10.1.

There is considerable scope for engineering ingenuity and Fig. 6.1 Substrata flow into cavity.
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96 Special and Further Considerations

area of subsidence

S, max.
subsidence
zero subsidence
S

subsidence trough
H, depth of seam
from surface

angle of draw

W, width of
worked area

Fig. 6.2 Zone of influence.

strain curve
horizontal displacement curve

horizontal
displacement
tensile
strain

compressive
strain

subsidence trough

worked area
or ‘goaf’

Fig. 6.3 Subsidence effect.

The angle of draw is the angle between the line from the thickness of the worked seam, its depth below the surface,
edge of the worked area normal to the seam, and that to the type of overburden, etc.
the point of zero subsidence at ground level. The angle has As can be seen from Figs 6.2 and 6.3, the ground (and
been found, by experience, to be 30° ± 5° in most types of the foundations resting on it) will be subject to vertical
ground. The strain in the ground at the surface above the settlement – and to horizontal displacement strains in ten-
workings tends to be in compression and in tension above sion and compression. The effect on buildings is shown in
the area subtended by the angle of draw. The horizontal Fig. 6.4.
displacement of the surface tends to be zero at the point
For the sake of clarity a static case has been considered,
above the centre of the worked area rising to a maximum
i.e., the results of one part of the seam having been worked.
at the edge of the worked area then falling to zero again at
But as the seam working is advanced then so too will
the edge of the angle of draw (see Fig. 6.3).
the subsidence advance in the form of a subsidence wave.
The angle of draw, the magnitude of settlement, dis- The ground strains, too, with the advance can change from
placement and strain will depend on such factors as the tension to compression (see Fig. 6.5).
SFDC06 1/8/06 12:16 PM Page 97

Mining and Other Subsidence 97

foundation subject to unaffected foundation (dependent on the overburden and other factors), the total
tension and subsidence subsidence may take up to two years to complete.

During subsidence the collapsed overlying strata bulks so

that the surface subsidence is less than the thickness of the
extracted seam.
The maximum subsidence likely to occur can be up to
80% of the coal seam thickness, when the width of the
face exceeds 1.4 × depth of seam – a common occurrence
in longwall mining. The use of stowage reduces the surface
foundation subject to subsidence but since stowage is an additional cost item in
compression and mining it is not often employed.
subsidence
angle of draw The horizontal strains can be as high as 0.008 for shallow
workings but are generally 0.002. Shallow workings are
defined as either less than 30 m below ground level or
Fig. 6.4 Subsidence effect on buildings. where the depth of the overburden is less than 10 × seam
thickness. The magnitude of the slope of the subsidence
wave, or tilt of the ground surface, can be as high as 1 in
The magnitude of the vertical and horizontal displacement 50 over shallow workings and the slope decreases as the
is significantly increased by the method of mining (it is also depth to the working increases.
affected by the number of seams worked one above the
other). 6.3.2 Pillar and stall workings (partial
extraction methods)
6.3 Methods of mining
During the 15th and 16th centuries methods of partial
extraction started to be used which left pillars of unworked
6.3.1 Longwall workings
coal to support the roof (see Fig. 6.7). At most only half
The modern method of mining is to advance continuously the coal was extracted during the advance of the seam but
on a wide face 200–300 m long. The roof near the face is sup- when the limits of the seam were reached the miners, as
ported on temporary supports (usually walking hydraulic they retreated from the workings, cut into the pillars thus
jacks) as it advances and as the face advances so do the sup- much reducing them in cross-sectional area and, in some
ports. The overlying strata either breaks through along the cases, totally removing the pillars.
back edge of the supports or is partly supported by stowed
In some mining areas the pillars formed a continuous
material. At each end of the longwall face roadways are
wall with roadways between – and again, on retreating, the
maintained for access of labour and plant, ventilation and
walls were robbed of coal. In either method the pillars could
the removal of the coal (see Fig. 6.6).
collapse due to overloading, or punch (shear) through
The subsidence waves advance in line with the longwall the roof or floor, or weather away. Though such mines have
and at roughly the same speed as extraction. Though most long been abandoned, and thus ground settlement is likely
of the subsidence is transmitted fairly rapidly to the sur- to be complete, there can be problems today particularly
face as the overlying strata collapse into the worked seam where the depth of overburden is shallow and especially if

tension
advance of subsidence wave

ground as yet unaffected

subsided ground becoming affected as work
compression advances

angle of draw

1 2 3 4

advance of working
unworked seam

Fig. 6.5 Subsidence wave.

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98 Special and Further Considerations

15 m 5m up to 300 m 5m 15 m

supplies access roadway A stone packing coal transport roadway

and return airgate and intake airgate
goaf

coal left in
place to
support roof

adjacent hydraulic roof A coal cutting coal transport roadway

worked area supports machine conveyor system supports

coal cutting machine hydraulic roof roof collapses when roof

supports support is progressively
withdrawn

coal seam
being worked

section A–A

Fig. 6.6 Longwall extraction.

pillars of unworked coal

left to support roof
further extraction of pillars

remnant pillars

initial extraction retreating extraction by ‘robbing’ pillars

Fig. 6.7 Partial extraction – pillar and stall.

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Mining and Other Subsidence 99

new building new building

soil overburden soil overburden

thin strata of
thick strata of poor rock
strong rock

collapsed roof
pillars
pillars

safe conditions possibly unsafe condition

Fig. 6.8 Effect of overburden/rockhead strength.

it is of weak, friable strata. With roof collapse there is a risk was also used by unemployed miners in the strikes and
that the cavity may migrate to the surface, i.e., continuous economic depression of the 1920s and 1930s. Shafts gener-
collapse of the overlying soil until the results of the cavity ally 1.0–1.2 m in diameter were sunk to the level of the coal
backfill reach the surface. The increased pressure on the seam which could be up to 12 m below ground. The shafts
pillar remnants due to a new building relative to the over- were then widened at seam level to extract the coal until the
burden pressure could be enough to cause them to collapse. area became too large to prevent roof collapse and the pit
Typical safe and less safe conditions are shown in Fig. 6.8. was abandoned.

Though detailed records of such workings were rarely The shafts can be as close as 10 m and where ironstone has
kept, The Coal Authority has a vast amount of information been worked by this method the shafts can be as close as
on such coal mines. Unfortunately, it cannot be guaranteed 5 m. (See Fig. 6.9.)
that all are known. It is advisable to check with boreholes,
particularly when coal seams are at shallow depth and Evidence of bell-pit workings can be revealed by the cones
overlain by poor material. of mine waste or ground depressions along the outcrop of
main seams. Geophysical methods, such as seismic analyses,
Probably, nowadays, less than 5% of coal is mined by such
infra-red photography, etc., to detect the presence of pits
methods in developed countries though the method is still
are not always successful and it has been found more reli-
used to win gypsum, limestone and ironstone.
able to trench excavate suspect areas (see section 6.4.1). The
foundation designer’s problem is that bell-pits were rarely
6.3.3 ‘Bell-pits’
properly backfilled and they were left to collapse leaving
This form of mining evolved in about the 13th century, and voids and the overburden with low load-bearing capacity.

mine waste

bell-pit unsupported roof shaft

maximum depth
normally about 12 m

centres of shafts rarely unworked coal

less than 10 m

Fig. 6.9 Bell-pits.

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100 Special and Further Considerations

6.4 Associated and other workings stopped in 1930 because of the serious subsidence caused
and some subsidence is still not complete. The extraction is
6.4.1 Abandoned mine shafts and adits now controlled by limiting the size of the cavities formed.

A further problem in mining areas is the detection of aban-

6.4.7 Chalk
doned mine shafts and adits which are often in an unstable
condition. A mine shaft provides a circular vertical access Bell-pits have been sunk to extract flints in Berkshire,
to the coal whereas an adit is more usually square and Hampshire, Hertfordshire, Kent, Norfolk and Suffolk.
inclined and often follows the dip of the seam. Though The
Unrecorded workings for chalk have caused problems with
Coal Authority has records of over 100 000 shafts there are
crown holes migrating to the surface because of spalling or
still many unrecorded. It is estimated, for example, that in
solution of the mine gallery roofs.
Derbyshire alone there are over 50 000 lead mine shafts.
Many of the shafts have not been properly backfilled, if
6.5 Faulting
at all. Many have been capped or plugged by using felled
trees to form a scaffold at a depth not far below ground Mining areas, particularly coal, are often faulted and sub-
level on to which fill was tipped up to ground level. The fill sidence is sharp and sudden along the outcrop of the fault. It
material is often found to be unsatisfactory and consisting is therefore advisable to locate a building away from a fault.
of refuse, degradable material, old tubs and the like.

There may be records of such shafts on early OS maps.

6.6 Natural and other cavities
Evidence of depressions should be checked or they may
show up on aerial survey photographs. Drilling for shafts is 6.6.1 Dissolving rock
not as successful in detection as trenching with excavators. Cavities can occur in sedimentary rocks due to sub-surface
Since the filled shafts can be unstable, regard must be paid erosion caused by the movement of groundwater. Probably
to safety measures for the personnel and plant employed. the most common cavities are those in limestone and chalk
Where a coal seam outcropped at the surface the main deposits and in salty strata (see section 6.4). There have
access would have been by adits. When abandoned, like been problems in wind–blown deposits, loess is the most
shafts, they were often inadequately backfilled. common, but these are rare in northern Europe. The main
foundation problem in this country is the formation of
6.4.2 Fireclay and other clays swallow-holes in chalk and limestone (see Fig. 4.3 in
Chapter 4).
High-grade fireclay, for use in boiler lining and brick kilns,
is still mined, as is red tile clay for floor tiles. The common Chemicals in the deposit, chlorides and carbonates, can
mining method is the pillar and stall technique. dissolve in water (known as evaporites) and are trans-
ported by underground springs. Over a period of time
6.4.3 Iron ores large caves, cavities and potholes are formed. Generally,
there is sufficient rock and depth of overburden remaining
Some mining of iron ore is still continuing, on a relatively so as not to cause foundation design problems. Advice
minor scale, usually by the pillar and stall method. should however, be sought from the British Geological
Survey in areas affected by such action.
6.4.4 Other metals
Tin and copper have been mined in Cornwall and lead 6.6.2 Dissolving soils
and zinc have been mined in the mountainous area of the A very common cause of foundation failures, particularly
Lake and Peak Districts, North Wales and in the northern in housing, resulting in cracks in the walls, is the washing
Pennines. The minerals usually occur as vein deposits so away of the supporting soil due to cracked water mains
that the workings are relatively narrow and localized. and sewers. The authors’ consultancy has discovered this
problem in numerous cases and now investigates, as a first
6.4.5 Limestone step in a structural survey, the possibility of such leakage.
Limestone is mined when quarrying is not feasible and The cure can be relatively simple – stop the leaks, replace
an alternative economic supply is not available. Again the the washed-out soil with compacted sandy gravel or
pillar and stall method is a common technique and rarely underpin and repair any structural damage.
gives rise to foundation design problems. (Should there
be any doubt then the soundness of the pillars should be 6.7 Treatment of abandoned shallow
investigated.) workings

6.4.6 Salt 6.7.1 Introduction

Salt extraction by brine pumping (brine being a mixture In the majority of cases it is not economic to treat aban-
of salt and water) is common in Cheshire and also occurs doned workings, except for old shafts, but to design the
to a limited extent in Lancashire, Yorkshire, Shropshire foundations and superstructure to withstand or accept
and other counties. Uncontrolled, or wild pumping, was subsidence. However, consideration of treatment should
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Mining and Other Subsidence 101

not be dismissed out of hand, since there are cases when safety zone safety zone
it is worthwhile to carry out remedial measures. The cost
of such treatment should be compared to the alternatives
of amending foundation and superstructure design.

The main treatment methods are: shaft

superficial H
(1) Excavate down to working and backfill – this is only deposits (soils)
feasible for very shallow workings, i.e., less than 5 m
45
down for buildings.
(2) Partial grouting to improve bearing capacity or limit
void migration.
(3) Full grouting of workings. rockhead

6.7.2 Excavate and backfill Fig. 6.10 Mine shaft – safety zone.

This method can be used, and be justified, when the cost is

lower than grouting; the cost valuation of the site is reduced
sufficiently because of the problem (to make the solution
Even shafts that appear to be filled are prone to collapse
cost effective) and the alternative of adjustments to a normal
because the fill may migrate into the workings.
foundation and superstructure are more expensive.
The backfilling of approved material must be compacted in 6.8.1 Capping
the manner specified. The Highways Agency specification(1)
Reinforced concrete capping is the common method of
gives detailed guidance on materials suitable for backfilling
covering a shaft (see Fig. 6.11). When buildings must be
and compaction methods.
sited over capped shafts the dimensions of the cap will
6.7.3 Partial and full grouting exceed those shown in Fig. 6.11 to ensure that the bearing
capacity of the soil supporting the cap is not exceeded. The
Partial grouting tends to be limited to pillar and stall depth of the cap will also be likely to exceed that shown
workings up to 20 m below ground level. Grout mixes are in Fig. 6.11 to accommodate bending and shear stress.
commonly of pulverized fuel ash (p.f.a.) and cement in Ideally the cap should be securely founded at rockhead and
ratios varying from 12 : 1 to 20 : 1 with a crushing strength the shaft voids grouted.
at 28 days of 1 MN/m2 and a water content not exceeding
40% of the weight of the solids. Generally the grouting 6.9 Effect of mining method and method
pressure should not exceed 10 kN/m2 per metre depth. The of treatment
grout is pumped through a grid of drill holes at between
3 – 6 m centres. Further details of grouting are given in 6.9.1 Introduction
References 2– 6.
Extra precautions in foundation design in mining areas are
Grouting is a specialist operation and it is strongly advised not always necessary. Foundations may be designed in the
that only experienced and competent contractors are invited normal way when:
to tender.
(1) Partial (see section 6.7.3) or complete consolidation, or
6.8 Treatment of abandoned shafts other treatments have been successfully carried out.
(2) Where subsidence over old workings is complete and
The treatment of shafts, bell-pits, swallow-holes and the
no new workings are envisaged.
like by capping or other means is far more common than
(3) Where geotechnical surveys prove that there is a
the treatment of shallow workings. The reason is obvious –
strong, thick overburden which will not subside.
shafts extend to ground level and must therefore either be
avoided by relocating the proposed building or treated. Where these conditions do not occur the method of mine
The Coal Authority prefers relocation, even if the shafts are working must be considered.
securely plugged and capped, and suggest leaving a safety
zone as shown in Fig. 6.10. It has also been suggested that 6.9.2 Bell workings
the safety zone should equal H, up to a maximum of 30 m,
If the extent and treatment cannot be guaranteed then:
or 2 × H, up to a maximum of 15 m depth of overburden.
(1) The proposed buildings should be relocated, or
Most old shafts were only partly filled, with the fill sup-
(2) The foundations, such as piling or the use of deep
ported on a platform (often timber) just below ground level
basements, should be founded below the level of prob-
or within the depth of the superficial deposits.
able working for multi-storey buildings. Bell-pit work-
Deterioration of the platform and/or shaft lining eventually ings are normally shallow so that such foundations
leads to a collapse of the fill and the authors’ consultancy can be economically feasible. Piling should not be used,
has frequently been asked to advise in cases of sudden however, where mining subsidence is still active (see
collapse. section 6.10.6).
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102 Special and Further Considerations

reference marker excavate to stiff or compact

soil or to rockhead
backfill compacted
in thin layers
existing ground or
formation level

> 2D
superficial deposits

rockhead

reinforced concrete capping compressible

slab across shaft packing

brickwork of shaft
filled shaft or cut to this level
D
suspended plug

shaft diameter slab thickness slab size minimum reinforcement spacing

up to 1.8 m 4.2 m × 4.2 m

200 mm centres
minimum
1.8 m to 2.7 m 450 mm 5.4 m × 5.4 m

2.7 m to 3.6 m 8.2 m × 8.2 m 250 mm centres

Notes
1 Reinforcement – use a minimum of 40 mm diameter in both directions at top and bottom of cap.
2 Cap must be a minimum of 3 m below any proposed adjacent building formation level or 1 m
below ground level and be not less than 2D in width.
3 Cap should be founded on rockhead, if possible, or alternatively on a grouted base.
4 Vent pipes may be incorporated if the slab is placed on fill.
5 Extra precautions may be required where circumstances dictate that a building must be
constructed over a shaft.

Fig. 6.11 Mine shaft – capping/filling.

(3) For low-rise buildings stiff, strong foundations (i.e., In both bell-pits and pillar and stall working the associated
doubly reinforced r.c. beams or, preferably, doubly ground movements are vertical, erratic and localized, and
reinforced two-way spanning rafts) should be pro- the use of reinforced rafted structures is usually the solu-
vided (see Fig. 6.12). (This is in addition to the tion. Low-rise buildings are the worst affected – terraced
provision of structural movement joints discussed in housing of load-bearing brick walls, a brittle material,
section 6.10.1(3).) Typical worked examples are given founded on unreinforced footings can be seriously dam-
in Chapter 13. aged. Multi-storey structures with deep r.c. shear walls
providing the main structural support are often more
(Note Similar techniques can be used over swallow-holes
capable of resisting the effects of ground movements by
and shafts.)
spanning or cantilevering over the subsidence depression.

6.9.3 Pillar and stall

Crown holes
Due to long-term sub-surface erosion and weathering of
the pillars, punching through the floor or roof, or increase Where the overburden of the worked coal is weak, or a
of loading from new structures, can cause the pillars to pillar fails, the roof can collapse into the workings and form
collapse. The result, at ground level, is similar to bell-pit in the first instance, a void above the workings. This void
action in that loss of ground support can be sudden, will migrate to ground level forming a depression known as
unpredictable and localized in area. The foundation design a crown hole. The depth of the crown hole will not be equal
should be similar to that described in the preceding section to the depth of the seam since bulking of the soil collapsing
and Chapter 13. into the seam will take place (see Fig. 6.13). Where crown
SFDC06 1/8/06 12:16 PM Page 103

Mining and Other Subsidence 103

long factory or terraced housing

joints at
10 m c/c

span 4 –5 m cantilever 2– 3 m doubly reinforced beam or raft

Fig. 6.12 Jointed structure/reinforced foundation.

crown hole and type of overburden. Advice on position, rate and mag-
nitude of the subsidence can be obtained from an engineer
experienced in mining subsidence damage. Fuller details
are given in References 2, 3 and 5.

The subsidence wave advances in front of the working face

causing, first, tension stresses in the ground, resulting in
collapsed roof most damage to structures, followed by tilting and finally
relatively short-term compression strain in the ground.

worked seam Foundations for superstructures for proposed buildings

in potential subsidence areas, due to longwall workings,
should be designed as rafts (see Chapter 13).
Fig. 6.13 Crown hole.
6.9.5 Rafts founded over longwall workings
holes are evident a check should be made for others and Rafts, in addition to the normal pressures and stress, can
the likelihood of them occurring. The crown hole can be be subject to ground strain in subsidence areas and it is
consolidated by grout injection or the foundation designed advisable to understand the effect of such strain.
to bridge over it. Beams or rafts are commonly designed to
The structural strains in the raft are caused by drag from
span over possible 3 m diameter holes or cantilever 2 m.
frictional forces generated by movement or strain in the
supporting ground which can cause lengthening or
6.9.4 Longwall workings
shortening of the raft. A simplified explanation of the
Most coal is now extracted by longwall working and the phenomena is shown in Fig. 6.14.
associated ground movements can be predicted with
The figure shows that the raft is being dragged apart by
reasonable accuracy by engineers experienced in sub-
the ground movement. The drag force is proportional
sidence damage. The predictions are based on a relatively
to the weight of the structure and the frictional resistance
vast amount of empirical data and procedures which have
(or coefficient of friction) at the ground–raft interface. The
been developed from continuous study of records and
coefficient of friction between a concrete raft and sand slip-
observations.
plane can be taken as 0.66 and the frictional force is usually
There is, as yet, no reliable scientific procedure for deter- taken as (weight of structure)/2 (see Design Example 4 in
mining the magnitude, rate and form of subsidence. Chapter 13).
The area of ground surface affected by longwall mining
6.10 Design principles and precautions in
is relatively large (whereas bell-pit and pillar and stall tend
longwall mining subsidence areas
to be localized). The rate of subsidence depends on the rate
of extraction and tends to be rapid at first, often 90% or
6.10.1 Introduction
more occurring within weeks of extraction, and then slows
down. The residual subsidence can take two years and The interdependence of the foundation and superstructure
sometimes more to complete. The magnitude of subsidence is an important design consideration in mining subsidence
will depend on the depth of worked seam and the depths areas to produce a balanced and integrated structure.
SFDC06 1/8/06 12:16 PM Page 104

104 Special and Further Considerations

raft (8) Wrap around corner windows, projecting window bays,

rigid concrete paving cast immediately against the
external walls and similar potential problem areas
should be avoided.
(9) Buildings should not be located over faults or in the
movement of ground
(tensile) area affected by the fault. Where this is not possible, is
impractical or causes excessive extra costs the area of
the building should be thoroughly jointed to isolate
it from the rest of the structure and the foundation
should be provided with extra stiffness. Subsidence
and ground strains tend to concentrate along faults
distribution of relative displacement of ground and can thus relieve, to some extent, the surrounding
and rafte ground from disturbance.
(10) Retaining walls likely to be affected by ground strains
should be free-standing and not be structurally
integral with the superstructure.
(11) Excessive downstand beams and other projections
below the smooth rafts should be avoided.
(12) Roofs should be provided with ample falls and where
distribution of tensile force in raft reversal of tilt is possible alternative drainage outlets
should be provided.
(13) Load-bearing masonry structures should not use
brittle mortars; bedjoint reinforcement may be added
Fig. 6.14 Effect of ground strain on raft. and planes of weakness, i.e., lining up of doors with
windows over, should be avoided or the implications
considered. Masonry structures have been successfully
prestressed to resist tensile stresses due to subsidence.
Some advice on designing the building to cater for move-
(14) Consider using jacking points, where necessary, to
ment is given in the following sections, and the following
relevel the building.
points should be considered:

(1) Flexible superstructure structures with simply sup- 6.10.2 Rafts and strips for low-rise, lightly
ported spans are preferable on flexible foundations, loaded buildings
alternatively, stiff superstructures jointed to form small
Details of rafts for low-rise, lightly loaded buildings such
units can be accommodated on stiff foundations.
as houses, single-storey clinics, primary schools and similar
(2) Larger buildings should be jointed into smaller adja-
are shown in Fig. 6.15. Additional details are provided and
cent components with the joint extending also through
explained in Chapter 13.
their foundations which should comprise shallow,
smooth-soffited rafts laid on two layers of polythene Where such rafts are expensive relative to the lower cost
sheeting and a 150 mm thick layer of compacted sand of housing repairs in areas of minor subsidence then
which acts as a slip-plane to isolate the raft from the consideration may be given to the use of strip footings,
tensile and compressive ground strains. with some reinforcement, founded on a sand slip-plane
(3) Large structures should be subdivided into smaller with a compressible filler at the vertical ends of founda-
independent units by gaps or flexible joints, at least tions to allow for longitudinal movement of the ground.
50 mm wide, through superstructure, foundations, Consultation with the client and their building insurer is
services and finishes. The necessary expansion joints recommended at an early stage to ensure that an adequate
in a superstructure can be used for such jointing. level of subsidence cover will be provided for the proposed
(4) Avoid whenever possible the use of basements. Where foundation.
these must be used the external walls should be
protected from ground strains by the provision of a
100 mm thick expanded polystyrene layer, or similar, high tensile square mesh
reinforcement
and the underside of the basement slab provided with
a sand slip-plane (see 2 above).
(5) Connections between pinned structural members
should have adequate tensile strength to ensure that
differential movement does not lead to progressive
collapse.
(6) Masonry arches should be avoided.
2 layers of polythene sheeting 150 mm of compacted
(7) Brittle finishes should be avoided – use plasterboard
sand or similar
and dry linings in lieu of plaster; avoid high-strength
brittle mortars; use boundary fences and not walls, etc. Fig. 6.15 Raft detail – low-rise/lightly loaded buildings.
SFDC06 1/8/06 12:16 PM Page 105

Mining and Other Subsidence 105

cellular raft 6.10.4 Jacking points

compressible material 50 mm concrete If it is vital to re-level the structure due to permanent tilting
blinding
of the ground (a fairly rare occurrence) then the placing of
hydraulic jacks or jacking points in the foundation under
the walls and columns should be provided.

6.10.5 Service ducts

Where possible service ducts should be incorporated in
the cells of cellular rafts. On some lightly loaded low-rise
structures such as schools and hospital wards, requiring
extensive services, consideration should be given to the use
of suspended floors above the structural foundation raft
two layers with the void thus formed used to accommodate services.
of polythene
note: d.p.m. omitted 150 mm compacted sheeting Where this is expensive or impractical the service duct may
for clarity sand slip-plane have to protrude below the invert of the raft. It should then
(a) be designed as a box beam founded on a horizontal slip
plane, clad externally with polystyrene, separated from
the raft invert by three layers of felt or similar separator
expaned polystyrene cellular r.c. basement and with the raft more heavily reinforced over to prevent it
breaking its back, in hogging, over the duct.

6.10.6 Piling
Piling should be avoided if at all possible since the horizon-
tal ground movements may either shear through the piles
or transfer excessive tension into the beam or slab over at
the pile head.
Piles may be used over longwall workings when subsidence
is complete and the overburden is too weak to support a
raft and where there is strong rock below the worked-out
seam. The piles should be taken below the seam, be of
precast concrete or tubular steel filled with concrete and
designed to withstand not only the structural load but also
any possible downdrag.
A smaller number of large-diameter piles are preferable
two layers to a large number of small-diameter piles since their ratio
of polythene of surface area to cross-sectional area is lower and thus
50 mm concrete 150 mm compacted sheeting reduces the effect of downdrag. Drilling the pile hole and
blinding sand slip-plane sleeving it before inserting the pile could almost elimin-
ate downdrag effects. To reduce transfer of stress, due to
note: d.p.m. omitted
for clarity horizontal movement of the pile head, it may be worth
considering topping the pile with two layers of neoprene
(b)
bearing pads and then capping with an oversized pile cap.
Fig. 6.16 Raft detail – multi-storey/heavy industrial The employment of such a method of piling usually costs
buildings. more than the use of a cellular raft so it is relatively un-
common. Furthermore, piling can disturb other previously
stable mine workings and set off further subsidence.
6.10.3 Rafts for multi-storey structures
or heavy industrial buildings 6.10.7 Articulated foundation
Articulated or three point support has been used in a number
Cellular rafts can be more economic than very thick, solid
of European countries. The foundation consists of three
rafts and if basements are necessary and their use unavoid-
pads which support short, low-height columns resting on
able they can in some cases be used as cellular rafts. The raft
steel balls or other pinned joints. A beam and slab connect
in a basement should be founded on a similar slip-plane
and rest on top of the columns and form the base of the
as housing (see Fig. 6.16 (a)) and basement walls should,
superstructure (see Fig. 6.17).
as described earlier, be externally clad with expanded
polystyrene to absorb compressive strains in the ground The tripod of pads will tilt as the subsidence wave passes
(see Fig. 6.16 (b) and Chapters 9 and 13). but they will remain in the same plane. The superstructure
SFDC06 1/8/06 12:16 PM Page 106

106 Special and Further Considerations

rigid superstructure two decades of mining subsidence (where other structures

in the close vicinity have either collapsed or been severely
damaged). A typical example, outlined in Example 2 of
section 1.6, was the conversion of an r.c. column and beam
frame into a Vierendeel girder.

Multi-storey structures
slab
Where the structure has a relatively large number of walls,
as in tall blocks of flats built in in situ concrete, then the
walls act as deep, stiff beams and can easily cope with span-
beams ning or cantilevering over subsided ground areas. A large
number of 14+ storey blocks of flats of plan dimensions
of the order 25 m × 15 m built off 2 m thick r.c. rafts have
been designed by the authors’ consultancy and have
successfully withstood the effects of subsidence.

sliding layer beneath pads steel balls (with jacks

6.11.3 Flexible superstructures
provided if necessary) When it proves an economical alternative (and it often
does), a flexible building with articulated joints, i.e., pins,
will tolerate ground movement by readjusting its shape
(see Fig. 6.18).

pads Simple surface foundations, capable of riding over the

columns subsidence wave, are not only often adequate but are
on balls generally less expensive than a rigid foundation.

Care however must be taken in the readjustment of shape,

beams in that the cladding is adequately overlapped to prevent
water ingress and that internal finishes are flexible and not
rigid or brittle. It is therefore advisable that other members
of the design team and the contractor are informed of the
engineering decision so that the building design and con-
struction implications can be appreciated and accommodated
by all the various disciplines.
Fig. 6.17 Articulated foundation.
Single-storey structures

will tilt but not suffer the effects of differential settlement or The most common form of flexible superstructure is the
subsidence. three pinned arch shown in Fig. 6.18 and the authors’ con-
sultancy has designed a large number of such structures.
6.11 Superstructures

6.11.1 Introduction
The superstructure, like the foundation, should be either
completely flexible or completely rigid. Mixtures of the two
techniques can lead to problems since partial strengthening
may actually increase the damage due to ground subsid-
ence and movement. It can sometimes help if rigid super- before ground movement
structures can slide on a slipping membrane, i.e. two layers
of suitable d.p.c. over the foundation. In other cases where original shape
the rigidity of the superstructure can enhance the stiffness
of the foundation by structurally integral action then the
connection between the superstructure and the foundation
should be fixed.

6.11.2 Rigid superstructures

Single-storey structures
after ground movement
The authors’ consultancy has designed a number of rigid
single-storey structures which have successfully withstood Fig. 6.18 Pin-jointed superstructure.
SFDC06 1/8/06 12:16 PM Page 107

Mining and Other Subsidence 107

They have been constructed in structural steel, precast con- CLASP multi-storey structures
crete and glulam timber and used for industrial buildings,
One of the earliest and most widely used techniques
schools, churches and other buildings.
was the CLASP system (Consortium of Local Authorities
Where masonry has proved an economical alternative for Special Programme). This, like the other techniques dis-
tall single-storey structures, the authors have used pre- cussed, was founded on a thin, flexible r.c. raft with the
stressed, free-standing masonry diaphragms and fins (see coefficient of friction between the raft and supporting soil
Fig. 6.19). The roof sits, simply supported, and can be tied reduced by a slip-plane of sand covered by a polythene
down to resist wind uplift on such walls. membrane.

The frame was pin jointed and provided with diagonal

top anchor concrete padstone bracing between columns to resist horizontal forces. The
bracing incorporated springs to permit the steel frame to
lozenge in any direction (see Fig. 6.20). All external cladding,
internal finishes and their fixings were designed so that
movement could take place without distortion or cracking.
The floors and roofs acted as stiffening diaphragms but
prestressed rod had flexible fixing to the frame.

6.12 Monitoring
Whenever possible the performance of the structure
should be monitored and the information gained passed
to The Coal Authority and/or other relevant research
establishments. This is particularly important for innova-
tive, or non-standard, design. The more records and
base anchor information on ground, foundation and superstructure
interaction acquired then the more efficient can become
masonry diaphragm wall future design.

6.13 References
1. Highways Agency (2004) Manual of Contract Documents for
prestressed rod Highway Works, Volume 1, Specification for Highway Works, Series
600, Earthworks. The Stationery Office, London.
2. Institution of Civil Engineers (1977) Ground Subsidence. ICE,
London.
3. Heatey, P.R. (1984) Construction over abandoned mine workings.
CIRIA, London.
4. British Standards Institution (1999) Code of practice for founda-
tions. BS 8004, BSI, London.
5. National Coal Board (1975) Subsidence Engineers’ Handbook,
masonry fin wall 2nd (rev.) edn. NCB, London.
6. Oue Arup & Partners (1976) Procedure for locating abandoned
Fig. 6.19 Prestressed masonry. mineshafts. HMSO, London.

frame lozenged
spring

spring opened

pin joints

Fig. 6.20 Pin jointed/spring braced superstructure.

SFDC07 1/8/06 11:13 AM Page 108

7 Fill

7.1 Filled sites of the fill. Advice can also be given suggesting any re-
orientation or revision to the location of the proposed works
7.1.1 Introduction to minimize potential problems. To assist the evaluation,
the implications of these characteristics will be considered
The main body of written information on soil mechanics
under the following headings:
and foundations deals with virgin ground and civil engin-
eering solutions. The majority of site problems, on the other • The container surface
hand, relate to fill materials and structural building founda- • The container edges
tions. Fill materials encountered during soil investigation • The container base
are often contaminated so that there is an overlap between • The container sub-strata
this and other chapters. • Water
• The fill material
Some publications suggest that the use of landfill sites is a
• Fill investigations
recent problem. However, the authors have been dealing
• Settlement predictions: (1) fill alone (2) combined
with such sites since the late 1950s and these sites have for a
effects
long time been ‘bread and butter jobs’ for many structural
• The development and its services – treatment and
engineering practices. Filled sites are at present being re-
solutions.
claimed in greater numbers and developed more econom-
ically than in the early days and there is a greater awareness
7.2 The container
of the hazards and dangers of contamination and gas emis-
sions. The treatment of hazards and gas emissions must be
7.2.1 The container surface
considered in relation to carrying out the site investigation
operations and it is necessary to advise on measures to The periphery conditions at the interface between the
ensure satisfactory long-term development. This chapter fill and the virgin ground are most important, i.e. the con-
however concentrates on the structural aspects of filled tainer shape, edge condition and base condition affect
sites and refers only briefly to these hazards which are the behaviour of the fill material within it, and Fig. 7.1
covered more fully in Chapter 5. indicates some typical sectional examples of surface shape
and resulting fill cross-sections.
7.1.2 Movement and settlement It can be seen that the container shape will affect the
The word container as used in this chapter is defined as the resulting fill settlement, since the depth of fill can vary con-
periphery surface of virgin ground within which the fill is siderably across the site and the width of fill can also vary
contained. Some important characteristics which relate to with depth of step positions (see Fig. 7.1 (e)).
movement and settlement of fill within a container are listed It can also be seen from Fig. 7.1 (e) that, should consolida-
below: tion of the fill occur, voids would develop below the over-
hanging steps. The importance of the variation of the plan
(1) The outer conditions surrounding the fill material i.e.
shape with depth is indicated in Fig. 7.2 since migration
the shape, strength, surface roughness and sub-surface
of the fill layers downward into new cross-sections with
condition of the fill container.
reduced or increased plan area affects the final settlement
(2) Sediment, water or chemical deposit at or near the
profile and magnitude. Since settlement results from a total
surface or within the container.
volume change, these effects can result in differential settle-
(3) The properties of the fill material i.e. consistency,
ments at surface level, which are also indicated in Fig. 7.2.
density, strength, decay characteristics, gas emissions,
moisture content, void ratio and chemical content.
(4) The history of placing and more recent disturbances. 7.2.2 The container edges
(5) The direction, location and orientation of proposed The restraint at the edges of a container can delay or reduce
structures and loadings. locally the total settlement. Restraint at the container edges
(6) Test results from the fill material. can be due to frictional drag or mechanical keying against
the face of the container (see Fig. 7.3).
From an evaluation of the above characteristics for a particu-
lar site the designer can decide on the actions and design Sudden settlement can occur in these restrained zones
requirements for the site including the necessary treatment when either:
SFDC07 1/8/06 11:13 AM Page 109

Fill 109

fill

fill

(a) (b)

fill
fill

(c) (d)

fill fill

(e) (f)

Fig. 7.1 Fill cross-section.

settlement settlement

void

filled well or bell-pit filled trench or quarry

Fig. 7.2 Fill consolidation.

voided zones voided zone

settlement settlement

fill fill

rock rock

voids
voids

mechanical frictional
key drag

Fig. 7.3 Fill edge restraint.

SFDC07 1/8/06 11:13 AM Page 110

110 Special and Further Considerations

old field drain contaminated or

discharging down chemical discharge
face of excavation

overburden

fill

rock rock

Fig. 7.4 Filled quarry.

sand fill household refuse bricks and rubble

old quarry rotting waste timber industrial waste

standing
water level
past mine
working

decaying vegetation corroding car silts and sediment

body

Fig. 7.5 Uncontrolled filling.

(1) Consolidation causes the voids to migrate upwards to filled without any engineering supervision or control. There
the surface level, or was rarely an intention to develop at the time of filling and
(2) Lubrication of the container face by water or other the designer should expect uncontrolled tipping of waste
liquid reduces the friction or erodes the fill. materials. Figure 7.5 indicates some of the conditions which
commonly exist.
Backfilled open-cast quarries in rock areas are particu-
larly vulnerable to such settlements around the edges of In addition, the edges and sometimes the base of the con-
the quarry, especially when damaged land drains, etc., tainer may be undermined by tunnels and other remains of
have been left discharging down the quarry face. The previous shallow mine workings which pre-date open-cast
quarry itself can also act as a sump collecting surface water activities above them. The container base itself may have
and groundwater. Water is not the only possible seepage hazards local to its surface or a short distance below, which
however, since other contaminants may also discharge into have resulted from previous underground workings. These
old open-cast workings around the edges of the container hazards may have structural implications and/or be the
(see Fig. 7.4). source of possible gas emission.

7.2.3 The container base 7.2.4 The container sub-strata

Many fill containers have been left derelict prior to filling The peripheral and internal differential movements of the
and sediments and waste products often litter the base. fill are significantly affected by the container sub-strata.
Soft silts, decaying vegetation, old car bodies, etc., are often A yielding container sub-strata may allow a relatively
at the base of the more recent fill materials and create uniform settlement to occur between the container and its
excessive settlement, sometimes over very long periods. contents. A container of sand backfilled with similar
Standing water at the base of the container is a common material, with similar compaction and density (see Fig. 7.6),
condition prior to filling and often these sites have been will settle in a similar manner to that of the virgin sand. In
SFDC07 1/8/06 11:13 AM Page 111

Fill 111

and/or lubricate the face of materials down the edges of the

sand filling container as previously mentioned.

7.3.4 Water inundation

virgin sand of The strength and settlement of the fill material can be
similar material greatly affected by submergence in water and serious
compaction and density collapse settlement of loose and unsaturated fill material
to that of the fill
can occur on inundation with water.
Fig. 7.6 Sand fill on sand sub-strata.
7.3.5 Organic decay
tilting uniformly Water can accelerate decay of organic material deposited
loaded foundation
within the fill.

7.3.6 Information from water

sand filling Tests on water samples taken from the boreholes can
rock rock
provide valuable information on contaminants and soluble
chemicals. Variation in standing water levels between bore-
holes can be an indication that impervious layers may occur
Fig. 7.7 Sand fill on rock sub-strata.
between the positions.

this case, loading of the varying depths of fill will produce a

7.4 The fill material
varying settlement due to the fill consolidation but this will
be partly compensated by the yielding of the sub-strata
7.4.1 Introduction
below the container.
Various factors affect the structural performance of fills
At the other extreme a similar shaped container in rock,
and these include the type, quality, density and consistency.
backfilled with sand, could result in critical differential
Table 7.1 indicates these qualitative classifications of fills.
settlements (see Fig. 7.7).
These properties affect considerably the amount of total
The non-yielding surface of the container in Fig. 7.7 will be
and differential settlement which can be expected within
reflected at surface level due to the greater consolidation
the life of any proposed development. For example, con-
over the deeper fill areas. This example illustrates the need
sider two similar containers as shown in Fig. 7.8.
to assess the container and its sub-strata, along with the
fill material, in arriving at settlement predictions. It also Container A is filled on a cleaned surface with compacted
highlights the detrimental effect which strong, unyielding layers of consistent granular material to a consolidated
containers can have in relation to differential settlements. granular mass, similar to that of the surround ground of
the container. Container B is filled by end tipping various
7.3 Water waste materials into the sedimentary deposits (uncleaned)
of the disused depression.
Water and water movement can have an effect on many dif-
ferent situations and materials, some of which are briefly The design of foundations for Container A can be carried
discussed below. out using normal criteria for design, similar to that of the
surrounding virgin soils. For example, shallow foundations
7.3.1 Effect of water on combustion for low-rise structures would be suitable. The design of
foundations for Container B would present greater difficult-
The introduction of water into combustible fills can, under
ies and settlements could prove impossible to predict to
some circumstances, increase the likelihood of combustion
any degree of accuracy. Large long-term settlement would
by carrying oxygen into the fill material. In other circum-
result from decaying vegetation and from corroding car
stances the water may decrease the chances of combustion
bodies if traditional shallow foundations were constructed
due to the cooling effect of the passing water (see Chapter 5
in the fill, therefore either piling or vibro-techniques would
for more information).
be more suitable (see Chapters 8 and 14).

7.3.2 Effect of water on chemical solutions The most common and widespread conditions relate to
derelict and abandoned sites in the inner-cities where
Water rising to the surface can carry chemical solutions
buildings have been demolished into old basements and
against surfaces of concrete and other materials used in the
depressions. There are numerous sites with basements
construction (see Chapter 5 for more information).
and cellars filled with brick rubble, timber, steel joists, etc.
Old sewers and similar abandoned services remain and
7.3.3 Water lubrication
many have collapsed. Old basement walls and founda-
Movement and variation in the water-table can effect the tions form hard spots and cause obstruction to piling
removal of fines from fill materials and can also remove and vibro-compaction operations. Often the sub-strata has
SFDC07 1/8/06 11:13 AM Page 112

112 Special and Further Considerations

Table 7.1 Qualitative classification of fills

Classification Description

Nature of material Chemical composition

Organic content
Combustibility
Homogeneity

Particle size distribution Coarse soils, less than 35% finer than 0.06 mm; fine soils, more than 35% finer than 0.06 mm (BS 5930(1))

Degree of compaction Largely a function of method of placement: thin layers and heavy compaction – high relative
density; high lifts and no compaction – low relative density; end tipped into water – particularly
loose condition. Fine grained material transported in suspension and left to settle out produces fill
with high moisture content and low undrained shear strength, e.g. silted up abandoned dock or
tailings lagoon.

Depth Boundary of filled area

Changes in depth

Age Time that has elapsed since placement: if a fill contains domestic refuse, the age of the tipped material
may be particularly significant, since the content of domestic refuse has changed considerably over
the years; during the last 40 years the ash content has decreased while the paper and rag content has
increased; the proportion of metal, glass and plastic in domestic refuse has also increased during this
period; it may be that more recent refuse will be a much poorer foundation material than older refuse
not only because there has been a shorter time for settlement to occur, but also because the content
of material which can corrode or decompose is greater

Water-table Does one exist within the fill?

Do fluctuations in level occur?
After opencast mining, a water-table may slowly re-establish itself in the fill

base cleared out well graded sand

prior to filling in consolidated layers polystyrene vegetation timber bricks

well graded corroding car sediment

compact virgin bodies
sand
CONTAINER A CONTAINER B

Fig. 7.8 Factors affecting differential settlement.

consolidated from previous buildings and the container (1) Possible gas emissions and other health hazards are
edge is of brick construction. Many such sites are best dealt more likely and need to be revealed early.
with by piling or vibro-techniques and the hard spots (2) Knowledge about the boundary conditions of the site
reduced in level. This is just one type of filled site; the prob- and/or its container needs to be revealed.
lems and solutions on fill are varied and numerous and (3) Fill tends to be more varied and the consistency,
reference should be made in particular to Chapters 9 and 10 strength and organic content of the fill needs to be
on foundation types and solutions, Chapter 5 on contamin- determined.
ants and Chapter 8 on ground improvement techniques. (4) Obstructions are more likely in fill and therefore the
effect of obstructions, etc., old basement walls, cellars,
7.5 Fill investigations and abandoned sewers needs to be assessed.

The numerous and varied methods of filling such sites

7.5.1 Special requirements
make the task of investigation seem daunting. A few simple
In order to assess the likely settlement on fill, the site procedures, however, if adopted, provide a systematic
investigation generally needs to be more detailed than that approach which can prevent excessive expenditure caused
for virgin sites. Some reasons for this are: by incorrect sequencing of the soil investigation.
SFDC07 1/8/06 11:13 AM Page 113

Fill 113

7.5.2 Suggested procedures upon the information revealed suspected boundaries

or possible edges of the fill should be excavated
The suggested procedures are as follows:
through at right angles with deep trenched trial holes
(1) A desk-top study and historical review of the site and to reveal the shape of the edge conditions. An appro-
its surroundings should be carried out. A preliminary priate risk assessment should be carried out prior
investigation into the likelihood of gas and chemical to commencement of site works and adequate safety
waste should be made and its effect on the approach to precautions should be in place to protect personnel
the site investigation should be assessed. Information and machinery during the trenching excavation. All
relating to the placing of the fill, the previous use of relevant information should be recorded. A grid of
the site, the possibility of contamination, etc., should boreholes should then if necessary be driven and
be noted. changes in material, sample locations, in situ tests and
If the desk-top study indicates the likelihood of water ingress should be recorded.
hazardous conditions, then the recommendations for Standpipe piezometers can be sealed into selected
contaminated sites, detailed in Chapter 5, should be boreholes if required to monitor water levels. Grid
followed. If the desk-top study reveals the likelihood levelling stations can be established if needed and
of fills without a health hazard then a site walkabout related back to a fixed datum to monitor settlement
should be undertaken followed by the procedures and differential movement due to own weight or test
indicated below. The requirement to carry out a loading.
desktop study, environmental impact study and
site investigation generally form part of the planning 7.6 Settlement predictions
conditions, prior to development.
(2) A simple trial hole investigation, using an excavator, 7.6.1 Settlement: fill only
should be carried out. The purpose of these trial holes is
The settlement of fill sites results from a number of applied
to provide a general feel of the site and the conditions
compressive forces. The major forces are those from:
likely to be encountered by a more detailed investiga-
tion. The holes are inspected from surface level, thus (1) The self-weight of the fill.
preventing the need for timbering and other expensive (2) The weight of the proposed structure.
works associated with deeper trial holes. These holes (3) Water movement or inundation.
will reveal, to the experienced eye, the likely strength, (4) Preloading.
consistency, organic content and an indication of the
The most significant force in deep fill is generally that
boundary conditions.
resulting from its self-weight and this will often be the
At this stage a decision can be made as to whether or
principle cause of long-term settlement. In loose unsat-
not to spend money on a detailed analysis of the fill. For
urated fills the designer should consider the hazard of
example, if the fill is unlikely to contain health hazards
inundation which may cause collapse settlement. In normal
or chemicals but appears unsuitable for load-bearing
granular fills the majority of settlement due to self-weight
pressures, then the more detailed testing and recording
occurs as the fills are placed, but in many fills this can leave
of information will be carried out for soils below fill
significant creep settlement to occur from constant effective
level. Testing of the upper fills will also probably be
stress and moisture movement. For many fills, the rate
required to satisfy environmental requirements of the
of creep decreases relatively quickly with time and, when
planning conditions.
plotted against the logarithm of time elapsed since deposi-
Alternatively for fills which appear to have suitable
tion, produces an approximately linear relationship. This
load-bearing capacity, detailed testing and borehole
linear relationship approximation for prediction of settle-
logging of the materials will be required. Therefore from
ments, however, can be unreliable and applies only where
the initial trial holes the extent and focus of detailed soil
conditions in the fill remain unaltered. Some typical values
investigation requirements and testing procedures can
for the percentage vertical compression of the fill that
be established.
occurs during a log cycle of time after the placing of the fill
For example, fills of inconsistent material propert-
are shown in Fig. 7.9. The designer must apply experience
ies such as soft clays intermingled with topsoils and
and judgement in the use of such graphs.
pockets of organic material are likely to be unsuitable
for load-bearing purposes. However, consistent firm The consolidation of cohesive fills is much slower than
granular fills free from organic content are likely to granular fills and when haphazardly intermixed with other
prove suitable for surface spread foundations. A detailed materials can make time-related settlements impossible
investigation of the fill for the latter case would prove to predict. When fine material is placed under water how-
cost effective in foundation economy. ever, a soft, cohesive, low permeability fill is formed and
The ground investigation should commence with the resulting settlement is controlled by a consolidation
trial pits starting on a wide grid and closing the invest- process as water is squeezed out from the voids of the fill.
igation to a more suitably spaced grid relative to the The process of consolidation occurs as excess porewater
consistency of the information revealed. Notes should pressure dissipates slowly from the fill (see Chapter 2). In
be taken on the nature of the fill (its composition, vari- some such fills disturbance can cause liquefaction to occur.
ability, moisture content, organic content, etc.). Based However, in general if such fills are consistent, the settlement
SFDC07 1/8/06 11:13 AM Page 114

114 Special and Further Considerations

time in months since completion of fill therefore are very restricted in their applications. In addi-
3 10 30 100 tion they do not give the more critical information which
0 relates to differential settlement. The differential movements
should be calculated based upon observed variations in the
fill material plus an allowance for some additional vari-
ation from that observed.
2
settlement (as % of fill height) from

It should be noted that the values given in Table 7.2 for

3 months after completion of fill

the creep compression rate parameter α are applicable

to settlement under self-weight in various fills. However,
4 these can also be used in general for settlements resulting
from applied loads. In such calculations zero time should
be related to the application of the load, not the placing
6 of the fill. It should also be appreciated however, that the
value for domestic refuse is different under the two differ-
ent types of loading and the values given relate mainly to
the decay and decomposition of organic matter. The values
8 of α for recent domestic refuse in Table 7.2(a) are largely
governed by the decay and decomposition of organic
matter. If the domestic refuse is old, then the creep rate
caused by the weight of a building will be significantly
10
smaller as decay will have decreased.

fill type The designer must use his judgement in the use of such
predictions and needs to consider that the word fill is the
compacted sandstone only soil description used in soil mechanics which embraces
and mudstone
rockfill embankment such a wide variety of materials. The present excellent
research on fills is nevertheless only touching on the edges
opencast coal of the subject. In such circumstances it is evident that much
mining backfill more work will be required before real predictions can
domestic refuse be made and mathematical calculations become relatively
accurate. In the meantime engineering judgement based on
Fig. 7.9 Settlement rates of different types of fill experience combined with the present research knowledge
(vertical compression plotted against log10 time). is the only reliable method.
(Reproduced from Building Research Establishment
The following design examples are given as guidance
Digest 427,(2) Table 1, by permission of the Controller
only and should not be relied upon alone in predicting the
of HMSO, Crown copyright.)
movement likely to occur in practice.

Example 1
can be predicted to some degree of accuracy by applying
Calculate the settlement prediction for the first ten years
normal soil mechanics theories in relation to consolidation.
after placing of a fill 12 m thick, consisting of loose
The compressibility of fill materials varies widely, depend- compacted colliery spoil. The fill has an α value of 1% for a
ing on the particle size distribution, the moisture con- logα cycle of time between one and ten years for a one-
tent, the existing stress level, the void ratio and the stress dimensional compression.
increases likely from the proposed development. In general
Compressive settlement 1 × 12 × 10
it is the limitations of differential settlement which will = = 120 mm
after ten years 100
determine the design bearing stresses for the proposed
structures and not the bearing capacity of the fill. Assuming
that settlement is the limitation that applies to the fill, Example 2
simple calculations can be based on compressibility para- If a development is proposed which will on average
meters which are related to one-dimensional compression increase the vertical stress in the upper fill of the site used in
and the Building Research Establishment (BRE) has pro- Example 1 by 50 kN/m2, determine the predicted approx-
posed some typical values of constrained modulus for imate increase in total compression strain in the top 1 m
small increments of vertical stress and for a number of dif- thick layer.
ferent fill types. Table 7.2 indicates constrained modulus
for an initial stress in the region of 30 kN/m2 for increases From Table 7.2, the approximate constrained modulus for
in stress of approximately 100 kN/m2. this fill would be in the region of 3 MPa.

These constrained moduli are only applicable to small The constrained modulus is also equal to the increase in
increments in vertical stress for limited conditions and vertical stress divided by the increase in vertical strain,
SFDC07 1/8/06 11:13 AM Page 115

Fill 115

Table 7.2 Creep compression rate and compressibility of fills. Reproduced from British Research Establishment
Digest 427, Tables 1 and 2, with permission of HMSO. Crown copyright.
(a) Typical values of creep compression rate parameter, α

Fill type Typical values of α (%)

Heavily compacted sandstone/mudstone rockfill 0.2

Opencast sandstone/mudstone mining backfill without systematic compaction 0.5–1.0
Recent domestic refuse 10–20

(b) Typical values for compressibility of fills

Fill type Constrained modulus (MPa)

Sandy gravel fill (dense) 50

Sandy gravel fill (moderately dense) 25
Sandy gravel fill (pre-loaded) 200
Sandstone rockfill (dense) 12
Sandstone rockfill (moderately dense) 6
Sandstone rockfill (pre-loaded) 40
Colliery spoil (compacted) 6
Colliery spoil (uncompacted) 3
Clayfill (stiff, uncompacted) 5
Old urban fill 4
Old domestic refuse 3
Recent domestic refuse 1

∆σ
i.e. constrained modulus = and time relationships. Since even on virgin sites, this is
∆ε
not a precise science it should be appreciated that the pre-
50 diction of settlement of fills is even less accurate. Designers
In this case 3000 =
∆ε therefore must allow themselves margins of safety relative
to the nature and extent of the detailed information obtained
50 1 from the site, its loading and sub-strata conditions. This
therefore ∆ε = =
3000 60 safety margin should also relate to the designer’s experi-
1 ence, since unfortunately the prediction of settlements is
settlement ρ1 = H1 ∆ε = 1 m × = 17 mm as much an art based upon experience as it is a science.
60
To build up the analysis of the time related differential
which is the settlement in the top 1 m due to the increased settlements, the designer should determine approximate
load. values of movement related to various times within the
In order to calculate the total increase in settlement the development. A typical diagrammatic representation of
stress increase in each layer would need to be calculated, the total settlement for two locations within a container, for
splitting the depth of fill into suitable layers relative to the a particular point in time, is shown in Fig. 7.10.
thick layers and the settlement for each layer calculated as To arrive at this accumulation of settlement the designer
indicated above. The total settlement would be the summa- must consider for each location the magnitude of settle-
tion of the individual settlements of all these layers. ment and time relationship caused by the following load
In order to calculate differential settlements it is necessary conditions:
to make comparisons between two locations on the site. (1) The self-weight of the fill.
It is often assumed that for small sites the two greatest (2) Consolidation of the container sub-strata.
differences in conditions in the site investigation data (3) Creep consolidation.
could exist between these two locations. These would be (4) The effects of the proposed development.
the loosest/poorest material with the highest stress com- (5) Decay, corrosion, etc.
pared with the firmest material under the lowest stress.
The difference in movement between these two positions From this information the critical time point which gives
would give some guidance as to the differential settlement the maximum differential and total settlements from com-
that may be expected. bining the effects under (1) to (5) can be determined.

In order to select the critical conditions the designer need

7.6.2 Settlement: combined effects
not carry out detailed calculations but can summate these
The limiting effect of differential settlement has to be pre- mentally prior to making a decision. It is on the broad con-
dicted from combining all the various movements, causes sideration of these differential settlements that a decision is
SFDC07 1/8/06 11:13 AM Page 116

116 Special and Further Considerations

LOCATION 1 LOCATION 2

container sub-strata settlement

fill self-weight settlement

settlement from development

settlement from decay

ep consolidation
settlement from cre

note: at other time periods quite different total differential

amounts of differential settlement will apply when all settlement
is complete

Fig. 7.10 Combined effects of differential settlement.

vibro-compaction
quarry face to area B
a

vibro-compact
ion
A g
ea in
ar ad
of relo

rock rock
p

no treatment fill
to area C

voided zones
a

plan section a – a

Fig. 7.11 Typical proposed solution for filled quarry.

made as to whether to pursue reliance on the fill as a load- 7.7 The development and its services
bearing strata, use the fill in a stabilized state or to transfer
the load to the underlying strata. Should it be decided to 7.7.1 Sensitivity
place reliance on the fill, then a detailed analysis for that
condition should be made. Any decision to transfer the When developing fill sites it is necessary to give careful con-
load to the lower strata should take into account the likely sideration to the sensitivity of the building and its founda-
negative skin friction on piles or other structures used. tions. For example, the tall tower on a narrow foundation
It may be that on certain sites a combination of these constructed in the soil straddling the edge of a young, end
conditions will be selected to suit different locations (see tipped, clay filled, rock quarry, shown in Fig. 7.12, would
Fig. 7.11). The filled quarry in this example has a number be particularly sensitive to movement.
of problems which are solved in varying ways for different It would be necessary therefore to consider:
positions on the site.
(1) A special treatment for the fill.
For example, it is proposed to consolidate the last phase
(2) A wider foundation.
of the work i.e., area ‘A’ by preloading since time is avail-
(3) Transferring the load to the bedrock sides of the
able prior to construction commencing on this portion
container.
of the site. Vibro-compaction is proposed for area ‘B’ i.e.,
(4) Transferring the load to the container base.
the portion of the site restrained by the rock face against
(5) Relocation of the development.
normal consolidation. The remaining central area ‘C’
requires no treatment since the fill has consolidated natur- In general, the most suitable solution is to relocate the
ally over a long period of time. structure and avoid straddling the edge of a quarry. When
SFDC07 1/8/06 11:13 AM Page 117

Fill 117

tilt tower on narrow drainage with increased

shallow foundation falls and telescopic
landfill joints raft

tensile zone
original
G.L. fill

peat
rock end tipped rock
clay fill piles
silt
migrating
voids
rock

Fig. 7.12 Sensitivity – building over edge of quarry.

Fig. 7.14 Sensitivity – increased drainage falls.

relocation is not an acceptable option then piling or vibro- sufficient elevation above sea level to prevent flooding. The
compaction can be considered. The engineer must however sub-soils of such low-lying areas often contain silts, peats
be satisfied that migrating voids at the quarry edge will not and other soft virgin strata which are prone to excessive
shear off or damage the piles as settlement takes place. The settlement. In these low-lying areas the designer should,
load from the settling fill must also be taken into account in if adopting piling, allow for the effects of negative skin
the pile loads by assuming negative skin friction on the friction or downdrag on the piles as the stratum settles.
piles through the fill layer (see Chapter 14). Piling for drainage runs should be avoided in the peaty or
silty areas when overburden filling is to be used for elevat-
With long blocks of buildings in such locations, jointing into
ing the level, since these drains would need to act as beams
rectangular units of smaller dimensions should be adopted
supporting the overburden and are likely to fracture under
to minimize the stresses and differential settlement in any
such loading. The most successful method to adopt for such
one block. Where significant differential settlements are
drainage is to predict the differential settlements likely to
expected, services into a building or its foundation should
occur over the site and provide flexible jointed pipework at
be constructed to absorb the movements by the use of flex-
drainage and foundation interface to cater for the differen-
ible joints or telescopic connections at ground/foundation
tial plus a tolerance. The falls should be suitably improved
interface (see Fig. 7.13 which indicates a pile foundation on
to allow for the settlement to occur without affecting the
a fill site).
run-off from the drainage system (see Fig. 7.14).
Where the design of the services and foundation is carried
out by different engineers it is essential that the foundation 7.7.2 Treatment and solutions
engineer communicates to the services engineer the need to
In the soil investigation for any building foundation it is
accommodate the differential movements between the set-
never practical to reveal and test all the sub-strata, therefore
tling ground below the development and the limited move-
information on soils is limited and assumptions are made.
ment of the foundation through which the services pass.
In the case of fill sites, the information tends to be less
In low-lying areas filling may be required to achieve reliable than that for virgin sites despite a more thorough
investigation. It is inevitable therefore that the designer will
have to make a judgement on the most economic solution
raft on piles
for the development. The solution must therefore embrace
and accommodate the likely variables and will be based
upon experience.
G.L.
The ground may be partly used untreated where small dif-
ferential movements are expected but in more critical areas,
flexible jointed dynamic consolidation, vibro-compaction or piling may
drain
telescopic be adopted. On some larger sites, savings on foundations
joints may be made by relocation of critical buildings to the better
ground (see Chapters 8 and 14 for further information).

piles behind On sites where vibro-compaction is necessary on part of the

site, other less critical areas where vibro-compaction would
downdrag of fill
not normally have been used may prove economically
during compaction
viable to develop using this technique. This is because the
Fig. 7.13 Sensitivity – flexible service connections. economics of the process improve once the plant has been
SFDC07 1/8/06 11:13 AM Page 118

118 Special and Further Considerations

established on site. Other ground improvement methods Materials such as crushed rock, gravel or coarse sands are
which may be considered are the use of hardcore blankets, free-draining and consolidate more easily than clays. In all
preloading, improved drainage, and water inundation (see cases the materials used must not be contaminated in such a
Chapter 8 on ground improvements). way as to present an environmental or health hazard. When
filling under controlled conditions for a suitable founding
The use of pin-jointed frameworks rather than fixed joints,
strata, the edge conditions relating to mechanical keying
the sub-division of long buildings by jointing, the use of
and friction may require more compaction and control
flexible joints in services and telescopic joints at interfaces
(see section 7.2).
(where large differentials are likely) are methods of absorb-
ing these variables. Monitoring of preloading and large- Special specification clauses and supervision may be neces-
scale load tests give a feel for the possible accuracy of such sary for these locations to ensure satisfactory compaction to
judgements. However, even these observations tend to be overcome the edge restraints and consolidate out the voids
short-term when related to the normal life expectancy of a from the fill alongside the quarry or container face.
development. Therefore allowances for changes in mois-
ture content and other variables have to be extrapolated 7.8 Case examples
from the observed conditions in order to give settlement
predictions. 7.8.1 Introduction
The following examples are given in broad outline only to
7.7.3 New filling for development
clarify the approach and general solutions to particular
Two basic methods of filling sites for future development problems. The actual projects involved a mass of informa-
are: tion, drawings and reports which had to be digested, sifted
and summarized in order to arrive at a clear and practical
(1) The use of carefully selected materials placed under
approach to design. The authors recognize that often the
controlled conditions to a density suitable to ensure
most difficult step for inexperienced designers is recog-
an adequate founding material for the proposed
nizing, from such a mass, what the real problems are,
development.
but they advise that this will come from the application of
(2) The use of a suitably cheap inert material, end-tipped,
experience and logic.
with a view to using either time or future compaction to
obtain a suitable foundation strata.
7.8.2 Example 1: Movement of existing
In method (1) the chosen material is generally placed in building on fill
layers, each layer being consolidated with a vibrating roller.
This first example highlights the unpredictable nature of fill
In method (2), if time is available, the material is allowed to
when a wide range of materials are involved on one site.
consolidate over a very long period of time, but for quicker
The example should help to broaden the designer’s outlook
results deep vibro-compaction or dynamic consolidation
when trying to solve the wide ranging problems resulting
methods can be adopted.
from developing on fills and remind the designer that the
The method adopted will generally depend upon the eco- word fill discloses nothing about the fill material other than
nomic consideration based upon time, money, available that it has not been deposited naturally.
materials, laying and compacting costs, etc. It is cost effect-
The site is an inner-city fill site where houses had been con-
ive and preferable (for development sites) to remove any
structed on raft foundations some 35 years previously. The
water and sedimentation, including topsoil, from the base
foundations had performed successfully with no apparent
of the container prior to filling. This process will reduce
defects until the last six months of that period. At that time
the settlement and unpredictable behaviour of these lower
a problem developed simultaneously in three blocks of
soft deposits which are prone to consolidation and decay.
semi-detached properties and revealed itself when these
When filling on a soft sub-strata, the introduction of base
properties began to settle differentially and crack internally
layers of geotextile fabric placed prior to filling may help
and externally. The movement seemed surprisingly rapid
the filling process. Filling for future development should
after such a long period of dormancy.
preferably be compacted in layers. When cohesive and
granular materials are used it is best to interspace the layers The cracking developed quickly and caused serious con-
to form efficient and short drainage paths to speed up cern and distress to the occupants. The gap between the
settlement/consolidation of the cohesive materials and semi-detached properties was closed off by a garden wall
create a more uniform cross-section. and the access gate to the rear. The initial investigation was
limited to shallow trial holes around the edges and centre
The first layers should generally be a granular material
of the raft and deeper boreholes in the accessible areas
to help drainage particularly since, in some cases, the
between the properties. A desk-top study was carried out
sub-strata itself may be cohesive and in others the sediment
relating to the history of the area and the site. The informa-
in the bottom of the container may not have been fully
tion gathered from these investigations revealed that the fill
removed.
was generally ash, that the material was very old and gen-
When selecting suitable fills, granular materials are pre- erally compact but that gaps existed between the underside
ferable to cohesive fills from a settlement point of view. of the raft and fill material in various positions. The general
SFDC07 1/8/06 11:13 AM Page 119

Fill 119

timber floor

new raft

original raft
3m

new beams toothed

into existing walls

original salt
pocket grouted

Fig. 7.15 Example of foundation treatment over settlement of fill.

area was part of a zone from which water had been

pumped for commercial use over a period of hundreds
of years.
weak to moderately compact
Ancient wooden water pipes had been uncovered in mixed fill, grey shale,
excavations around the area which pre-dated the recorded silty clay, bricks
pumping. A level survey revealed that excessive differen- & hardcore
tial settlement was occurring to the raft foundation.

After studying all the information gathered, the engineer-

ing conclusion was that the differential settlement could
not be fully and satisfactorily explained by the information firm clay
so far gathered. It was therefore decided that further, more
detailed borehole information was necessary and this was
sand and
obtained by demolishing some of the separating garden gravel
walls to allow access for a rig into the rear gardens.
clayey
Boreholes were driven and details of the materials encoun-
mudstone
tered were recorded. The bores revealed large voids at 3 m
below surface level which had formed in remnants of large
Fig. 7.16 Borehole log.
pockets of salt within the fill. It was considered that these
pockets of salt had dissolved over a long period of time and
that the cavities in the compact fill had been able to reach shallow mine workings. Three recorded mine shafts existed
quite large sizes, prior to collapsing below the foundations. close to the site.
It was these collapsing cavities which were now causing the
The fills in the area varied from 1–8 m thick and from loose
excessive differential settlements.
to firm colliery waste (see typical borehole in Fig. 7.16).
The solution adopted was to grout the voids and construct Generally the shallow mine workings were found to be col-
a stiffer raft by underpinning operations (see Fig. 7.15). The lapsed; however, the possibility of some migration of voids
new rafts were designed to span and cantilever over any did exist. The development consisted of units of two-storey
similar depressions resulting from future dissolved salt domestic premises and infrastructure. The soil investiga-
voids. A depression of 2.5 m diameter was used in the tion was carried out using trial holes and boreholes.
design. From the details of the fill material it was evident that it
could not be relied upon as a load-bearing stratum without
The solution was implemented and no further problems
treatment. Piling was not considered a suitable foundation
have been reported.
option due to the mine workings at the lower levels (see
Chapter 6). Serious consideration was given to the use
7.8.3 Example 2: New development on
of vibro-compaction which would also help to chase down
existing colliery fill
the fills and tamp out small migrating voids that may have
It was proposed to develop a derelict area in a mining town. been approaching the surface. It was necessary to check
The sub-soil consisted of colliery fill overlying clay above that none of the mine shafts were located in the area of the
SFDC07 1/8/06 11:13 AM Page 120

120 Special and Further Considerations

x
silty sands peat

sand

water-table

plan on semi-detached section x–x

houses

Fig. 7.17 Example of blanket raft – ground conditions.

development and a desk-top study was undertaken. This and uncovered peaty deposits overlying silty sands which
study revealed that the three recorded shafts had been became running sand during foundation excavations.
located outside of this site and had been treated. Other Figure 7.17 shows a typical section through this location
possibly untreated shafts were identified from records but and indicates the typical layout of the semi-detached
were located a long way from the area of the site and did dwellings.
not affect proposals on this site.
To determine the extent and nature of the problem a series
Trial holes were excavated and inspected by the designer of trial holes were dug along the run of properties and
and by the vibro-compaction contractor and it was decided revealed that the soft deposits existed for the full length
that the dry process would be suitable to improve the fill of the semi-detached dwellings. The peat material was
materials inspected. In addition to designing the founda- removed and excavations carried down to the silty layers
tion to bear on the treated ground in the normal way, the and trial layers of hardcore filling were installed. The trials
design incorporated a raft solution which could span and revealed that the fine virgin soils in the base of the excava-
cantilever over any depressions created as a result of the tion came through any thin (i.e. 150 mm thick) layers of
migration from voids which may have remained below the hardcore. A medium layer (i.e. 235 mm thick) produced a
level of the vibro treatment and which could not be incor- wave ahead of the compacting machine. It was realized that
porated into the ground improvement. the problem was one of slow dissipation of porewater pres-
sure from the silty materials during stress changes from the
Generally, site works went very smoothly. However, one
compaction plant. It was decided therefore to spread a
small area of the site was found to be at variance from the
layer of 450 mm thick well graded hardcore using a tracked
materials uncovered in the ground investigation. In this
vehicle prior to the introduction of the compaction plant
area very soft, loose, fine colliery waste in a waterlogged
and this was carried out followed by subsequent thinner
condition was discovered and the particular dry vibro pro-
layers compacted in long strips similar to road construc-
cess was ineffective in this material. The plant being used
tion. This formed a stiff, hardcore blanket on top of the silty
had a side-fed poker and a trial probe showed that as the
materials upon which a flexible raft foundation could be
vibrating poker was pushed in the ground the fill materials
constructed. This was one of the early uses of the blanket
closed in around the poker preventing access for the stone.
raft, described in Chapter 9 and indicated in Fig. 7.18.
As the poker was withdrawn, the fill material squeezed
back into the hole and deposited stone which simply The raft was designed to span over a nominal diameter
plugged the top of the holes at high level. In this material, depression to take into account the likely differential settle-
it was evident that either a bottom-fed poker or the wet ment that may have occurred due to the soft silty nature
process must be used to achieve satisfactory treatment. In of the underlying silts. The possible depression diameter
this case the side-fed poker was used with the wet process chosen from predictions of settlement was 2.5 m. The
to achieve successful installation of probes. scheme proved very successful. This form of construction
has been repeated successfully for similar circumstances on
7.8.4 Example 3: New development on many subsequent occasions.
new filling
7.8.5 Example 4: New developments on
This site was part of a much larger development of
existing preloaded fill
domestic properties. The main part of the development
was successfully founded on traditional simple shallow Fill sites are rarely simple to investigate and solve for devel-
foundations on firm sand. Part of the site however, was low opment. This case, however, consisted of a strip of filled
lying and sloped down to a strip of peaty deposits over- land which was left after the removal of a 6 m high disused
lying silty sands. The developer (who had not consulted railway embankment. The proposal was to construct a row
an engineer) began excavations for simple strip footings of semi-detached domestic properties along the centre-line
SFDC07 1/8/06 11:13 AM Page 121

Fill 121

semi-detached
houses
y

raft

silty sand

y
hardcore blanket
plan section y–y

Fig. 7.18 Example of blanket raft – foundation solution.

of the original railway embankment. The embankment had zig-zag continuity bar was pushed into the wet concrete of
existed for some 60 years and was being removed prior to the edge strips and the strip allowed to cure. Three courses
purchase of the site. The remaining fill was approximately of masonry were then constructed as shown in Fig. 7.20 and
2 m deep and consisted of consolidated layers of clay the polystyrene cavity fill inserted to form the vertical shut-
inter-layered with sand. The clay layers were 450 mm thick ter face to the slab. The blinded hardcore was constructed
and the sand approximately 150 mm thick, similar to the below the slab and the slab reinforcement caged up from it.
construction of the full height of the original embankment. The slab was poured between the polystyrene using the top
The removed embankment could now be classed as re- of the brickwork as the shutter tamp support.
moved overburden. Calculations indicated that overburden
By constructing in this sequence it was possible to cast
stresses prior to removal of the embankment exceeded the
the whole of the raft without the use of shuttering and the
loading stresses from the proposed development and that
solution proved economical and structurally successful.
future heave would be minimal. It was proposed therefore
to use a nominal crust raft (see Chapter 13) on a thin bed of
7.8.6 Example 5: New development on
hardcore (see Fig. 7.19).
existing backfilled quarry (purchase of
The raft was constructed by excavating the perimeter thick- coal rights)
ening and casting the 250 mm thick mass concrete blinding.
The site consisted of a disused opencast quarry which had
The reinforced edge strip was then poured to the underside
been filled 30 years previously with sandy clay material.
of the perimeter brickwork; the mass concrete strip sup-
The quarry was underlain by existing coal seams and was
porting the reinforcement on spacers off the blinding. The
close to a fault line. The sandy clay fill, though quite old,
varied in consistency and density in the upper layers. In
addition, the NCB were extracting a coal seam which was
polystyrene cavity zig-zag bar
approaching the quarry and due to pass under it some time
filling i.e.
after completion of the properties. The predicted subsid-
ence from this seam was likely to be erratic and substan-
3 courses mesh reinforcement
tial. In order to minimize the possible effects of the future
of brickwork 150 mine workings under the site, an approach was made to the
NCB to check the feasibility of purchasing the coal rights
for the seams below the site. Under normal circumstances
225 coal value would be such that this approach would receive
little consideration. However, in this case, the possibility
was feasible, since the seam was due to run out after pass-
200
ing under the site owing to the fault line, also the quality of
coal approaching the fault was deteriorating. The NCB
hardcore
250 therefore agreed to sell the coal rights for a nominal sum.
mass conc. mesh reinforcement The sum was less than the cost of increasing the foundation
strength to deal with the potential settlements condition.
The effect of purchasing the coal rights minimized the risk
450
and inconvenience to the property owners that would be
caused by damage to services. The compaction of the fill at
Fig. 7.19 Section through edge thickening. the edges of the quarry was investigated by long trenching
SFDC07 1/8/06 11:13 AM Page 122

122 Special and Further Considerations

(a) excavation + blinding (b) (a) + edge strip (c) (b) + brickwork +
and zig-zag bar polystyrene + slab
reduced level

(d) (c) + hardcore (e) completed raft

Fig. 7.20 Construction sequence.

excavations and deep boreholes and was found to be con- poor areas and approximately 50% of this in the better
sistently consolidated below the level of 4 m. The upper fill areas. A feasibility study was undertaken based upon bore-
was found to be suitable for compaction by the use of the holes from the surrounding areas. Using experienced engin-
dry vibro process. Due to the cohesive nature of the fill eering judgement of the conditions, the study assumed
the foundation was designed to span between the probe that the peat would be removed from all road, hardstand-
positions (see Chapter 8 for further information). The ing and service run areas for a width which allowed a
foundation solution in this case therefore embraced: 45° dispersion through the replacement filling. These areas
would be left after backfilling for a period of three months
(1) Purchasing the coal rights, before excavating through and constructing the drainage
(2) Vibro-compacting the upper layers, and other services. The areas of gardens and housing would
(3) Picking up and redirecting all incoming drainage be filled on top of the existing peat and the houses and
including field drains from the edges of the quarry, garages would be piled through this construction. The
(4) Using a lightweight downstand raft designed to span roads and hardstandings would be lifted 300 mm above
between the vibro hard spots and to absorb differential the required minimum levels for flooding and the gardens
settlements resulting from consolidation effects below 450 mm above to allow for consolidation. All services
the vibro. would be provided with flexible joints and extra falls to
The solution proved economic and successful. maintain flow after differential consolidation of the sub-
strata. At all locations where services passed from one
condition into another, i.e., passing from service trench into
7.8.7 Example 6: Development on new fill
house foundation, they would have telescopic joints and
(prevention of flooding)
enter the foundation in a vertical direction.
It was proposed to use a low-lying peaty farmland site for a
A brief analysis indicated that a development based upon
large housing development on the edge of an existing town.
these assumptions was feasible. The scheme was therefore
In order to prevent flooding, the site needed to be lifted by
progressed using a detailed analysis of the differential
approximately 1 m. The existing sub-soil consisted of 1 m of
movements between roads, service trenches and houses as
peat overlying 16 m of soft silt with bands of silty clay, over-
the basis for detailing. The details of service junctions
lying hard marl. The total depth to firm strata was in the
were prepared making allowance for a safety margin for
region of 17 m. From inspection it was clear that large settle-
inaccuracy of the analysis, i.e., extra differential movement
ments would result from any additional load at surface
was allowed for in the details to that estimated from the
level. A detailed soil investigation and settlement analysis
analysis.
revealed that, even assuming that the peat layer was
removed, the fill site would settle under its own weight, The site was developed over 30 years ago and has proved
within the life of the development, by some 250 mm in the both economic and successful. The economics of the site
SFDC07 1/8/06 11:13 AM Page 123

Fill 123

were made attractive to the developer by the low cost of 7.10 Further reading
purchase of a very large site in a very good location.
BRE Digests:
(1998) 427 Part 2, Low-rise buildings on fill – Site investigation,
7.9 References ground movement and foundation design.
1. British Standards Institution (1999) Code of practice for site invest- (1998) 427 Part 3, Low-rise buildings on fill – Engineered fill.
igations. BS 5930, BSI, London. Building Research Establishment (1997) Building on fill: collapse
2. Building Research Establishment (1997) Low-rise buildings on fill, compression on innundation. Information paper IP5/97. London.
Digest 427 Part 1, Classification and load-carrying characteristics. Charles, J.A. & Watts, S.K. (2001) Building on fill: geotechnical
Construction Research Communications Ltd, London. aspects, BR 230 2nd edn. Construction Research Communica-
tions Ltd, London.
SFDC08 1/8/06 11:14 AM Page 124

8 Ground Improvement Methods

8.1 Introduction strength, but since labour and haulage costs are high it is a
sensible approach to be selective.
The treatment of weak or loose soils to improve their load-
bearing capacity and reduce their potential settlement char- There is little doubt that loose dry well graded granular
acteristics has proved to be cost effective in achieving an materials are easier to compact than wet clay, however, the
economical substructure solution to many developments. range in between contains many suitable materials which
The treatment is known as ground improvement and there may achieve the desired result if the compaction method
are various methods available. is varied and appropriate for the conditions. Existing sub-
strata on sites vary and while vibro-compaction, dynamic
The main problem associated with providing foundations consolidation and in some cases piling may be needed for
which perform satisfactorily on poor ground is the effect of foundation success, there are other sites with shallow depths
differential settlements. The main object of ground improve- of loose material which can be satisfactorily improved by
ment therefore is to achieve a reduction and more uniform surface compaction.
ground settlement due to the applied loads thus reducing
differential movements to within acceptable limits. Settle- 8.2.2 Method
ments are usually caused by the vertical load delivered
by the building and its foundation, which can result in Dry loose granular materials are generally compacted
consolidation, compaction and shear strain of the soils. by specified compaction plant until no further movement
In addition, the rates of settlement are closely related to occurs at surface, or to a specified number of passes of
soil drainage. Ground improvement therefore aims to a roller or tamper. These soils tend to be predictable and
consolidate and compact the soil and improve its shear compaction requirements can be assessed from the soil
resistance and make its drainage characteristics more investigation data. For materials containing more fines
uniform. This reduces the magnitude of differential settle- however, porewater pressure dissipates more slowly under
ment under loading and improves the load-bearing capac- stress and compaction is hindered. In such cases imported
ity of treated soil. hardcore is laid to form a blanket over the surface prior to
compaction. This blanket tends to crust up the surface and
It is not proposed to deal with temporary strengthening prolong the induced stress therefore allowing more time
of the soil, such as dewatering, freezing, etc., since these and more even dissipation of water (see Fig. 8.1).
are mainly construction aids in development. Long-term
ground improvement treatments include: It should be noted that unless the porewater has time to
escape under compaction, then compaction will not be fully
(1) Mechanical methods achieved. For example, a vibrating roller inducing excess-
(a) surface rolling 5 ive stress into a soil where water cannot escape, simply
which directly aid
(b) vibro-stabilization 6 transfers the stress to the water particles and a quagmire
consolidation.
(c) dynamic consolidation 7 results. It is therefore better to increase the stressed period
(2) The installation of drainage systems, which accelerate and reduce the level of the stress as shown in Fig. 8.1. This
consolidation. allows compaction to occur more gently and slowly and is
(3) Preloading, which directly aids consolidation. more suitable in soft, damp or wet materials. The hardcore
(4) Grout injection, which improves soil strength and reduces blanket also allows the porewater to escape vertically into
settlement. the hardcore layer rather than being trapped beneath the
roller surface. In such materials re-distribution of stress to
8.2 Surface rolling encourage more even settlement can be achieved by addi-
tional crusting up of the surface with hardcore layers and
8.2.1 Introduction the adoption of a blanket raft (see Chapters 9, 10 and 13).

Surface rolling of imported granular materials or hardcore Trial runs on finer soils are recommended at the com-
in preparation for floor slabs and road construction is com- mencement of work on site to enable the finalization of
mon practice. In such cases materials can be selected with the best combination of the required thickness of hardcore
the aim of obtaining an appropriate type and grade to suit layer, number of layers, types of hardcore, number and
compaction and economy. These materials are generally weight of roller passes, etc. to achieve the total thickness.
granular and well graded, this is not to say that other less The materials to be compacted, the bearing capacity to be
ideal materials could not be compacted to a suitable achieved and the variety of schemes are numerous and
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Ground Improvement Methods 125

roller applied roller

roller directly through hardcore movement
onto surface 1 unit/second
roller movement
1 unit/second

3 units
1 unit distance
loaded for loaded for 1 unit deep
1 second 3 seconds hardcore

Fig. 8.1 Surface rolling.

wide ranging. The correct solution is therefore reliant upon however, fine sands, silty sands, silty sandy gravels,
a judgement using plant information, soil investigation and demolition rubble and other mainly granular mixtures can
test results combined with a great deal of experience. To be treated by this method.
assist the engineer the following tabulated information on
plant and hardcore is provided as a guide for successful 8.2.4 Site monitoring
use. This method of compaction is an economic alternative
applicable to many sites particularly for low-rise building Monitoring of compaction quality is mainly visual and con-
foundations (see Table 8.1). sists of inspection of the material as it is being compacted.
This provides extensive information to the experienced
8.2.3 Soil suitability and variation eye. The movement of sub-strata below the roller, the per-
manence of downward movement, horizontal movement
The most suitable sites for treatment by surface rolling are or wave action ahead of the roller all reveal information
those where compaction of a loose well graded granular relating to the success of the compaction operation (see
material of shallow depth is required. In such cases a small Fig. 8.2).
number of passes with a specified vibrating roller until no
further movement of the surface is apparent can achieve a Materials with poor permeability, high moisture content
much improved bearing capacity with reduced total and and weak interaction will be spongy i.e. depress as the
differential settlement. The roller will search out the softer roller passes over and rise again behind the roller. With
areas and the requirement to continue to vibrate roll until such material there is also a chance of a forward moving
no further movement occurs will concentrate the large wave and a general liquid-like behaviour if overloaded by
number of passes into the most needed locations. The the vibrating equipment. It is useless to use heavy equip-
ideal sites with such sub-strata are few and far between, ment on these soils. Soils have a limit to the reaction they

Table 8.1 Hardcore grading and compaction

Hardcore material should be composed of granular material Hardcore material should be placed and spread evenly.
and shall be free from clay, silt, soil, timber, vegetable matter Spreading should be concurrent with placing and
and any other deleterious material and shall not deteriorate compaction carried out using a vibrating roller as
in the presence of water. The material shall be well graded noted below:
and lie within the grading envelope below:
Category of roller Number of passes for
(mass per metre width layers not exceeding
BS sieve size Percentage by weight passing of vibrating roller) 150 mm thick

75.0 mm 90–100 Below 1300 kg not suitable

37.5 mm 80–90 Over 1300 kg up to 1800 kg 16
10.0 mm 40–70 Over 1800 kg up to 2300 kg 6
5.0 mm 25–45 Over 2300 kg up to 2900 kg 5
600 µm 10–20 Over 2900 kg up to 3600 kg 5
Over 3600 kg up to 4300 kg 4
Over 4300 kg up to 5000 kg 4
Over 5000 kg 3

Compaction should be completed as soon as possible after

material has been spread
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126 Special and Further Considerations

direction of roller direction of roller

cracked spongy moving wave

surface

soft material rising hardcore layer hardcore layer

up through hardcore
(a) (b)

possible causes possible causes

(1) hardcore grading poor (1) hardcore layer too thin
(2) hardcore layer too thin (2) roller too large
(3) roller too large (3) too much vibration
(4) too much vibration

Fig. 8.2 Monitoring compaction quality of surface rolling.

(a) problem As the work progresses experienced supervision is gen-

erally all that is required, however, if compaction is to
roller load P
be tested then plate tests (as used for vibro-stabilization)
can be used and/or density tests can also be carried out.
Density tests are only suitable where the loose density and
compacted density requirements can be assessed i.e. when
soft weak soil consistent materials are being improved. The density test
involves the removal of loose samples from the soils to be
maximum reaction possible from soil less compacted, volume and weight measurements are taken
than P therefore ground disturbance
of the loose materials. The material is then compacted
occurs with no compaction
and samples re-taken, measuring volume and weight of
the sample. From these tests, combined with laboratory
(b) solution tests the void ratio of loose and compacted materials can
gradual crusting up of surface, first rolling be obtained and a specified requirement checked against
after 250 mm layer placed, roller load can actual site compaction.
increase on upper layers
Non-woven geotextiles and extruded polypropylene geo-
100 mm thick blinded grids are widely used in pavement construction to enable
formation layer the compaction of granular layers on a soft subgrade.
These materials help to prevent the intermixing of the
subgrade with the granular fill material, both during the
150 mm thick construction phase and throughout the design life of
layer (2) the pavement.
250 mm thick
layer (1) 8.3 Vibro-stabilization
soft weak soil
8.3.1 Introduction
Fig. 8.3 Surface rolling – crusting surface.
The process of ground improvements using vibration tech-
niques was originally developed in Germany in the 1930s,
can supply to the passing roller and soft weak soils with a
further development continued in the USA and West
high moisture content are particularly critical (see Fig. 8.3).
Germany after the Second World War. The method origin-
The reaction of the soil can be increased by steady com- ally involved the compaction of deep layers of loose sand
paction which allows time for water to dissipate and the using a vibrating poker inserted into the ground. The vibra-
gradual build up of soil strength by squeezing out water tion reduces the void ratio and increases the compaction
and voids. The initial trial runs are essential to check and of the sand and thus its density, strength and settlement
adjust the number of passes and the thickness of hardcore resistance. Although originally intended for treatment of
layers to achieve compaction of the total hardcore thickness loose sands, the technique has been developed and can now
(see Fig. 8.2). be used to strengthen fills and cohesive soils by forming
SFDC08 1/8/06 11:14 AM Page 127

Ground Improvement Methods 127

are provided. In addition, the introduction of large quant-

hoses ities of water into the ground can, in some soils, have a
detrimental effect on the bearing capacity of the ground.
When water is used in the forming of the stone columns
lifting pulley
the treatment is referred to as vibro-flotation.

Generally the dry process is used in ground made up of

mainly granular material of coarse grained particles such
top jets as sands, gravels, brick and demolition fill. It is, however,
necessary to prevent the sides of the hole being drawn in by
vibrator isolator
the reduction in pressure as the poker is withdrawn, and
section
motor this is achieved by compressed air being passed through
the poker and on certain rigs by bottom-feed skips for the
delivery of stone to the poker point. (See Fig. 8.6.)
fins
(prevent twist) nose cone 8.3.2 Working surfaces
Fig. 8.4 Vibro rig.
The provision of a working surface, usually a hardcore bed,
is often required to avoid difficulties of movement of the
within them stone columns known as granular compaction machine between compaction points. Also, suitable surface
points or gravel piles. gradients must be provided to enable the machine to move
across an uneven site. The actual treatment is such that the
Vibro-stabilization techniques have been used in the UK compaction process cannot be achieved to surface level.
for over 40 years, and the applications have ranged from The top 600 mm depth is usually considered to be untreated
the treatment of soft organic and alluvial deposits to sands, and foundations are generally located at a minimum of
gravels and rubble fills, the types of material treated being 600 mm below the working surface. However, for most
extended as the methods of compaction improved. The contracts an agreement can be reached to remove less than
structures supported on stabilized ground vary from 600 mm of untreated material, i.e. say 300–450 mm, and to
single- to multi-storey buildings and from infrastructure to compact the remainder with a surface roller prior to con-
industrial plant installations such as storage tanks. struction (see section 8.2 on surface rolling) particularly
The installation of stone columns is carried out using a where raft foundations or floor slabs are involved.
vibrating poker, typical features and components of which
are shown in Fig. 8.4. The poker is suspended from a crane 8.3.3 Method
that is usually crawler mounted, which assists movement
The poker is first vibrated into the soil under its own
on difficult site surfaces. The poker contains eccentric
weight, assisted by air or water jetting, to the required
weights rotated by an electric or hydraulic motor to create
depth for treatment. At this point the bottom jets are closed
vibrations in a horizontal plane. Relatively low frequencies
and jetting takes place through the top of the vibration unit.
are used to achieve the required compaction of the sur-
The compaction process of the soil is achieved by gradually
rounding soils and stone columns. A jetting medium is
withdrawing the poker in predetermined steps – usually
used when forming the stone columns, the medium being
300–600 mm – with the compaction process held for
either water or compressed air depending upon the nature
between one and two minutes in each step. In granular
of the ground being treated.
materials a cone shaped depression tends to develop at
Sets of jets which carry the jetting fluid are located on the ground level around the poker indicating that compaction
vibrator. The lower set of jets at the probe’s tip aids penetra- is occurring. Well graded backfill material is constantly
tion, the upper sets, discharging above the vibration, help fed into the space formed around the poker, or through
removal of unwanted material during penetration and aid the shaft to a bottom feed as it is withdrawn, so that a
compaction. The choice of the jetting fluid will be depend- column or pile is formed and the compaction of the soil
ent upon the nature of the ground and the position of the is completed. The process can achieve compaction in the
water-table. If the water-table is within the depth of the soil around the poker ranging from 1.2–3 m in diameter
stone columns, it is necessary to use water as the jetting (see Fig. 8.5).
fluid i.e. the wet system, since the use of compressed air
Various terms are used to describe different vibro-
would result in air bubbling through the water-table caus-
stabilization methods. While vibro-stabilization is the
ing the sides of the hole to collapse, thus preventing the
general term used to cover ground improvement or
formation of the stone columns. It may also be necessary
stabilization using a vibrating poker to achieve deep com-
to use water to aid the penetration of the probe where
paction, there are three differing techniques, as follows:
the water liquefies soft deposits, thus permitting the pene-
tration of the poker. The amount of water used in the wet (1) Vibro-compaction. This method is used to compact
process is high and this may lead to problems during the granular (non-cohesive) soils, and may employ stone
construction of the foundations, particularly on non-porous columns in finer grained materials. The method may be
grounds, unless adequate drainage or pumping facilities wet or dry to suit groundwater conditions.
SFDC08 1/8/06 11:14 AM Page 128

128 Special and Further Considerations

Fig. 8.5 Vibro method.

(2) Vibro-displacement. This method is used to improve consideration, therefore the materials most suited to
cohesive materials, employing the dry process to form improvement by vibro-compaction range from medium-
compacted stone columns within the clays. to-fine gravel to fine uniform sand (see Fig. 8.7).
(3) Vibro-replacement. This method is used to improve soft
The lower limit of treatments is determined by the silt and
cohesive materials. Using the wet process, disturbed
clay sized particles and organic matter. A high fines content
materials are washed away and replaced by compacted
reduces the permeability of the soil and dampens the vibra-
stone columns – alternatively in some soils the dry
tions thus reducing the degree of compaction possible
process using a bottom-feed method via a hopper and
making the process inefficient or uneconomic. However,
supply tube direct to the toe of the vibrator is adopted
the authors feel that the range of vibration frequency on
(see Fig. 8.6).
present rigs could be extended to embrace the natural
sensitive frequencies of a greater range of soils.
8.3.4 Vibro-compaction
It is generally considered that vibro-compaction can be
The concept of compacting deep layers of loose granular applied to soils containing up to 10% fines or of permeab-
materials beyond the range of surface vibrations by vibro- ility greater than 10–6 m/s. However, with the develop-
stabilization methods is based upon the response of the ment of modern rigs, the process is moving towards a wider
material to the mechanical vibrations set up in the soil. range of materials. The upper limit of material suitable
The mechanical vibrations destroy the inter-granular fric- for treatment is governed by the ability of the vibro-float
tion within the soil and the particles rearrange themselves to penetrate coarse granular materials such as cobbles.
under gravitational forces into a more dense state. Since the In order to achieve good penetration the material should
process of rearrangement occurs in an unconstrained and be loose and well graded and include a complete range
unstressed state it is therefore permanent. During the com- of particle sizes; however, suitable compositions for
pacting process the initial void ratio and compressibility of relatively low bearing capacities are achievable in more
the granular soils are greatly reduced while the frictional poorly graded fills. If the rate of penetration of the poker
resistance and modulus of deformation are increased. It can is reduced by the increase in particle size and density, the
be appreciated that while this process can be satisfactory compaction process becomes less successful, less practical
for granular materials, cohesive materials require further and less economic.

supply tube

skip feed

poker

Fig. 8.6 Bottom-fed vibro method.

SFDC08 1/8/06 11:14 AM Page 129

Ground Improvement Methods 129

100

90

80

70

60
% passing

50

40

30

20

10

0
0.0006 0.002 0.006 0.02 0.06 0.2 0.6 2.0 6 20 60 200
sieve mm

clay silt sand gravel boulders

fraction fraction fraction fraction

Fig. 8.7 Soil grading for vibro treatment.

The vibrating principle of compaction is not effective for imported fill level raised to
clays and some silts since the cohesion between particles avoid flooding
is not overcome by vibrational forces. Improvements in
cohesive soils can be achieved by vibro-displacement or
vibro-compaction to install stone columns within the
cohesive materials.

A further application of the method is the use of the

stone columns to both stabilize the sub-strata and speed up
settlement by shortening the drainage paths. For example,
stone columns have been used in areas of soft silt overlying
gravel where the site level requires lifting to an acceptable
minimum height above sea level to prevent flooding (see
Fig. 8.8 which shows the sub-strata and shortened drainage
sandy silt sub-strata
paths).
vibro-probes
By using stone columns and leaving the site preloaded drainage path to granular
(see section 8.5) for a period of time prior to constructing probe reduced
the foundations, the differential settlement can be brought
Fig. 8.8 Soil drainage using vibro.
within acceptable limits in many situations without the
need for a more expensive piling solution.
returned to displace the granular fill into the surrounding
8.3.5 Vibro-displacement clay material. The process is repeated until a compacted
stone column is formed. The individual stone columns are
In the vibro-displacement process the penetration of the
usually in the order of 600–900 mm in diameter and can
vibrator into partially saturated soils results in shear failure
achieve bearing capacities of between 100–200 kN.
of the soil which is displaced readily forming a cylindric-
ally compacted zone. When used in soft-to-firm clays this
8.3.6 Vibro-replacement
material usually has sufficient cohesion to maintain a stable
hole when the process is used. The vibro-float is removed The vibro-replacement method employs the wet process
from the hole and selected granular material used to or bottom-feed dry process and is generally applied to the
backfill the hole in stages of about 1 m. The vibro-float is softer more sensitive clays, saturated silts and alluvial or
SFDC08 1/8/06 11:14 AM Page 130

130 Special and Further Considerations

estuarine soils with an undrained shear strength of less cheaper and in some situations much more suitable
than 20 kN/m2. In the wet process the poker penetrates than the concrete pile alternative. For example, the gravel
the soil using the water jets to cut an oversized hole, to the column has a particular advantage in mining areas where
required depth of treatment. The vibro-float remains in the use of concrete piles could result in the foundation
the hole while the selected granular backfill is placed (the developing unacceptable ground strains and the piles
vibro-float being withdrawn under the surging action as could shear off during subsidence, due to the brittleness of
the stone compaction point is formed). The continuous flow concrete. The gravel column can be used incorporating a
of a large volume of water is used to keep the hole free of slip-plane between the top of the pile and the underside
lumps of soft clay or silt materials while the stone backfill is of the foundation in the normal manner. (See Chapters 6
placed. The expansion of the stone column is halted by the and 9 and the section on sandwich rafts in Chapter 13.)
passive pressure of the surrounding materials. The stone
columns formed by this method tend to be fairly constant in 8.3.8 Design considerations – granular soils
diameter although localized increased diameters can occur
The improvement in bearing capacity of granular materials
where softer layers are encountered. The diameters of the
by deep compaction methods is related to both the depth of
stone columns are usually in the order of 900–1100 mm and
treatment and to the spacing of compaction points which
spacings within the range 1.2–2.3 m beneath main load-
increases the density of the material. The increased density
bearing foundations, and up to 3.0 m under floor slabs.
results in an increase in the bearing capacity and reduc-
The stone columns act as drainage paths formed in the tion of differential settlements. The spacing and locations
cohesive material which improves the dissipation of excess of compaction points are designed to improve a uniform
porewater pressures resulting from the applied struc- zone of increased density beneath foundations at relatively
tural loads, thus improving the load-carrying and settle- shallow depth. The difference in soil conditions at actual
ment characteristics of the soil. The surrounding cohesive compaction point locations and mid-way between points is
ground provides lateral restraint to the stone columns, thus therefore not considered significant.
maintaining their bearing capacity. As load is applied to
the columns during the construction of the structure, the 8.3.9 Design considerations – cohesive soils
columns will tend to dilate, thus displacing the surrounded
In cohesive materials the improvement method cannot be
ground, increasing its density and thus its bearing capacity.
considered to perform in a similar manner as in granular
It also creates a more uniform ground-bearing pressure.
soils. In the short term it is the actual compaction point
This dilation of the stone columns is associated with a
which carries the majority of the construction loads while
reduction in length of the column, thus causing limited
the surrounding clay maintains the stone column diameter
settlement to occur. The uniformity of this settlement will
at an increased porewater pressure. In the long term the
depend on the stiffness and uniformity of loading from
porewater pressure will dissipate, the lateral resistance
the structure and the consistency of the material pro-
of the clay will reduce and the compaction becomes more
viding lateral restraint to the columns. If the supported
uniform. It is therefore necessary for the foundation to be
ground is reasonably homogeneous and the loading evenly
capable of performing over this range of support condi-
distributed then the settlement that takes place will be
tions which are time related. The period of time for these
reasonably uniform.
changes to take place is difficult to predict and depends
Any problems caused by the settlement would be limited to upon the type of clay, its consolidation and its drainage
junctions with existing buildings or at changes in types of capabilities.
foundations. It would always be prudent to make provision
The compacted stone column can, when used in soft
for differential settlement at such locations and, indeed, the
clays, be considered as a grid of flexible piles which partly
complete separation of the structure would be wise.
transmit construction loadings to deeper bearing strata.
Since the bearing capacity of the probes in cohesive The authors recommend that foundations on clay soils
materials is dependent upon the restraint offered to the should be designed in the short term to totally or partly
probe by the surrounding ground, it is not possible to use span between compaction points and the engineer must
this system in very soft clays with inadequate restraint. It use engineering judgement, combined with the available
should be noted that the introduction of the stone columns soils information to determine the extent of spanning to
acts as drainage for the excess porewater in the clay, thus be assumed. If in doubt, total spanning should be adopted
as the drainage of the clay takes place an increase in its (see Fig. 8.9).
strength is achieved so offering more restraint to the stone
There are a number of specialist companies which have
columns.
considerable experience in vibro-stabilization treatments
and they will assist in the design of a suitable treatment
8.3.7 Summary of vibro-stabilization
for the site conditions and allowable bearing pressure re-
To sum up, stone or gravel columns are generally used in quired. An evaluation of the site investigation and particu-
areas of soft sub-strata or fill where sufficient upgrading of larly the bore-hole information will enable a treatment
the bearing capacity or reduction in differential settlement type, depth and spacing to be determined, but it is essential
can be achieved by one of the applications mentioned. In that trial pit excavations are also carried out to supplement
such situations the stone/gravel column is usually much the borehole data.
SFDC08 1/8/06 11:14 AM Page 131

Ground Improvement Methods 131

foundation distortion across loaded of the vibrated columns have been developed by special-
‘spans’ between compaction ‘hard spots’ ist installers. An onboard computer provides a record of
power demand during initial penetration, compaction and
during vibrator movements. This record allows a high level
of control during the installation process and provides reas-
surance to the engineer along with well-detailed contract
records. Despite the availability of these records, it is usual
to carry out plate load tests as a method of testing the
design and workmanship of the treatment. It should be
remembered that plate load tests have a limited pressure
bulb and are usually carried out over a short time-span.
They do, however, appear to give a reasonable guide to the
quality of work. A more extensive test method is to carry
out zone tests which cover a larger area and give a more
vibro stone column accurate prediction of the performance of the treatment. On
cohesive soils the tests should, where practical, be extended
Fig. 8.9 Foundation performance on vibro.
to cover as long a period as possible to permit dissipation of
excess porewater and allow maximum settlements to occur.
This method of testing is expensive and time-consuming
If the wet process is selected, consideration should be given
and is rarely justified on smaller contracts where the cost
to the availability of an adequate supply of water and ease
of such testing may outweigh the cost advantages of vibro-
of effluent discharge from the site surface from the vibro-
stabilization. In these situations quality control during
process. In some cases the provision of storage tanks may
construction, plate load tests and experienced engineering
be necessary to collect water supplied off-peak (overnight) to
judgement is required to ensure suitable treatment.
enable the treatment process to continue efficiently during
the day. The disposal of effluent water, if not considered Briefly the plate load test consists of applying a load to a
and planned for, can become a major problem. Water with small steel plate and measuring settlement and recovery
soil materials in suspension cannot be taken direct into during loading and unloading. The plate is usually 600 mm
drainage systems without treatment. Settling lagoons can in diameter laid on a sand bed at a minimum of 600 mm
be used for this process but the size, location and cost must below the level at which treatment is undertaken. The plate
not be overlooked. is lightly preloaded to achieve bedding of the plate on the
sand and the test loading is applied in increments up to
The effect of the ground treatment on adjacent buildings
working load and on to 1.5, 2 or 3 times the working load
and services should also be considered. There are a number
depending upon the test basis. The settlements are recorded
of cases where the vibration during the installation of
during loading and unloading. The test results are com-
compaction points has caused distress to nearby existing
pared with predetermined acceptable values for settlement
foundations and services. The distance between existing
at working load and maximum test load. The test load-
constructions and proposed lines of compaction points
ing is usually applied by kentledge using the machine
will depend on factors such as the position and form
which carried out the vibro work; this generally limits the
of the existing construction, ground conditions, depth of
maximum test load to approximately 12 tonnes.
treatment and the vibro method to be used. The excavation
of relief trenches between compaction points and adjacent Figure 8.10 shows some typical examples of vibro-
services or structures can be used to reduce the distance stabilization methods, their use and selected foundation type.
or effects on existing works. In spite of these warnings it
should be appreciated that the frequency of vibrations
8.3.11 Vibro-concrete
is designed to affect the soils and not the buildings and
the method can often be used relatively close to most A further development of ground improvement using
structures. The inspection and recording of the condition of vibro-stabilization methods is the use of concrete columns
adjacent structures is of course advisable prior to com- in place of the stone ones. This method can be used in
mencement of new works alongside existing constructions. ground conditions where stone columns would not work
because the surrounding soils are very soft. The integrity of
The use of vibro-compaction on contaminated sites should
the stone column is lost if the surrounding soil is highly
be carefully reviewed due to the risk of creating a pathway
compressible and the stone pushes into the soft material.
to groundwater for contaminants.
The vibro-concrete method can be used in sub-soil con-
ditions that could not be treated successfully using stone
8.3.10 Testing
compaction points. In soft ground conditions the poker is
The effect of vibro-stabilization treatments in cohesive and penetrated to firmer ground below and the concrete column
granular soils are different and this should be taken into formed from the bottom-feed poker. A toe is established in
account when testing the effectiveness of the treatment and the firmer ground and the concrete pumped down the
design of the sub-structure. Rigs employing in-cab instru- poker and out of the bottom. The poker is withdrawn as
mentation to monitor, control and record the construction the concrete is pumped to form the concrete column which
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132 Special and Further Considerations

GROUND CONDITIONS DEVELOPMENT FOUNDATION VIBRO TREATMENT

SOLUTION

1.75 m Two- and three-storey Traditional strip footings on Dry process adopted
Demolition fill housing of traditional vibro-improved ground Probes at 1.5 m centres on centreline of
1.75–2.35 m construction load-bearing walls
Compact fill Vibro treatment on Probes carried through fill to sand layer
(Mainly sub-soil) load-bearing wall lines Depth of treatment 2.5 m
Allowable bearing pressure
2.35–3.2 m
150 kN/m2
Compact red sand
3.2–3.6 m
Hard red sandstone
(trial pit dry)

0–0.1 m Topsoil Five-storey residential Traditional strip footings on Dry process adopted
0.1–2.4 m Fill building vibro-improved ground Two lines of probes at 0.95 to 1.5 m
Soft to firm brown and staggered centres on centreline of
grey sandy silty clay with Load-bearing masonry Vibro treatment on load-bearing walls
ash and bricks construction with load-bearing wall lines Probes carried through fill to clay
suspended concrete floor Depth of treatment 3 m
2.4–6.0 m
slab (including ground Footings 0.7 to 1.20 m wide Allowable bearing pressure
Firm to stiff dark brown
floor) reinforced with two layers of 150 kN/m2
slightly sandy to sandy
B785 mesh
silty clay
Becoming stiffer with
depth (borehole dry)

0–1.0 m Tall single-storey factory/ Pad bases beneath columns, Dry (bottom-feed) process adopted
Sandy clay probable fill warehouse with masonry walls on strip Probes on 1.5 m grid under pad bases
1.0–2.2 m footings between bases (2.8 m square pad on nine probes)
Firm, sandy, silty clay Steel portal frame with steel Probes at 1.6 m centres on centreline of
2.2–3.8 m sheeting and dado masonry Vibro-improved ground footings
Soft very sandy silty clay beneath foundations and Probes at 2.0 m grid beneath slab area
ground slab Depth of treatment 4 m
3.8–6.0 m Allowable bearing pressure:
Stiff boulder clay 100 kN/m2 to pads/strips;
25 kN/m2 to slabs

0–0.15 m Topsoil Two-storey institutional Pad bases to columns, strip Wet process adopted
0.15–2.4 m Loose building, part load- bearing footing to load- bearing walls Probes on 1.5 m grid under pad
saturated silty sand masonry part r.c. frame bases (2.0 m square base on four probes)
Vibro-improved ground Probes at 1.5 m centres on centreline of
2.4–6.0 m
beneath foundations and footings
Firm to stiff boulder clay
ground slab Depth of treatment 2.5 m
Allowable bearing pressure; 150 kN/m2
to pads/strips; 25 kN/m2 to slabs

0–0.3 m Topsoil and sub-soil Tall single-storey load- Wide strip footings on Dry (bottom-feed) process adopted two
0.3–2.7 m bearing masonry sports hall vibro-improved ground lines of probes at 1.25 m staggered
Soft to very soft bands of centres on centreline of load-bearing walls
clay and silts saturated 1.5 m wide footing Probes at 1.8 m staggered centres under slab
2.7–6.0 m reinforced with C785 mesh Depth of treatment 2.8 m
Firm to stiff boulder clay Allowable bearing pressure:
150 kN/m2 to footings; 25 kN/m2 to slab
Note Following testing programme the
treatment centres reduced to 0.75 m in
localized area of very soft ground to achieve
settlement test criteria

0–0.2 m Topsoil Two-storey teaching block, Crust raft on vibro-improved Wet process adopted a
0.2–1.8 m Loose brown load-bearing masonry ground Probes on 1.7 m centres on centreline of raft
fine silty sand construction edge and internal thickenings
1.8–2.2 Loose moist Raft slab incorporated Probes at 2.5 m grid under floor areas
dark brown peaty sand internal thickening under Depth of treatment 4.8 m
load-bearing wall lines Allowable bearing pressure
2.2–9.5 Greyish brown
110 kN/m2
fine silty sand
a
This project was undertaken in late 1970s
before bottom-feed dry vibro-treatment was
available (it is considered that the dry
bottom-feed method would have proved
effective in this case)

Fig. 8.10 Typical examples of vibro-stabilization solutions.

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Ground Improvement Methods 133

gives ground improvement in a zone that can be treated 8.4.3 Usage

and maintains cohesion of the column in the compressible
area. This method can be used as an alternative to a piling Dynamic consolidation has been shown to be cost-effective
solution. Vibro-concrete columns usually range between for the treatment of relatively large areas where mobiliza-
500 mm and 800 mm in diameter and maximum economic tion costs can be absorbed more easily. Unlike vibro-
lengths of 12–15 m are reported by the specialists. stabilization which is a localized treatment – under lines of
foundation for example – dynamic consolidation is a treat-
8.4 Dynamic consolidation ment of the site area as a whole. The effects on surrounding
structures, foundations and services must be considered
8.4.1 Introduction and usually a clear zone of about 30 m is required to avoid
disturbance/damage from vibrations or flying debris.
Dynamic consolidation is the term given to describe a
ground improvement treatment which is achieved by The major use of dynamic consolidation in this country
repeated surface tamping using a heavy weight which is has been to compact loose fills on large open sites which
dropped on the ground surface. The weights (or tamper) have been shown to respond well to treatment. The voids
are usually between 10 –20 tonnes, although much higher within the fills have gradually closed by repeated tamping
weights have been used. The tamper is dropped from a at the surface. Most saturated materials can be improved
height of between 10 –20 m although heights up to 40 m by dynamic consolidation but as permeability reduces the
have been used (see Fig. 8.11). treatment becomes less effective. In order to enable con-
tinuous operation of the plant and achieve economic treat-
8.4.2 Method ment, site areas should generally be greater than 10 000 m2,
although on very permeable sites economical operations
The tamper is dropped on a grid pattern over the whole have been achieved on smaller areas.
site area. The process is repeated two to five times until the
consolidation required is achieved. The number of repeti- 8.4.4 Site checks
tions or passes is dependent upon soil conditions. The times
between successive passes are related to soil permeability. Site checks of soil characteristics are usually carried out by
monitoring:
The treatment is designed to suit the type of develop-
ment and sub-soil conditions which determine the tamper (1) Porewater pressure – using a piezometer.
weight and height dropped, the number of passes and the (2) Accurate levelling to measure enforced settlements and
phasing of passes. On-site testing and monitoring is neces- ground heave.
sary to ensure satisfactory compaction of the soils. The test (3) Modulus of deformation and limit pressures using
results are compared with tests carried out prior to site pressuremeters in boreholes.
compaction and allow the changes of soil characteristics to
In comparison with vibro-compaction the system is clumsy
be monitored after each pass. Dynamic consolidation has
and crude and is economically applicable to a limited num-
been used for a wide range of structures and loading con-
ber of developments. It is nevertheless the most economical
ditions on different types of ground including fills where
system for some sites and should not be discounted.
depths in excess of 10 m have been treated.

8.5 Preloading

8.5.1 Introduction
In their natural state soils are consolidated by the effects
of the own weight of their overburden. The weight of the
materials removed during excavation works to accommod-
ate the new foundations is taken into account on normal
foundation designs, since this overburden has preloaded
the soil thus improving the bearing capacity and settlement
characteristics of the underlying soils. The removal of
overburden by natural erosion may have occurred, or the
passage of glaciers in past ice ages could have temporarily
created overburden conditions. The beneficial effects of this
preloading in these cases are realized much later.

The temporary preloading or prestressing of a site with

a surcharge or prestress to improve soil conditions prior
to construction works is therefore a logical approach.
This course of action depends upon whether an appro-
priate improvement in ground condition can be achieved
in a suitable time-scale and the preload materials and pre-
Fig. 8.11 Dynamic consolidation method. stress anchorages are available at an economical cost. This
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134 Special and Further Considerations

phase 2 phase 3 This does, however, rely upon a suitable layer of anchorage
preload preload material material within a reasonable depth. It is not essential that
phase 1 solution moved from phase 2 the ground anchors be anchored into rock since many
piled solution to phase 3 after vibro modern anchors have other methods of restraint into
of phase 3 to speed softer materials, and the engineer should consider all the
up settlement
alternatives.

required flood
preload fill safety level
8.5.3 Design of surcharge
In order to prepare surcharge designs it is necessary to
original G.L.
determine the following:

(1) Soil properties from site investigation.

(2) Bearing capacity of the soil.
(3) Bearing pressures of the foundations.
(4) Total settlement.
vibro stone columns (5) Acceptable settlement.
to improve drainage (6) Lengths of time to achieve settlements.
and consolidation
(7) Weight of surcharge to provide bearing pressure re-
quired to produce the excessive portion of settlement.
cross-section through large site
(8) Increased weight factor (1.2–1.5).
Fig. 8.12 Example of preloading. (9) Length of time for surcharge.
(10) Method statement for surcharge operation.
(11) Monitoring procedure to ensure that design consolida-
approach has provided an economical foundation solution tion is achieved.
on many sites and may be combined with vibro stone col-
umns to improve drainage and consolidation (see Fig. 8.12). When considering the requirements for the treatment of
This solution does however restrict site progress and fills it should be appreciated that settlements are not as
operations. easily calculated since settlements are caused not only by
the weight of the buildings and their creep settlements,
8.5.2 Method but also by decomposition of organic materials, collapse
compression and liquefaction. It is therefore important to
Consolidation of uncompacted granular materials and fills locate the various soil deposits and consider any additional
can be achieved fairly quickly with only a short duration of movements from these criteria. In many cases soil deposits
preloading, whereas cohesive soils or saturated materials may, if non-uniform in thickness or quality or unsuitable in
may require a lengthy period of surcharge to achieve the type, rule out the possibility of using surcharge alone to
required consolidation because of the longer drainage motivate the excessive differential settlements to a suitable
times. Improvement of drainage in saturated material may limit. In other cases the time required for adequate con-
be employed to speed up the consolidation process, by the solidation by surcharge may not be available. In some such
use of sand drains and sand wicks. It should be appreciated cases improvement of drainage may accelerate settlement
that it is not necessary to cover the whole site with the and a combined surcharge with improved drainage may be
designed surcharge at the same time but to move the adopted.
surcharge around the site – alternatively foundations can
be cast and prestressed using ground anchors to achieve
8.5.4 Installation of drainage systems
significant settlement prior to construction of the building
over (see Fig. 8.13). Time can be the limiting factor relating to allowable founda-
tion design pressures on sub-soils when surcharge or pre-
stress is used to limit final settlements. Settlement which
foundation can be induced prior to construction and application of
finishes can help to limit the amount of critical differential
settlements. Installation of drainage systems can accelerate
settlements and even out differential time relationships.
To assist drainage of imported fills, horizontal drainage
soft silty sand can be inserted during laying in the form of blankets of
prestressing
granular material or matting. These layers can be put in
at specified vertical centres to shorten the drainage path
rock (see Fig. 8.14). For existing fills, vertical sand drains, wicks,
vibro or other proprietary methods of vertical drainage
anchorage into
can be driven at specified centres to shorten the length of
rock at depth
drainage and dissipate more quickly the porewater pres-
Fig. 8.13 Soil prestressing using ground anchor. sure (see Fig. 8.15).
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Ground Improvement Methods 135

drainage matting grout probes grouting into workings at

pre-determined depth – a
viable solution to prevent
future collapse

drift

rock

granular layers to
assist drainage
collapsed workings voids to be grouted
containing voids

Fig. 8.16 Grout injection method.

background knowledge to enable the engineer to call upon

grouting specialists when appropriate to solve foundation
problems.

For structural foundations some of the more common

applications occur in filling voids in loose materials,
swallow-holes, shallow mining, shafts and wells. Guidance
on these applications will give a feel of the conditions under
Fig. 8.14 Horizontal soil drainage.
which grouting can prove a viable solution to sub-strata
strengthening (see Fig. 8.16).

These processes combined with preloading or prestressing In all these applications it is important that the engineer
can for certain conditions reduce post-development settle- realizes that since grout is designed to penetrate the
ments to acceptable limits. most difficult location there is a danger that unwanted
penetration into existing cracked sewers, service ducts,
8.6 Grout injections water courses, etc., within reach of the grouting zone may
occur. These aspects must not be overlooked in the design
8.6.1 Introduction of the system. In sensitive locations grouting may be totally
unsuitable due to the risk of damage and difficulty in seal-
The design of suitable grout for particular criteria is
ing around the zone of grout treatment. An adequate desk
complex and specialized. The design depends on criteria
study and site investigation will help to reduce these risks.
such as the size of voids, access to them, knowledge of their
location and risk of grout penetration into services or other
8.6.2 Loose soils
restricted areas. These and other aspects affect the type
of grout and method of placing. It is not intended to deal In the majority of cases strengthening of loose soils is
in depth with grout design but to provide only some basic most successfully achieved by a vertical pressure and/or

vibro-probes sand wicks

ground level

improved drainage

Fig. 8.15 Vertical soil drainage.

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136 Special and Further Considerations

vibration rather than grout injection, particularly where the

depth of loose material can be influenced by surface rolling
or vibro-stabilization (see sections 8.2 and 8.3). There
are situations, however, where deep loose materials exist
which may also contain larger voids and in these cases
grout injection is a more appropriate and safe solution.
For example, where loose soils exist in shafts or old work-
ings below rockhead the grout can search out migrating
voids. It is the use of grout to fill these larger void pockets
rather than the small well distributed loose material which
is appropriate to grouting. For this reason grouting injec-
tion tends to be used for mine shafts, swallow-holes and
shallow mine workings rather than for strengthening of
weak soils. irregular grouting
grid for shallow
mine workings
8.6.3 Swallow-holes
Fig. 8.18 Grout injection irregular grid.
A brief explanation of the structure of swallow-holes and
the risk of collapse of the loose soil filling is mentioned in
Chapter 4. Where a desk study and soil investigation has
revealed a real risk of swallow-hole collapse, the risk can be
8.6.4 Shallow mining
embraced within the design by either (a) allowing a pre-
dicted diameter collapse to be designed into the foundation Voids from shallow mine workings can result in sudden
solution ensuring suitable spanning capability or (b) where collapse – see Chapter 6 for details relating to mine work-
more severe conditions prevail, combining a grid of grout- ings. The risk of collapse can be accommodated by design-
ing holes to reduce the likely spanning requirements to a ing the raft foundation to span and cantilever over the
more practical diameter (see Fig. 8.17). collapsed ground or the voids can be grouted. A further
alternative is a combination of a spanning raft and grout
The depth of the drilling and grouting should be decided
injection.
from the ground investigation and assessment of the depth
of improved ground required to reduce the risk from Grouting on a regular grid however should be avoided in
collapse to an acceptable level. these situations since mining methods also tended to have a
regular grid. The method should be to grout in a way sim-
ilar to that used for swallow-holes, but on a non-regular
= = grid (see Fig. 8.18). The depth of the holes should be related
to mining records and the information obtained from the
site investigation drilling and the drilling carried out prior
possible diameter to grouting (see Chapter 6 on mining for further details).
unaffected by grouting
8.6.5 Mine shafts, wells and bell-pits
Mine shafts and wells have been discussed in Chapter 4
and further information is also available on shafts in
Chapter 6. It is essential that adequate safety precautions be
= taken in any treatment of these man-made conditions and
D
reference should be made to Chapter 6. The difference in
shape and void formation when the apertures have been
previously filled can be seen in Fig. 8.19.

From Fig. 8.19 it is apparent that knowledge on the shape

= and depth of the aperture is important to the likely location
and type of voids formed. A desk-top study of the informa-
tion available is therefore helpful to the drillers carrying out
the investigative and grouting activities. The grouting is
generally carried out by drilling a number of holes down
the shaft for grout injecting and working the grout up from
the lower levels of the aperture. On completion of grouting
a cap or plug is generally inserted, at rockhead in the case
effective grouting grout probe
of mining, or at ground level for shallow wells. The cap can
diameter
be cast by excavating to the rockhead or appropriate level.
Fig. 8.17 Grout injection grid/effective grout Alternatively the cap can be formed using grout injection of
diameter. the sub-soil over the shaft. (See Fig. 8.20.)
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Ground Improvement Methods 137

fill fill

voids migrating
voids platform at
rockhead

well or bell-pit void

bottom fully filled partially

of shaft shaft filled shaft

Fig. 8.19 Void formation.

r.c. cap it allows cement to be introduced into the soil. These pro-
extent of excavation cesses are mainly applicable to surface layers, allowing the
construction of roads, car parking areas and hardstandings
on otherwise unsuitable soils. Stabilization can also enable
soils which would otherwise be sent to tip to be recycled for
reuse.

Knowledge of existing soil parameters such as bearing

capacity and stiffness is key to the selection of the appropri-
rockhead ate binder and its proportions. Binders may be quicklime,
hydrated lime, lime slurry, pulverized fuel ash or blast-
furnace slag, depending upon the soil type. Generally
5–10% of binder by dry mass of soil is required to stabilize
shaft soils in the UK.

Soil properties should be considered by the experienced

engineer/specialist contractor in order to produce a suit-
able and durable treatment, including:
grouted plug
• plasticity and strength characteristics
• moisture content
• sulfate and sulfide content
• organic content.

Site work is carried out by mechanical spreader, ensuring a

uniform application over the area to be treated. Mixing is
rockhead then carried out using purpose-built machines which have
centrally placed powerful rotors, in preparation for the
addition of water which initiates the chemical reaction for
hydration. After preliminary mixing and wetting, a rest
shaft
period of between one and seven days is required, depend-
ing on soil type, to allow the chemical reaction to break
Fig. 8.20 Mine shaft capping. down the material. A final process of mixing and pulveriza-
tion is then carried out, prior to final compaction using a
suitable roller.

Deeper treatment of soft clays, peats and other weak soils

8.7 Lime/cement stabilization
can be achieved by the use of the dry soil mixing/lime
Soil stabilization requires a high degree of uniform particle cement column process. This system involves the injection
bonding. A review of grouting processes illustrates that of dry lime, cement or a mixture of both into the soil in the
penetration by cements in most soils is impractical, but form of vertical columns. Purpose-designed mixing and
injection that displaces soil fabric and mixing that destroys injection plant is required. This system is suited to soils that
SFDC08 1/8/06 11:14 AM Page 138

138 Special and Further Considerations

are too soft for vibro-replacement techniques and can be reinforced soil – now a composite material – is stronger than
used to support embankments, sheet piles and to strengthen the soil acting on its own.
soft ground prior to tunnelling.
In reinforced concrete, care is taken to ensure that the rein-
Deep consistent ground improvement to achieve foundation forcement is free of oil, loose rust, or other material which
bearing capacities is at present impractical and uneconomic would reduce the bond (or friction) between the concrete
for structural foundations. and the reinforcement. The tensile stresses are transferred
to the reinforcement by this bond. (A thickly oiled stainless
8.8 Reinforced soil steel bar would not be gripped by the concrete in a beam
and when load is applied to the beam the bar would slip
8.8.1 Introduction and carry little, if any, tensile force.) Similarly in reinforced
soil sufficient friction must be developed between the
The road embankment formed in the normal manner of
reinforcement and the soil. The reinforcement is usually
compacted layers of granular material (see Fig. 8.21 (a))
in a mesh, or net form, of steel or polymers. Steel is strong,
requires a wide strip of land to be purchased and uses a
stiff and more resistant to creep than polymers but can
large amount of material in the side banks. The embank-
suffer from corrosion. In general polymers are not so strong
ment so formed can also restrict the design of road layouts
and more liable to creep deformation than steel but can be
at junctions and slip roads.
more durable.
If the sand is contained in sacks and the resulting sand bags
If reinforcement is substituted for sacks in the road embank-
carefully placed and built up (see Fig. 8.21 (b)), a more
ment shown in Fig. 8.21 (b), then, while the embankment
economical use of material and width of land is achievable.
would be sound, there could be side surface erosion of the
Sand, and other non-cohesive soil, is stronger in compres- soil (see Fig. 8.22). This can be prevented by fixing facing
sion than it is in shear or tension. Concrete, too, is strong in units to the end of the reinforcement (the facing units are
compression and weak in tension, so steel reinforcement usually segmental and made of a durable material). Early
is added to compensate for the tensile and shear weakness. facing units were of elliptical steel sheeting but precast
The principle of adding reinforcement to soil (i.e. the concrete cruciform and hexagonal facing sections are now
tensile strong sacks) is basically the same and the resulting commonly used, allowing a wide variation of finished
texture and colour.

The combination of selected granular fill, reinforcement

road and facing units comprise reinforced soil fill.

The most common application of reinforced soil has been in

retaining walls and embankments. By comparison to walls
angle of there has been far less application, and little research and
repose excess
material development, of reinforced soil for rafts or other types of
foundations. This is probably because the ground around
buildings can usually incorporate a simple embankment
and, to date, reinforced soil is not usually cost competitive
with ground improvement techniques such as vibro-
stabilization combined with a banked arrangement. How-
ever, construction costs fluctuate and the designer may
consider costing alternative preliminary designs using a
reinforced soil solution.
extra width of land required
(a)

surface erosion
road road

granular
fill
facing
units
sand bags

(b) reinforcement

Fig. 8.21 Reinforced soil. Fig. 8.22 Facing to reinforced soil.

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Ground Improvement Methods 139

roller Limited, part of the Freyssinet group, which is Henri

tensile resistance to Vidal’s exclusive licensee in the UK.
spread under loading
Two other systems, of limited applications in the public
sector, were developed in the UK after the Department
of Transport paid Henri Vidal a lump sum under license
soil agreement in 1980. The systems were basically the same
layers (i.e. selected fill, reinforcement and facing unit). One
system – the York system used by the DoE – used facing
units of lightweight glass-reinforced cement cast in the
form of hexagon-based pyramids. The other system – the
Websol system – did not use steel reinforcement but used
‘Paraweb’ as a substitute. Paraweb, made by ICI (Imperial
polymer mesh between layers Chemical Industries and now by Linear Composites), con-
sists of synthetic fibres encased in a polythene sheath.
Fig. 8.23 Reinforced crust. Facing units of precast concrete, T-shaped in front eleva-
tion, were used with this system.

8.8.2 Foundation applications A number of alternative proprietary geotextile and poly-

propylene geogrids have also been developed for use
In addition to the more common use of soil reinforcement in reinforced soil-retaining walls. Design of such walls
in embankments and road construction, benefit can be should be in accordance with BS 8006(1) and early consulta-
gained from increased tensile resistance of soils for tion with reinforced soil specialist engineers is advised,
foundations. For example, reinforcement can improve soil prior to final selection specification and detailing of com-
behaviour during surface rolling for soil strengthening. The ponent parts. These materials, utilized with a wraparound
behaviour of the soil can be improved by restraint from technique, can also be used for the construction of earth
side spread by the introduction of horizontal reinforcement slopes with a grass face, sloping at up to 70° to the hor-
between the layers of material. izontal, giving an acceptable natural appearance even in
This is particularly useful where crusting up of the surface is the most sensitive of environments.
required (see Fig. 8.23). A reinforcement mesh which also
improves drainage is even more beneficial for soils of poor 8.8.4 Research and development
permeability and meshes have been developed which per- There has been with reinforced soil (as there was in the
form this dual role. Products are constantly being improved early days of soil mechanics) a veritable flood of laboratory
and the engineer should check the latest developments. The research – most of it into the investigation of failure modes
basic engineering principles however do not change and and soil reinforcement bond. However, as with early soil
improved tensile strength and drainage with long-term mechanics research, the results, while of value in under-
durability and performance are major factors affecting standing behaviour, are of somewhat debatable value to
foundation designs. the designer. This is mainly due to the difficulty of simulat-
ing construction site conditions in a laboratory. Researchers
8.8.3 Patents are well aware of the difficulty and there is a growing
It is claimed that the innovation of reinforced soil was made database of test information including long-term monitor-
by Henri Vidal, a French architect, in the 1960s. He found ing of reinforced soil walls. This information is useful in
that mounds of dry sand could stand at a steeper angle providing adequate empirical data for design.
when horizontal layers of pine needles were incorporated
in the sand. He undertook the early research and develop- 8.9 Reference
ment and subsequently patented the technique. Reinforced 1. British Standards Institution (1995) Code of practice for
Earth® is the trademark of the Reinforced Earth Company strengthened/reinforced soils and other fills. BS 8006, BSI, London.
SFDC09 1/8/06 11:15 AM Page 141

Part 3
Foundation Types: Selection and Design
SFDC09 1/8/06 11:15 AM Page 142
SFDC09 1/8/06 11:15 AM Page 143

9 Foundation Types

9.1 Introduction 9.3.1 Strip footings

This chapter describes the various types of foundations in Strip footings are used under relatively uniform point loads
general terms, and defines the different functions, materials or line loads. The main structural function of the strip is
employed and how they behave. The foundation types are to disperse the concentration of load sideways into an
discussed in four groups i.e.: increased width of sub-strata in order to reduce the bearing
stress and settlement to an acceptable limit. A cross-section
• Strip and pad foundations,
through an unreinforced concrete strip footing showing the
• Surface spread foundations,
assumed dispersion of load is shown in Fig. 9.1.
• Piled foundations,
• Miscellaneous elements and forms. A further major structural function is to redistribute the
loads in the longitudinal direction where the loading is
9.2 Foundation types non-uniform or where the sub-strata resistance is variable
(see Fig. 9.2). The width of the strip is usually decided by
The design of foundations involves the use of many dif-
calculating the width required to limit the bearing stress
ferent combinations of structural elements and foundation
and choosing the nearest excavator bucket size up from that
types which in turn vary to perform a wide variety of func-
dimension. From a construction point of view, the strip
tions. It is therefore not surprising that the foundation
depth is used as a means of levelling out irregularities in the
scene has grown into a jumble of rather poorly defined
trench bottom and the width has to absorb the excavation
elements and forms. In addition to providing guidance on
tolerances which would be unacceptable for the setting out
the elements and forms available, this chapter suggests a
of walls etc.
more clearly defined terminology in an attempt to help
clarify the issue. It is possible therefore that even the experi- There are a number of different types of strips which include
enced engineer may at first find some of the terms unfam- masonry strips; concrete strips – plain and reinforced;
iliar. However, the authors have found that with use, the trench fill – concrete and stone; reinforced beam strips –
terms prove to be of great assistance. Since this chapter rectangular and inverted T, and these are described in the
covers modern developments in foundation design this has following sections.
resulted in the introduction of further new terms. Wherever
existing terms clearly define the structural element or 9.3.2 Masonry strips
foundation form they have been retained, but more vague
Masonry strips are rarely used these days, however they
definitions such as ‘rigid raft’, etc. have been deliberately
can be adopted where good quality sub-strata exists and
omitted, since such terms are in danger of misinterpreta-
the raw materials for masonry construction are cheap and
tion and cover a widely varying group of foundations.
abundant. The wall is increased in width by corbelling out
In addition to the design of the foundations to support the the masonry to achieve the required overall foundation
applied loads, without excessive settlement and distortion, width as shown in Fig. 9.3.
there is a need to resist or prevent the effects of frost-heave
and/or shrinkage and swelling of sub-strata. The many dif-
ferent loads and conditions demand different solutions,
however the foundation types can generally be defined and
the main types are described in this chapter. Various refer-
ences are made in the text to relative costs. Appendix M footing projection from
wall to allow tolerance
should be consulted for more detailed cost guidance.
for building wall – usually
100 mm minimum
9.3 Group one – strip and pad
thickness of footing
foundations determined by
Strip footings and pad bases are used to deliver and spread dispersion line passing
through side of footing
superstructure loads over a suitable area at foundation
assumed dispersion
(formation) level. The foundation is required to be stiff
approximately 45°
enough to distribute the loadings onto the sub-strata in a
uniform manner. Fig. 9.1 Typical strip footing.
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144 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

longitudinal load
distribution through
masonry substructure

G.L.

strip footing
delivers distributed
elevation load to sub-strata

strip width increased to

accommodate increased wall
width or loading or to
accommodate localized
poor sub-strata

plan

Fig. 9.2 Strip footing load spread distribution.

It should be noted that it can be important, particularly

when using masonry strips in clay or silt sub-strata, to bed
the masonry units in mortar and to completely fill all joints.
The reason for filling the joints is mainly to prevent the strip
footing acting as a field drain with the water flowing along
the surface of the formation level and through the open
joints of masonry. The authors have found clear evidence
of induced settlement due to softening of the clay surface
below dry random rubble strips (dry random rubble being a
term for dry stacking without mortar and not dry meaning
no moisture).
corbelled brick
footing
9.3.3 Concrete strips – plain and reinforced
The concrete strip footing replaced the corbelled masonry
in more recent constructions. In plain (unreinforced) strip
footings the thickness is determined by the requirement for
the line of dispersion to pass through the side of the footing
as shown in Fig. 9.1. The width of the trench must also allow
working space for the bricklayers to build the masonry off
the footing.

The profile of the reinforced concrete strip is similar to the

unreinforced strip except that it can generally be made thin-
ner in relation to its projections since it no longer relies
corbelled stone
upon an approximate 45° line of load dispersion. The strip
footing
is often reinforced with a fabric or lattice reinforcement.
Fig. 9.3 Masonry strip footing. The longitudinal bars are the main bars selected to suit the
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Foundation Types 145

loading

mesh top and bottom

reinforced
strip

cross longitudinal
wires bars
cross-section longitudinal section

Fig. 9.4 Reinforced strip footing.

The requirement for working space within the trench

for bricklayers is not a factor in determining the width of
excavation with this method. Pouring concrete to within
150 mm of ground level overcomes this consideration.

9.3.5 Stone trench fill

Stone trench fill consists of stone deposited into the open
trench excavation and compacted in layers. It is particularly
useful in areas where poor quality sands, sandy silts, etc.,
concrete
trench fill
exist. The material immediately below the topsoil is often
suitable for the general floor slab loading but not for the
more heavily loaded external and internal strip loadings.
Suitable sub-strata for the strip loads often exists at a
shallow depth and stone trench fill can be used down to
Fig. 9.5 Concrete trench fill. these levels (see Fig. 9.7).

9.3.6 Rectangular beam strips

longitudinal bending expected on the strip and the cross
Rectangular beam strips consist of rectangular reinforced
bars designed to cater for the cantilever action on the
ground beams which are designed to be of sufficient width
projections (see Fig. 9.4).
to reduce the bearing pressures on the sub-strata to an
acceptable value. The beam is required to be of sufficient
9.3.4 Concrete trench fill
cross-section to resist the induced bending moments and
Concrete trench fill consists of a mass concrete strip cast shear forces in the longitudinal direction. The beam is
into the open trench making use of the trench sides as a reinforced with either ladder reinforcement or caged rein-
shutter (see Fig. 9.5). forcement to suit the design conditions. Figure 9.8 shows a
typical beam strip supporting point loads.
Concrete trench fill is often used where strip loads are
required to be transferred to relatively shallow depths
9.3.7 Inverted T beam strips
through soft material which is capable of standing up,
without extra support, for at least a period adequate to The inverted T beam strip fulfils the same function as the
cater for the construction sequence to be adopted. The rectangular beam strip but the cross-section is modified to
trench fill can embrace requirements for heavy loads going an inverted T so that the flanges reduce the contact pressure
down to rock or light loads on soft sub-strata (see Fig. 9.6). on the ground (see Fig. 9.9).
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146 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

projection to provide
tolerance for
building wall

soft clay
rock

width of trench fill to width of trench fill to

suit buildability rather suit bearing or settlement
than bearing or settlement criteria on softer material
criteria on rock strata

Fig. 9.6 Concrete trench fill.

slab

load

strip footing

stone trench
fill

Fig. 9.9 Inverted beam strip.

firm sub-strata

Fig. 9.7 Stone trench fill.

r.c. column

G.L. G.L.
r.c. column

beam strip

beam strip

cross-section elevation

Fig. 9.8 Typical beam strip.

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Foundation Types 147

u.c.

r.c. column

Fig. 9.10 Shallow mass concrete pad.

reinforced shallow
pad

Fig. 9.12 Shallow reinforced concrete pad.

cuts face or
intersects corner
G.L.
45°
section
fill ground

brick pier

r.c. reinforced
column pad

service duct

plan
firm gravel
Fig. 9.11 Load spread on mass concrete pad.

Fig. 9.13 Deep reinforced concrete pad.

9.3.8 Pad bases
Pad bases are used under point loads from columns and
of the pad which increases the pad’s resistance to bending
piers. There are a number of different types, including mass
moment (see Fig. 9.12).
and reinforced concrete both shallow and deep, which are
described in the following sections.
9.3.11 Deep reinforced concrete pads
9.3.9 Shallow mass concrete pads Deep reinforced concrete pads are similar in cross-section
to the shallow reinforced pad but are constructed at depth
Shallow mass pads consist of mass concrete pads support-
in situations where the suitable sub-strata is not available
ing point loads from columns, piers, etc. (see Fig. 9.10).
at high level. Such pads are not often economic and more
They are used for varying conditions of sub-strata where cost-effective mass concrete bases or piles and caps are
suitable load-bearing soils exist at shallow depths below the often used. However in some situations they can prove
effects of frost and general weathering. They are particularly to be a suitable solution – see Fig. 9.13 which indicates a
economic where the side of the excavation can be used as a typical example of such a use.
shutter and where a suitable depth of mass can be accom-
modated to disperse the load without the need for rein- 9.3.12 Deep mass concrete pads
forcement. The general assumption for load dispersion is as
Deep mass pads consist of mass concrete pads cast with
mentioned previously i.e. a 45° spread through the mass
their soffit at depths in excess of 1.5–2 m. They are generally
concrete (see the typical example shown in Fig. 9.11).
used where a suitable ground bearing strata is relatively
deep and where the piling alternative is more expensive,
9.3.10 Shallow reinforced concrete pads
i.e. a small number of pads are required or access for piling
Reinforced concrete pads are similar to the mass concrete is difficult and expensive. Deep mass pads tend to be of two
pads but for the same conditions can be thinner when rein- types, one being constructed up to high level using a basic
forced with steel. The reduction in thickness is made pos- cross-section and the other using a reduced and shuttered
sible by the introduction of reinforcement on the tensile face cross-section for the upper levels (see Fig. 9.14).
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148 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

concrete pad bases designed for the critical design loading

with the aim of keeping the differential ground stresses
and hence settlements to an acceptable level. This require-
plan ment could be the result of a sensitive sub-strata and/or
a sensitive superstructure over. There are a number of
different types of balanced pad foundations which include
rectangular, trapezoidal, holed and cantilever, and these
are described in the following sections (see also Chapter 12).

9.3.14 Rectangular balanced pad

foundations
A typical rectangular balanced foundation supporting two
section
point loads from a sensitive structure that has only a small
tolerance to accommodate differential settlement is shown
in Fig. 9.16. The problem has been overcome by adjusting
the cantilevered ends of the base to produce a constant
Type 1 Type 2 ground bearing pressure for the load conditions.
single cross-section reduced section at
high level
9.3.15 Trapezoidal balanced pad
Fig. 9.14 Deep mass concrete pad. foundations
The trapezoidal balanced foundation is used in similar
circumstances to the rectangular balanced foundation.
Adjusting the width of each end of the pad in relation to the
load supported can produce a more economic solution.
This is particularly useful where two point loads of dif-
45° dispersion brick pier
ferent sizes need to be supported and a relatively uniform
through side
or corner bearing pressure is required (see Fig. 9.17).

It is also useful where adjustments by cantilever action

are not possible, for example, where two different column
loads on the edge of opposite building lines require support
(see Fig. 9.18).
section

9.3.16 Holed balanced pad foundations

mass concrete The holed balanced foundation is a pad type foundation
pad supporting a number of loads and transferring the load
to the bearing strata in a relatively uniform fashion. The
allowable variation in bearing pressure and differential
settlement is again determined from the ground conditions
and sensitivity of the superstructure. The resultant load
and its position are determined for the critical load case.
plan While with the rectangular base the balancing is done by
Fig. 9.15 Deep mass concrete pad with brick pier.
small load large load
P1 P2
An alternative to concrete for the upper reduced cross-
section is to construct a brick pier off the mass concrete pad
(see Fig. 9.15). This solution has the advantage of avoiding
the need for expensive shuttering and can result in an over-
all saving. If brickwork is adopted it is necessary that the
rectangular base
pad size provides the necessary working space for the
bricklayers to build the pier.

9.3.13 Balanced pad foundations

Balanced pad foundations are used where a number of
uniform
loads are required to be supported on a single pad and pressure
where excessive variations in pressure could produce unac-
ceptable differential movement. They consist of reinforced Fig. 9.16 Rectagular balanced pad foundation.
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Foundation Types 149

50 80 corner columns

20 kN 20 kN

section
hole

50 kN 50 kN
plan on base

Fig. 9.19 Holed balanced pad foundation.

column loads

C
G of base and
C
G of loads cantilever beam

Fig. 9.17 Trapezoidal balanced pad foundation.

25 50

foundation uniform ground

pads bearing stress

Fig. 9.20 Cantilever balanced foundation.

building line
9.4 Group two – surface spread foundations
section
Surface spread foundations consist mainly of rafts and
are generally used where the normal ground bearing
sub-strata is relatively poor and the depth to suitable load-
bearing soils is excessive or the load-carrying capacity of
the soil deteriorates with depth. Surface spread founda-
tions are therefore employed to distribute the superstruc-
ture/substructure loads over a large area of the ground
thus reducing the contact bearing pressure. Since most
plan structures also require a ground floor slab it is usually
economic to incorporate it with the foundation into one
Fig. 9.18 Trapezoidal balanced pad foundation.
structure/element. This can be done by making the upper
surface of the raft foundation coincide with the top surface
varying the cantilever and with the trapezoidal base by of the floor slab. A simple example is shown in Fig. 9.22.
varying the end dimensions, in this case the balancing is
Surface spread raft foundations are often adopted in areas
done by forming a hole in the base positioned so as to move
of active mining as the best means of resisting excessive dis-
the centroid of the base to coincide with that of the resultant
tortion, tensile and compressive forces, etc., resulting from
load (see Fig. 9.19).
the ground subsidence. These and other types of surface
spread foundations are discussed in the following sections.
9.3.17 Cantilever balanced pad foundations
It should be noted that rafts do not necessarily distribute
The cantilever balanced foundation consists of a ground the loads as a uniform contact pressure to the sub-strata, on
beam picking up loading from the superstructure and the contrary, most rafts are relatively flexible foundations
cantilevering out over a pad foundation with the pads and will have higher contact pressure under loaded points
designed, theoretically, to have uniform bearing stress (see and edge thickenings than below the main slab areas.
Fig. 9.20).
9.4.1 Nominal crust raft
The need for a cantilever arrangement can be produced
by restrictions from adjacent buildings or existing services A nominal crust raft is basically a ground-bearing rein-
(see Fig. 9.21). forced concrete floor slab with nominal thickenings around
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150 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

adjoining building existing

and foundation building

services
foundation base
foundation base
cantilevers over
cantilevers over
services
existing foundation

pad pad

Fig. 9.21 Cantilever balanced foundation.

floor and
the edges. Internal thickenings are sometimes incorporated
raft surface in the raft (see Fig. 9.23).

The slab acts as a surface crust to the sub-strata thus evening

out any small local differential settlement movements
which could result from variations in imposed loading on
Fig. 9.22 Typical raft foundation. the top of the slab and/or local variations in settlement
characteristics of the sub-soil. The design is generally car-
ried out either by sizing the raft from previous experience
or by calculation based upon nominal assumptions.

B
9.4.2 Crust raft
The crust raft is a stiffer version of the nominal crust raft.
The ground slab and thickening which form the crust are
combined into a total raft design. Heavier loads on soil of
low bearing capacity determine the size and depth of the
thickenings. The thickness of the slab is dictated by the
overall raft design which generally exceeds the nominal
slab requirements.

9.4.3 Blanket raft

The blanket raft consists of a concrete crust raft constructed
A A on a stone blanket which in turn is built up in layers off the
reduced sub-strata level (see Fig. 9.24). The crust raft and
blanket interact to support and span the loading over any
localized soft spots or depressions. The main difference
between this and the crust raft is the introduction of the
B stone blanket. This blanket effectively disperses any heavy
point and edge loads or imbalance of load. Composite
plan on raft action between the crust raft and the stone blanket is the
basis of the action and design of this foundation system.

heavy load
raft hardcore
section A–A

60°
approx
sub-strata reduced level

section B–B load dispersed

Fig. 9.23 Nominal crust raft. Fig. 9.24 Blanket raft.

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Foundation Types 151

compressible fill separate upper

floor

raft void void void

sand slip-plane

tensile or compressive
ground strain

Fig. 9.25 Slip plane raft. Fig. 9.27 Lidded cellular raft.

9.4.4 Slip-plane raft These rafts are used on sites subject to severe mining
activity or in areas of poor ground where large bending
The slip-plane raft consists of a concrete raft constructed on
moments are to be resisted. They are also used in locations
a slip-plane layer, such as sand of known friction or shear
where a valuable increase in bearing capacity can be
resistance, which is located between the raft and the sub-
achieved by the removal of the overburden and where deep
strata. The slip-plane is constructed in sufficient thickness
foundation beams are required.
to ensure that a straight failure plane could occur under
excessive longitudinal ground strain (see Fig. 9.25). The
depth of penetration of the raft into the ground is kept to a
9.4.6 Lidded cellular raft
minimum to avoid picking up loading from ground strains. The lidded cellular raft is very similar in profile to the
However, the depth below finished ground level must take cellular raft and is used in similar locations, i.e. severe
account of potential frost heave. mining conditions, areas of poor ground where the raft will
be subjected to large bending moments, etc. The main
9.4.5 Cellular raft difference however is the use of a lighter form of upper
slab designed to be separate to the main foundation (see
A cellular raft consists of an arrangement of two-way inter-
Fig. 9.27).
locking foundation beams with a ground bearing slab at
the underside and a suspended slab at the top surface. The The detail at the seating of the upper floor depends upon
upper and lower slabs are usually incorporated within the the need for re-levelling and the possible number of times
beams to form I sections. The intersecting beams effectively adjustments to line and level may be necessary.
break the large slab into two-way spanning continuous
small panels (see Fig. 9.26). 9.4.7 Beam strip raft
The top slab is cast using precast soffits or other forms The beam strip raft consists of (ground-bearing) downstand
of permanent formwork such as lightweight infill blocks. beams in two or more directions which support the heavy
uniform or point loads from the structure. The beams are
tied together by a ground-bearing slab supported on the
hardcored dumplings, i.e. the raised areas of hardcore
protruding up between the beam lines (see Fig. 9.28).

This raft is mainly used in areas of either mining activity or

soft alluvial deposits where a stiffened beam is required
on the main load lines. The tying of the ground floor slab
into the beams prevents lateral distortions of the beam and
evens out any local differential settlements. This type of raft
is more economic than the cellular form and is used where
plan
conditions are not as severe.
suspended slab
9.4.8 Buoyancy (or ‘floating’) raft
A buoyancy raft is similar to a cellular raft and is a deep
void void void void raft with large voids. The main weight of removed earth is
replaced with practically weightless voids of the raft (see
Fig. 9.29). Basement accommodation can be provided in
this form of construction. Basement slabs together with
ground bearing slab retaining walls form the raft.
section
It is used for heavily loaded structures in areas of low
Fig. 9.26 Cellular raft. ground-bearing capacity.
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152 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

for mining rafts sand

section slip layer added as shown

ground slab

ground beam r.c. columns

plan

Fig. 9.28 Beam strip raft.

B
void void
A A

Fig. 9.29 Buoyancy raft.

9.4.9 Jacking raft plan on raft

The jacking raft is used in areas where the expected subsid-

ence would tilt or distort the structure to an unacceptable
degree and where re-levelling of the raft produces an
economic and viable foundation for the design conditions.
The jacking raft is used in locations of excessive or unpre- section A–A
dictable subsidence, for example, in areas subjected to brine
or other mineral extraction. A typical jacking raft for a
domestic property is shown in Fig. 9.30.

9.5 Group three – pile foundations

concrete blocks jack
pinned up on
9.5.1 Introduction completion of concrete pad
Piles are generally used as a means of transferring loads jacking detail B
down through unsuitable bearing strata either by skin fric-
Fig. 9.30 Jacking raft.
tion and end bearing or end bearing only into a firm layer at
greater depth (see Fig. 9.31).
(see Fig. 9.32) – further information on this aspect can be
There are many different types of piles including concrete –
found in Chapter 8.
in situ and precast; steel; timber; stone. The cross-section
of the pile and the installation method vary significantly. The distribution of load through the sub-soil varies with the
In addition to transferring loads to greater depths below various types of pile and different installation methods.
surface level the stone pile system (vibro-stabilization) can Some piles are suitable for sandy soils, others for clay soils
be used to upgrade the bearing capacity of the sub-strata or end bearing into rock. The aim however is generally the
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Foundation Types 153

vibrator
G.L.

stone column
or pile
skin
friction

during compaction completed pile

Fig. 9.33 Stone/gravel piles (vibro).

hard/stiff There are basically three main applications which require

bearing strata
quite different design judgement and approaches to site
end bearing testing, and these aspects are dealt with in detail in Chap-
ter 8. In general terms, stone or gravel piles are used in areas
Fig. 9.31 Typical pile foundation. of soft sub-strata, or fill, where sufficient upgrading of the
bearing capacity or reduction in differential settlement can
be achieved. In such situations the stone/gravel pile is
allowable bearing gravel piles
pressure increase usually much cheaper and in some situations much more
to treated area suitable than the concrete pile alternative. For example, the
gravel pile has a particular advantage in mining areas
where the use of concrete piles could result in the founda-
tion picking up unacceptable ground strains and/or pos-
sibly the piles shearing off during subsidence due to the
brittle form and limited capacity to resist horizontal ground
compacted strain. The gravel pile can be used incorporating a slip-
gravel plane between the top of the pile and the underside of the
foundation in a manner similar to that described for the
slip-plane raft in section 9.4.4 and Fig. 9.25.
Fig. 9.32 Stone pile (vibro).
9.5.3 Concrete piles
Concrete piles are generally used to transfer loads through
same and that is to provide an economic means of support
an unsuitable bearing material to a deeper load-bearing
for the foundation and its loads. The various pile types
strata. This is achieved either by skin friction and end bear-
and/or systems have advantages and disadvantages which
ing or end bearing alone (see Fig. 9.34).
make each pile more suitable and competitive for particular
situations and soil conditions. There is perhaps a danger
of the designer, having selected a competitive system on
the first piling job, making the assumption that it is also
the appropriate pile system to use on future contracts and
ignoring the fact that the competitive tender probably
related as much to the site and ground conditions as it did
to anything else.

There is, therefore, a need for designers to understand the

various types of pile, their best application, and possible
limitations, etc., in order to provide good engineering solu- skin friction
tions for design purposes. The following sections which
describe the various types will assist the engineer in his
choice of suitable pile systems and applications.

9.5.2 Stone/gravel piles

The stone, or gravel, pile is mainly used as a means of
strengthening sub-strata by introducing a series of stone
columns using vibration or jetting methods which compact
end bearing
the ground around the stone and replace the void created
with a compacted stone column (see Fig. 9.33). Fig. 9.34 Typical concrete pile.
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154 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

casing vibrated
during extraction

precast
concrete
in situ concrete

(a) (b) (c) (d)

driven precast piles driven cast in situ piles bored piles augered piles

Fig. 9.35 Concrete pile types.

There are many different types and systems of piles, Driven cast in situ piles
however the main types are:
Driven cast in situ piles use steel, or precast concrete, driv-
(1) Driven precast piles. ing tubes which are filled with in situ concrete after driving.
(2) Driven cast in situ piles. Variations in pile lengths can be more easily accommod-
(3) Bored piles. ated using segmental liners. The piles can be cast accur-
(4) Augered piles. ately to the required length and the driving or liner tube
These piles can also be divided into either displacement or can be driven in short lengths. In some cases the tube is
replacement methods dependent on the system of driving, left in position permanently and in other cases the tube is
i.e. either removal of material, termed replacement, or withdrawn and used to tamp the concrete by lifting and
wedging apart of material, termed displacement. Typical dropping the liner tube. In other situations the tube is with-
examples of these types are shown in Fig. 9.35. drawn and vibrated as the concrete is poured and addi-
tional compaction achieved by impact to the surface of the
Driven precast piles wet concrete. Driven piles can therefore have a smooth or
irregular side surface depending on the method of driving
Driven precast piles can be used in areas where the soils, and this results in differing friction and mechanical keying
through which the pile is to be driven, are relatively soft to the surrounding soil which varies depending on the pile
and unobstructed and where the length of pile required can type and sub-soil conditions. Again large rigs are required
be determined to a reasonable accuracy. The piles can be for driving cast in situ piles and hardstanding requirements
cast to any suitable cross-section, i.e. square, rectangular, can prove expensive.
circular, hexagonal, etc. The shape and protection to the
point of the pile is determined from the end bearing re- In piling systems where the liner tubes are withdrawn there
quirements and driving conditions. The pile head and is a danger that the tube can lift the upper portion of in situ
the reinforcement are designed to take account of the pile- concrete leaving a void a short distance below the surface
driving impact loads. Some disadvantages of this method or squeezing during withdrawal can cause necking. This
of piling are that the pile can be damaged in a location out can happen where the mix is not carefully controlled or
of sight during driving and the pile can be displaced if it where the liner tube is not withdrawn at a steady slow rate.
meets an obstruction such as a boulder in the ground. In Driven cast in situ piles, however, can prove to be economic
addition the accuracy of the estimated length is only proved for sands, gravels, soft silts and clays, particularly when
on site and short piles can be difficult to extend and long large numbers of piles are required. For small numbers of
piles can prove to be expensive and wasteful. A further piles the on-site cost can prove expensive. Driven precast
disadvantage is the relatively large rig required for driving piles and driven cast in situ piles can prove particularly
and the need for hardstandings that are often required to suitable where groundwater or soft inclusions occur in the
provide a suitable surface for the pile-driving plant. sub-strata.
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Foundation Types 155

pile shaft

reinforcement cage under reamed

end bearing

Fig. 9.37 Under-reamed augered pile.

in situ
concrete Probably one of the most successful auger methods is
the use of the hollow tube auger in soft silt, etc., where
water and squeezing of soft silts in the surrounding ground
can cause necking problems for many other systems, i.e.
squeezing in of the pile shaft due to side pressure. The use
under construction on completion of the hollow auger and injected sand cement grout can
produce good-quality piles in these soft and difficult con-
Fig. 9.36 Bored pile. ditions at competitive prices, particularly where large
numbers of piles are involved. For small numbers of piles
the on-site cost of the rig and grouting plant can prove to be
Bored piles
prohibitively expensive.
The bored pile is usually formed by using a simple cable
percussion rig. The soil is removed by shell and auger and 9.5.4 Timber piles
the hole filled with in situ reinforced concrete as required
Timber piles are suitable for temporary works and where
(see Fig. 9.36).
kept permanently below the groundwater level they are
For filled sites or soft clay sites overlying stiff clay or rock, suitable for permanent works. Timber piles have been used
small to medium bored piles often prove to be economic. very successfully in marine environments. They are driven
The relatively small on-site cost of bored piles means that by percussion means similar to precast concrete piles,
smaller sites can be piled more economically than they can have good flexibility and resistance to shock and, if kept
using a driven piling system. The bored pile is not usually permanently wet or permanently dry, they can have a very
economic in granular soils where removal and disturbance long life.
of surrounding ground can cause excessive removal of soil
There is some danger from attack by marine organisms
and induce settlement in the surrounding area. During
below water, and from micro-fungal attack and wood-
piling operations the hole can be lined with a casing which
destroying insects when kept dry. However, careful selec-
can be driven ahead of the bore to overcome difficulties
tion of the species of timber and the use of preservatives can
caused by groundwater and soft sub-soil but sometimes
overcome most of the problems. In Victorian piles charred
difficulties of withdrawing the casing after casting can
faces were used to prevent surface deterioration. To assist
prove expensive.
in the driving of the pile, steel hoops are often used around
the head of the pile and steel shoes on the toe to prevent
Augered piles
damage from impact forces in these locations and to ease
The augered pile is usually constructed by screwing a the driving. There is some danger of undetected damage
rotary auger into the ground. The material is either augered below ground level in a similar manner to that of the pre-
out in a similar manner to that of a carpenter’s bit and the cast concrete pile. However jetting or pre-boring in difficult
open hole filled with concrete or alternatively an auger conditions can help in overcoming this problem. The pile
with a hole down its centre is used and a cement grout can be in the form of trimmed tree trunks or shaped timber
injected under pressure down the hole during withdrawal cross-sections (see Fig. 9.38).
of the auger. Early problems experienced with voids left by
Timber piles are usually in a range of 5–12 m long and if
rapid withdrawal of the auger before properly filling the
lengths in excess of this are required they can be spliced
pile shaft have now been overcome by the use of computer-
controlled rigs which monitor concrete pressure and give
a continuous readout for quality control purposes. Augers
can be used to drill large-diameter holes in a wide range
of soils, the range having been extended by the use of
bentonite slurry to assist the support of the sides of the hole
in soft silts and clays. In addition, the large-diameter auger
typical timber pile cross-sections
can be used with under-reaming tools to enlarge the end
bearing base of the pile (see Fig. 9.37). Fig. 9.38 Typical timber pile cross-sections.
SFDC09 1/8/06 11:15 AM Page 156

156 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

conditions. Detailed information on these aspects along

with detailed information on steel piles and piling is out-
side the scope of this book due to their limited use in struc-
tural foundations.

H pile box pile tube pile 9.5.6 Anchor piles

Fig. 9.39 Typical steel pile cross-sections. Anchor piles are piles used to resist uplift or inclined tensile
forces in the surrounding ground. They are used as:

(1) Reaction piles for pile testing.

using specially designed steel connections. With the excep-
(2) Piles to resist uplift forces from flotation.
tion of jetties, temporary works and sewer supports, timber
(3) Anchorage to react to cantilevered foundations, etc.
piles are not often used in general structural foundations
(see Fig. 9.40).
and detailed information is, therefore, outside the scope of
this book. The piles are designed as tension piles transferring their
load to the ground by friction, by under-reaming or by
9.5.5 Steel piles bonding into unfractured rock (see Fig. 9.41). It is most
important that allowance be made, when anchoring into
Steel piles, like timber, are driven by percussion means and
rock, for the possible damage and shattering of the rock or
have a variety of suitable cross-sections. In addition to the
pile surface during driving.
common sheet piles, the three main types are H sections,
box piles and tube piles. Typical sections are shown in It is also important to give special consideration to the
Fig. 9.39. use of piles as anchor piles for testing if they are to be
incorporated as working piles in the final scheme.
The main use of steel piles is for temporary works, retaining
walls and marine structures. The problem of corrosion of
9.5.7 Anchor blocks
the steel can be overcome by suitable protection. However,
account should be taken of the abrasion during driving Anchor blocks are used in situations where anchorage is
on the final performance of such protection/coatings. In required horizontally or near the ground surface or at long
addition to coating, increased metal thickness and cathodic distances from the foundation, to keep the anchorage out-
protection may be appropriate for particular locations and side of the zone of influence of active pressures, etc. Tie

beam

water-
table

jack

uplift from
water pressure
anchor pile anchor pile

pile test
anchor piles

flotation
column
load

cantilever beam

anchor pile

cantilever foundation

Fig. 9.40 Anchor piles.

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Foundation Types 157

load load load

damage
during
fractured driving
rock
friction reaction

sound
rock

under-reaming reaction pile

bonded into rock

Fig. 9.41 Tension piles.

capping beam encased tie

rod

force
anchor
block
active pressure

plan
piled wall

Fig. 9.42 Tie beam and anchor block.

weight of earth

beams or rods are sometimes used to transfer the load to the

anchor block (see Fig. 9.42). passive
tie rod pressure
The anchor block gains its resistance from the surrounding
ground in the form of friction, weight of earth and passive
pressure (see Fig. 9.43).

The anchor block can be a wedge shape or any other suit- friction
able shape most economic for the load and surrounding section
ground conditions. The designer must ensure that the
Fig. 9.43 Anchor block/passive pressure.
friction assumed in design can be developed after construc-
tion and particular care should be taken to see that trench
sides are undisturbed and that the interface is suitably con- piles to provide the connection between the pile and super-
structed. In addition the movement required to generate structure (see Fig. 9.44).
passive resistance and friction resistance must be catered
In addition to transferring the vertical load from the super-
for in the design and detail to make sure that failure of other
structure to the foundation, there is often a need to provide
parts of the structure is not caused during the motivation of
lateral restraint to the tops of the piles, particularly where
the reaction.
less than three piles are provided. For small low-rise devel-
opments (single- or two-storey construction) the amount
9.5.8 Pile caps and ground beams
of restraint required to the tops of the piles can be provided
Many piled foundations consist of a number of relatively by the use of the ground floor slab or a lightweight raft
small-diameter piles and they require a practical driving foundation (see Fig. 9.45).
tolerance. Pile caps or capping beams are required to
accommodate this tolerance and to pick up varying widths 9.6 Group four – miscellaneous elements
of superstructure elements. In some situations, where large- and forms
diameter piles are used, pile caps or beams are unnecessary.
There are a number of elements which do not form a
However, this is the minority case. The caps consist of foundation type in themselves and some of the main forms
concrete pads or beams constructed at the head of the are briefly discussed in the following sections. The various
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158 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

u.c. r.c. column wall

ground beam

pile cap pile cap

piles

Fig. 9.44 Pile caps.

suspended continuous
floor slab
slab tie bar

pile ground
beam

Fig. 9.45 Pile cap/beam restraint.

continuous

types of ground floor slab, whether floating or suspended,

simply supported
fall into these miscellaneous elements. p.c. units

9.6.1 Suspended ground floor slabs

For situations where the ground is unsuitable for the sup- void
port of the ground floor slab or where the slope of the site
makes it economic to leave a void below the ground slab,
suspended floors are adopted. Where a void is left below
the slab, a precast floor system can prove economic and
durable if suitable cover to the reinforcement and adequate ground piles
ventilation to the void is provided. However, in situations beams
where the existing ground can form a suitable temporary
support to act as a shutter, then in situ concrete rather than
precast is usually the most suitable and economic. In addi-
tion, the slab in a suspended situation is often required to
restrain ground beams and an in situ solution can usually
simply supported
achieve this without the need for additional tie beams;
the suspended slabs are designed as simply supported or Fig. 9.46 Suspended ground floor slabs.
continuous between the lines of ground beams or support
walls (see Fig. 9.46).

Suitable concrete cover to the reinforcement for durability have secondary steel used in manufacture which is too
must be provided for either solution. When using standard close to the surface. In addition post-tensioned wires often
precast components which have been designed for normal extend to the ends of the unit. These details create few prob-
internal use then the cover provision must be checked lems when used on internal floors but in the environment
against the exposure condition. Such components often of ground floor slabs could prove problematical.
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Foundation Types 159

r.c. column external wall typical ground conditions and assumed depressions for
which they should be designed.

joints 9.6.3 Pier and beam foundations

In a similar manner to pile foundations, pier and beam
foundations are used as a means of transferring load down
through unsuitable bearing strata into a firm layer at depth.
The piers are constructed in brick, mass concrete or rein-
forced concrete. The spacing of the piers is determined on
floating slab economic considerations based upon the depth of the piers,
the sub-strata conditions, the load to be carried and site
Fig. 9.47 Floating ground floor slabs.
conditions. The beams on top of the piers can be precast
concrete, in situ concrete, timber or steel; a few typical pier
and beam forms are shown in Fig. 9.48.
9.6.2 Floating ground floor slabs
The choice between the use of piles or piers is usually made
Floating ground floor slabs gain their support direct from
on the basis of economy. When the site works are relatively
the hardcore and/or sub-strata and are jointed off between
large, the depths to suitable load-bearing strata great
any main structural columns or walls (see Fig. 9.47). The
and the site access reasonable, then piles are usually the
slabs are not supported by the foundations and thus float on
most economic. In situations where pier excavations are
the hardcore or sub-strata.
relatively easy, not too deep and/or of small numbers,
As a guide, see Tables 11.4 and 11.5 which indicate a then piers and beam foundations are usually the more
number of nominal slab thicknesses and meshes, and the economic. The spacing of the piers and the type of ground

in situ ground beam

mass concrete piers

p.c. ground beam

brick piers
U.B.

void pad stone

Fig. 9.48 Pier and beam foundation.

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160 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

A A

B B

p.c. beams and floor in situ slab and beams

on brick piers on mass concrete piers

section A–A section B–B

Fig. 9.49 Typical pile/pier and ground beam arrangement.

basement basement

plain concrete reinforced concrete

concrete

basement basement

plain masonry prestressed masonry

masonry

Fig. 9.50 Basement retaining walls.

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Foundation Types 161

tie prop

pure cantilever tied or propped fixed mass filled brick reinforced concrete
cantilever supports diaphragm fin wall
Fig. 9.51 Retaining walls – design approach.

beam is chosen from the loading and site conditions. The

typical economic range is 3 – 5 m. Figure 9.49 indicates some
typical forms.

The beams supporting the walls can be designed as com-

posite with the masonry, in a similar manner to the ground
beams for the pile solution. If composite action is exploited
then the possible future adaptation of the building should post-tensioned concrete
block diaphragm
be considered.
Fig. 9.53 Masonry retaining walls – structural forms.
9.6.4 Retaining walls
Retaining walls in relation to structural foundations are
become secondary to or parallel to the overall foundation
dealt with here in general terms. Such walls are a necessary
behaviour. For example, where the building is constructed
part of many foundations where changes in level occur.
on a raft foundation and the retaining wall becomes part
They may be used to retain earth or other material within,
of the raft, then continuity of raft stiffening ribs are most
below or around the foundation and can be constructed
critical to the design and detail (see Fig. 9.54).
in numerous forms from a number of materials. Com-
mon materials used are plain, reinforced and prestressed The location of settlement or other movement joints through
masonry, and plain, reinforced and prestressed concrete foundations which embrace the retaining walls can be crit-
(see Fig. 9.50 for some examples). ical to or dictate the structural behaviour of the wall, for
example, by effectively removing the prop/tying action of
The walls may be acting as pure cantilevers, propped can-
the upper floor slab of a change in level (see Fig. 9.55).
tilevers, tied cantilevers, simply supported or continuous
spanning slabs, etc. (see Fig. 9.51). They may be stiffened by In mining areas the need to relieve horizontal ground
shaping into fins, counterforts, diaphragms, zig-zag, and stress by allowing the foundation to move relative to the
many other profiles (see Fig. 9.52). They can be mass filled, sub-strata can conflict with the need to resist lateral loads in
reinforced or post-tensioned (see Fig. 9.53). The engineer a retaining situation. On sloping sites this conflict can often
should apply skill and ability in arriving at the most suit- be overcome by the detail shown in Fig. 9.56.
able and economic form for each individual situation.
Where a basement is required on a flat mining site the
The design of retaining walls in relationship to founda- conflict is more difficult and much greater forces have to be
tions does mean that the normal design to retain earth can resisted by the building foundations (see Fig. 9.57).

sloping
fins diaphragm zig-zag counterfort curved

Fig. 9.52 Masonry retaining walls/plan forms.

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162 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

9.6.5 Grillage foundations

Grillage foundations consist of a number of layers of beams
usually laid at right angles to each other and used to dis-
perse heavy point loads from the superstructure to an
small short length acceptable ground bearing pressure (see Fig. 9.58).
of retaining wall
Grillage bases are rarely economic these days for perman-
ent foundations except for very heavy loads. However their
prefabricated form can prove very useful for temporary
works particularly where re-use of the foundations is
required (see Fig. 9.59).

raft stiffening rib

base plate steel angle
Fig. 9.54 Retaining wall/raft slab.
U.C.

upper ground level

upper tier of U.B.s
r.c. retaining wall

minimum 100 mm cover for

permanent works
lower ground level
section A–A

steel angles
Fig. 9.55 Retaining wall/movement joint.

compressible trench fill retained earth

retaining wall
combined into
A A
mining raft

sand slip layer to relieve tension

and compression ground strain plan

Fig. 9.56 Mining raft slab/retaining wall. Fig. 9.58 Grillage foundation.

mining compressive strain

picked up by basement temporary steel
uncased steel
grillage stanchion
and base plate

basement raft

sand slip layer only works rock or firm strata steel or hardwood base
during tensile ground strain spreader plate

Fig. 9.57 Mining (basement) raft/retaining wall. Fig. 9.59 Grillage foundation – temporary works.
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Foundation Types 163

The grillage beam can be in any material, the most usual load
being either steel, precast concrete or timber. In some per-
manent situations, however, where unusual circumstances
exist, such as an abundance of durable timber or the pos-
sible re-use of existing rolled steel sections, the grillage
top tier bottom tier
can prove both successful and economic. In permanent con-
ditions durability becomes an important design factor and
protection and/or the selection of suitable materials is a
major part of the design. In the case of steel grillage below
ground this is usually achieved by encasing the grillage in
concrete. The concrete for average ground conditions cantilever of
would usually require to provide a minimum cover to the bottom tier
steel of 100 mm. In the case of timber grillages the selection
of a suitable species of timber and/or suitable preservation
protection is crucial to the design, in a similar way to that
for timber piles.

The design of the grillage is carried out by calculating the

loads and moments applied from the superstructure and
determining the required base area using a suitable allow-
able ground bearing pressure for the condition involved.
From this area, the number and size of each grillage layer
can be decided. The layers are then designed to cantilever B.M. diagram
from the edge of the layer above, which determines the
beam sizes required to resist the applied bending moments
and shear forces (see Fig. 9.60).

If the grillage is encased in concrete and the sequence and

method of construction and loading is compatible with the
design requirements, the composite action of the beam and S.F. diagram
concrete can be exploited.
Fig. 9.60 Grillage foundation – bending and shear
diagrams.
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10 Foundation Selection and

Design Procedures

SECTION A: FOUNDATION SELECTION the most challenging aspects of engineering and no two
foundation conditions are the same. The need for the engin-
10.1 Introduction eer to see and feel the subject cannot be overemphasized.

This chapter describes selection of an appropriate founda- Foundation design like other structural design requires
tion solution. Section A deals with the selection process by a good sound basic approach in order to achieve a truly
considering the type, nature and availability of information successful result. There is a tendency in engineering to
required, its collection and its validity when determining a use test information and theory in a rigid uncompromis-
suitable foundation. General guidance on the relationship ing way when preparing designs or, alternatively, where
of sub-soil conditions/suitable foundation/factors affecting experience has shown such theories and tests to be suspect,
choice are also given. In section B, the design calculation to revert to an attitude that testing and theory is of no use
procedures are discussed. in practical design. Both approaches are wrong, design
should be the process of using all the available tools and
Earlier chapters (Part 1) have covered the principles of
information in an attempt to produce the most suitable
design, soil mechanics, geology, and site investigations.
solution. It should be appreciated that theory is the process
Subsequent chapters (Part 2) have covered other factors
of simplifying by assumption the things which actually
and considerations which may affect the actual site that is
happen in order to make it possible for a human brain to
to be developed. The different foundation types i.e. strips,
understand and analyse. Very few assumptions are correct
rafts, piled, etc., were discussed in Chapter 9 and the actual
and hence the errors produce a variation from reality. Part
design approach and calculation method for each type is
of the process of design is to understand such theories,
covered in Chapters 11–15.
remember the assumptions made and their likely effect on
the answer, and to make due allowance for such errors in
10.2 Foundation selection
the choice of the solution.
The selection of the appropriate foundation solution is
perhaps the most important part of the design process and The sampling and testing of sub-soil materials involves
most difficult to define. The engineer should not confuse numerous practical site problems, such as disturbance of
structural calculation and analysis with design. Calculation samples and errors in testing. If the test results are used in
usually involves analysing, from certain parameters, the isolation such testing is often unreliable. Part of the design
forces and stresses involved in a particular structural element. process is therefore to understand the practical difficulties,
Structural design is the process of exploiting engineering seek indications of unreliability in the results, assess the
knowledge in an attempt to produce the most suitable and implication and magnitude of such errors, and make suit-
economic structure. The foundation selection is governed able allowance in the design.
by many factors which include: sub-soil conditions, past The most demanding and exciting part of the engineering
site usage, adjacent construction, size/scale of develop- process must be approached next, that of making use of
ment proposals, timescale/cost limitations. While this is all this information in the design of foundations. However,
not a comprehensive list it can be appreciated that the sub- the designer must first make sure that all the necessary
soil or any one factor is only part of the overall equation. information has been gathered and its reliability assessed.
The selection of the foundation type to be adopted to
accommodate the various criteria is a design process which 10.3 Information collection/assessment
evolves. It is necessary to approach this process on a broad
Chapters 1 and 3 have discussed the assessment of informa-
front taking account of all the relevant information and
tion from ground investigation and the collection of details
balancing the factors which can vary as decisions are made.
of the soil, groundwater, chemicals, etc., together with the
Foundation design should therefore be carried out using
need to inspect the site and surrounding buildings.
a careful blend of geology, soil mechanics, theory of struc-
tures, design of materials, experience, engineering judge- In order to assist in this procedure it is useful to use a check-
ment, logic and down-to-earth engineering. The designer list which can be monitored against actions to make sure
must understand that sampling and testing soils, while that other important items have not been missed. This list
being by no means an accurate science, is, when corrected can be updated and extended in the light of experience for
by logic and practical experience, an excellent guide for use particular types of jobs and group conditions. Below is a
in the design of foundations. Foundation design is one of suggested initial check-list for general buildings in the UK.
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Foundation Selection and Design Procedures 165

Check-list 1 – information required regarding site previously the design process evolves as the effects of
the various constraints are dealt with or any problems are
The following list is not presented in any significant order
solved. Tables 10.1, 10.2 and 10.3 give descriptions of the
but as a reminder of the various points to consider.
basic sub-soil and site types and a general guide to suitable
(1) History of the site. foundations. In broad terms these tables will assist in the
(2) Soil qualities. selection of foundation type. The lists are by no means
(3) Water-table details. exhaustive nor is the selection ever as simple as these tables
(4) Chemical qualities (pH values, sulfates, combustion, may suggest, however, they should prove very useful as a
swelling, ground contamination). general guide.
(5) Mining situation (coal, brine, clay, tin, lead, etc.).
Table 10.1 gives details of foundations to account for vary-
(6) Access to site.
ing sub-soil types ranging from rock to peat. The table gives
(7) Site contours and vegetation.
comments on the effects of trees and shrubs on cohesive
(8) Overhead and underground services.
soils and gives notes on factors to be considered when
(9) Existing tunnels, etc.
selecting foundation type.
(10) Condition of existing buildings on and around the site.
(11) Foundations of adjoining buildings. Table 10.2 gives details of suitable foundations to account
(12) Proposed superstructure requirements. for particular site conditions covering sloping, filled or
(13) Acceptable settlements and movements. affected by mining, old foundations, groundwater prob-
(14) Type of contractors likely to be employed. lems. The table gives notes on factors to be considered
(15) Availability of materials relative to the site location. when selecting the foundation type.
(16) Condition of the site and its ability to support heavy
Table 10.3 gives details of suitable foundation types to suit
construction plant and equipment.
varying depths and strengths of bearing strata.
In addition to the collection of the information listed above
concerning the actual site to accommodate the new develop- While Tables 10.1–10.3 give a general guide to the founda-
ment, it is also necessary to have a clear understanding of tion selection by considering the factors which can influ-
the client’s requirements and criteria for the development ence this choice and earlier chapters have highlighted and
proposals. discussed these points, check-list 3 provides a further list of
points for consideration during the foundation selection
In parallel to site data collection the following points in process.
check-list 2 should be established.
Check-list 3 – points to consider when assessing sub-soil
Check-list 2 – information regarding site development conditions
(1) Nature of the proposed development and phasing of (1) The extent of site investigations.
works. (2) The amount of information available prior to site
(2) Future development/extensions. investigations.
(3) Extent of any possible repositioning of building(s) (3) The possibility of errors in the information received.
within site area. (4) The variability of the ground conditions.
(4) Site features to be retained. (5) The inaccuracy of the soil mechanics.
(5) The loads required to be supported. (6) The effects of removal of the overburden.
(6) The amount of settlement/differential movement (7) The effects of the groundwater.
which can be tolerated. (8) The seasonal effects of the groundwater levels.
(7) Any plant, equipment or chemicals likely to be used in (9) The effects of frost and seasonal weather changes.
the building. (10) The effects of trees.
(8) The need for any tanks, basement and/or underground (11) The effects of the water-table on the depth at which
services. various foundations will be considered.
(12) The effects of settlement.
All these items can significantly affect structural considera-
(13) Variations of pressure with time.
tion and foundation solutions. It is also important to check
(14) Variations of loading with time.
which of the client’s requirements are rigid and which are
flexible in order to be able to make realistic recommenda- These factors will influence the bearing/settlement capacity
tions and adjustments which could produce economies or of the sub-soil.
improvements to the scheme.
When evaluating test results or information from so-called
specialists these data should be very carefully interpreted
10.4 General approach to choice
since the information on which their experience is based is
of foundations
generally limited by their specialized activities. For ex-
Having collected the information about the site including ample, recommendations from one expert may clash with
that noted in check-list 1 and obtained from the client the requirements of another. It is therefore up to the engin-
answers to the queries including those noted in check-list 2, eer to gather the data and reassess in overall terms the reli-
the foundation selection process can start. As discussed ability, relevance and practicality of both the information
SFDC10 1/8/06 11:16 AM Page 166

Table 10.1 Foundation selection to suit sub-soil type

Sub-soil type Suitable foundation Factors to be considered

Group 1
Rock; hard sound Strips/Pads/Rafts (1) Minimum depth to formation for protection against frost heave
chalk; sand and 450 mm for frost susceptible soils.
gravel, sand and (2) Weathered rock must be assessed on inspection.
gravel with little (3) Beware of swallow-holes in chalk.
clay content, dense (4) Keep base of strip or trench above groundwater level where
silty sand possible.
(5) Sand slopes may be eroded by surface water – protect
foundation by perimeter drainage.
(6) Beware of running sand conditions.

Group 2
Uniform firm and Strips/Pads/Rafts (1) Trench fill likely to be economic in this category.
stiff clays (2) Minimum depth to underside of foundation 900 mm.
(a) where existing (3) When strip foundations are cast in desiccated clay in dry
nearby vegetation weather, they must be loaded with the structure before
is insignificant heavy rains return.
(b) where trees, Concrete piles supporting (1) Clay type and shrinkage potential, distance of trees from
hedges or shrubs reinforced ground beams and foundation and spread of roots dictate necessity or otherwise
exist close to the precast concrete floor units of piling.
foundation position OR (2) Type and dimensions of pile depend on economic factors.
or are to be planted Concrete piles supporting a (3) Where a suspended in situ concrete ground slab is used a void
near the building at suspended reinforced in situ must be formed under it if laid in very dry weather over clay
a later date concrete slab which is desiccated.
OR (4) Where existing mature trees grow very close (e.g. within quarter
Specially designed trench fill of mature tree height) to the position in which piles will be
(possibly reinforced) in certain installed. It might be prudent to design for sub-soil group 2(c).
clay soils depending on position (5) Where trees have been or will be planted at a distance of at
of foundation relative to trees least one to two times the mature tree height from the
OR foundation, a strip foundation may be suitable.
Rafts (6) In marginal cases, i.e. with clay of low to medium shrinkage
potential and in the perimeter zone of the tree root system,
reinforced trench fill can be used.
(c) Where trees and Reinforced concrete piles (in (1) Piles must be tied adequately into ground beams or the
hedges are cut previous tree root zone) suspended reinforced concrete slab. An adequate length of pile
down from area OR must be provided to resist clay heave force, and the top section
of foundations Strip foundations as in groups 2(a) of the pile possibly sleeved to reduce friction and uplift.
shortly before and 2(b) (outside previous root (2) Special pile design may be required for clay slopes greater than
construction zone) 1 in 10 where soil creep may occur and it is necessary to design
OR for lateral thrust and cantilever effects.
Rafts (3) In marginal cases, i.e. with clay of low to medium shrinkage
potential and in the perimeter zone of the tree root system,
reinforced trench fill can be used.

Group 3
Soft clay, soft silty clay, Wide strip footing if bearing (1) Strip footings should be reinforced depending on thickness and
soft sandy clay, capacity is sufficient and projection beyond wall face.
soft silty sand predicted settlement allowable (2) Service entries to building should be flexible.
OR
Raft
OR
Piles to firmer strata below – for
small projects consider pier and
beam foundations to firm strata

Group 4
Peat Concrete piles taken to firm strata (1) Pile types used are bored cast in place with temporary casing;
below. For small projects, consider driven cast in place; and driven precast concrete.
pad and beam foundations taken (2) Allow for peat consolidation drag on piles.
to firm strata below. Where no (3) Where peat layer is at surface and shallow over firm strata, dig
firm strata exist at a reasonable out and replace with compacted fill. Then use raft or reinforced
depth below ground level but wide-strip foundations depending on expected settlement.
there is a thick (3–4 m) hard (4) Where raft is used, service entries should be flexible. Special
surface crust of suitable bearing high-grade concrete and protection may be necessary in some
capacity, consider raft. aggressive peat soils.

Ground improvements of sub-soil Groups 3 and 4 by vibro treatments can often be achieved and can be an effective and
economical solution when used in conjunction with raft or strip foundations
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Foundation Selection and Design Procedures 167

Table 10.2 Foundation selection to suit varying site conditions

Site condition Suitable foundation Factors to be considered

Filled site Concrete piles taken to firm (1) Allow for fill consolidation drag on piles, piers or deep trench fill taken
strata below. For small projects down to firm strata below.
consider beam and pier (2) Proprietary deep vibro and dynamic compaction techniques can with
foundations taken to firm strata advantage improve poor fill before construction of surface or shallow
below. If specially selected and foundations.
well compacted fill has been (3) If depth of poorly compacted and aggressive fill is small remove and
used consider replace with inert compacted fill, then use reinforced strip or raft
(1) Raft or foundations.
(2) Reinforced wide-strip (4) Deep trench fill taken down to a firm stratum may be economic if
footings ground will stand with minimum support until concrete is placed.
(3) Strip/pad/raft on ground (5) Allow flexible service entries to building.
improved using vibro or (6) Avoid building a unit partly on fill and partly on natural ground.
dynamic consolidation (7) Take precautionary measures against
depending on fill type (a) combustion on exposure to atmosphere,
(b) possible toxic wastes,
(c) production of methane gas.

Mining Slip-plane raft (1) Where a subsidence wave is expected, building should be carried on
and other individual small rafts. Avoid long terrace blocks and L-shaped buildings.
subsidence (2) In older mining areas, locate buildings to avoid old mining shafts and
areas bell-pits.
(3) In coal mining areas, consult The Coal Authority in all cases.
(4) Avoid piled foundations.

Sloping site Foundations to suit normal (1) Strip foundations act as retaining walls at steps. With clay creep
factors and soil conditions, but downhill, design and reinforce for horizontal forces on foundations.
designed for special effect of Provide good drainage behind retaining wall steps.
slope (2) Foundations are deeper than normal, so keep load-bearing walls to a
minimum. Keep long direction of building parallel to contours.
(3) In addition to local effects of slope on foundations, consider total
ground movement of slopes including stability of cohesionless soils,
slip and sliding of cohesive soils.
(4) Make full examination of all sloping sites inclined more than 1 in 10.
(5) The presence of water can increase instability of slope.
(6) Special pile design may be required for clay soil slopes greater than 1 in
10 where soil creep may occur and it is necessary to design for lateral
thrust and cantilever effects.

Site containing Normal range of foundations. It (1) Notes relating to ‘filled site’ apply.
old building is possible to use strips, piling, (2) Where possible, dig out badly placed or chemically aggressive fill and
foundations and pads but beware of varying replace with inert compacted material.
depths of fill in old basements, (3) Remove old walls in filled basements, or use piers or piles carrying
causing differential settlement, ground beams to span such projections.
and old walls projecting into fill (4) Deep trench fill down to firm strata at original basement level may be
over which slabs may break their economic.
backs. (5) Trench fill depths may vary greatly as old basement depth varies. Some
formwork may be required in loose fill areas.
(6) Remove old timber in demolition material – a source of dry rot infection.

Site with Normal range of foundation (1) In sand and gravel soil, keep foundation above groundwater level
groundwater types can be used. Consider where possible.
problems piling through very loose (2) Avoid forming steep cuttings in wet sand or silty soil.
saturated sand to denser stratum (3) Consider use of sub-surface shelter drains connected to surface water
to provide support for raft or drains, and allow for resulting consolidation or loss of ground support.
strip foundation at high level (4) Take precautions against lowering of groundwater level which may
above groundwater. Consider affect stability of existing structures.
use of proprietary vibro-
replacement ground techniques
to provide support for raft or
strip foundation at high level
above groundwater.
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168 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

Table 10.3 Foundation selection to suit bearing strata strength and depth

Sub-soil conditions Suitable foundation

Condition 1 Strips
Suitable bearing strata within Pads
1.5 m of ground surface Rafts
When loading on pads is relatively large and pad sizes tend to join up or the foundation
needs to be balanced or connected then continuous beam foundations are appropriate.

Strip foundations are usually considered the norm for these conditions but rafts can prove
more economical in some cases.

Condition 2 Strips 5
Suitable bearing strata at 1.25 m Pads 6 on improved ground using vibro or dynamic consolidation techniques
and greater below ground surface Rafts 7

Condition 3 As Condition 2 plus the following

Suitable bearing strata at 1.5 m Piles and ground beams
and greater below ground surface Pier and ground beams
Piles and raft

Condition 4 As Condition 2 plus the following

Low bearing pressure for Buoyant rafts
considerable depth

Condition 5 As Condition 2 plus the following

Low bearing pressure near surface Rafts
Ground improvement using preloading to support reinforced strips on rafts

and recommendations being made. When selecting a earth face as

hand packed hardcore
foundation type it should also be appreciated that prices of concrete shutter
to form sloping
materials and labour vary depending on the timing and face of concrete
location of the project. The size of the contract can have a
significant effect on the economics of the solution. For
example, the effects of fixed costs such as those for getting
piling rigs on and off the site can be very small when spread
over a large number of piles, on the other hand they can
first pour
prove to be the major cost when a small number of piles are
to be driven. It is also necessary to keep up-to-date with pil-
ing and ground improvement techniques to ensure that tie reinforcement
decisions made on cost and performance are current. between concrete
pours
High costs can be generated by complex shuttering details
to foundations. These costs can be reduced significantly
if details are simplified, for example, concrete can be cast 2 courses of brickwork second pour
against hand packed hardcore in raft construction. Two- as formwork to slab edge conc. slab
stage concrete pours for raft edges can use earth faces for
shuttering to the first pour. Brickwork built off the raft edge
can act as shuttering to the second pour (see Fig. 10.1).

When adopting this form of construction it is necessary cavity

to increase reinforcement cover against earth faces and to former
provide reinforcement connection between the first and
second concrete pours. An appreciation of construction
methods and problems is also helpful in determining which
Fig. 10.1 Raft edge construction.
foundation type to adopt. Pouring concrete under water
using tremie techniques can suggest trench fill rather than
considered. It is advisable to avoid deep strips, pier and
strip and masonry (where it would be necessary to pump
beam and piled foundations where mining is a problem.
out the water to enable the masonry to be constructed).
Deep excavations in waterlogged ground are best avoided In addition to construction considerations affecting the
and alternative foundation solutions using rafts should be foundation selection, basic decisions in the design process
SFDC10 1/8/06 11:16 AM Page 169

Foundation Selection and Design Procedures 169

can be significant. Varying the shape, length or rigidity of Could the proposals be modified without detriment to the
the foundation can have a major influence on performance. successful functioning of the building and give significant
The introduction of joints in the substructure and super- savings on foundations or significant reductions in predicted
structure can be exploited in the foundation design and differential settlement?
selection. Adopting a composite design for the foundation For example, where piling is necessary for a single-
can also affect the type of foundation to be selected. storey building the economic span for ground beams,
etc., often produces loads in the piles which do not fully
The importance of the above items are dealt with in detail
exploit their load-carrying capacity. In such situations
in other chapters but they are included here as a useful
consideration should be given to changing the building
reminder of the early part of the design process and to assist
form from single-storey to multi-storey (see Fig. 10.3).
in the gathering of all relevant information.
(3) What blend of superstructure and foundation should be
employed?
10.5 Questioning the information and
For example, in active mining areas, the combination
proposals
of superstructure and foundation can be very critical in
Having gathered the information together for the design, accommodating movements and the whole structure
the engineer’s first considerations should take account of must be carefully considered when taking account of
the following: subsidence (see Fig. 10.4).
(4) Is the arrangement of the superstructure supports very critical
(1) Is the investigation sufficient to design a safe and economic
to the foundation economy?
foundation?
For example, the design of the superstructure should
For example, a ground investigation that was under-
not be made completely independently of the founda-
taken which collected samples and arranged testing
tion economy. In the same way the foundation economy
in the light of background information and which pre-
should not be considered independently of the super-
dicted a piled solution may have lacked detailed invest-
structure. A typical example of this kind of problem is
igation of the upper strata – this would be necessary in
the use of fixed feet on portal frames which often create
order to consider a raft as an alternative (see Fig. 10.2).
greater additional costs on the foundation than they do
An alternative example would be a ground investiga-
savings on the superstructure (see Fig. 10.5).
tion based upon boreholes and sample collection/
(5) Is the proposed layout and jointing of the foundation exploit-
testing at shallow depth envisaging surface spread
ing engineering knowledge to provide the most economic
foundations – this would not provide the information
foundation?
necessary to consider a piled solution.
For example, the choice of the lengths and jointing of
If a piled foundation solution is subsequently found
continuous ground beams can have extreme effects on
to be necessary, important sub-soil information would
the foundation moments and forces and hence on the
not be known.
costs, as is shown by the following example.
In some cases the engineer is only called in after the
Consider a series of six columns at 10 m centres, the
initial site investigation has been completed and the
four outer columns having a load of 500 kN and the two
alternative foundation solution is only appreciated at
inner columns having a load of 250 kN (see Fig. 10.6).
that stage, making further sub-soil investigation neces-
Assume that a ground beam is positioned under
sary in order to design the most economic foundation.
these columns in one continuous length of 50 m. The
(2) Is the initial proposed scheme appropriate for the ground
total load on the beam is 2500 kN and it is symmetrical.
conditions identified?

piles into gravel

capable of supporting
500 kN but load from single-storey
raft /ground beam domestic dwelling
1 m granular fill foundation only
200 kN per pile
2.5 m loose sand
and silts
piled raft/ground
beam foundation
G.L.
almost all
testing carried
5 m boulder
out in this
clay piles into
layer with a
view to piling gravel bed
the foundation

gravel bed

Fig. 10.2 Borehole log. Fig. 10.3 Typical situation for low-rise construction.
SFDC10 1/8/06 11:16 AM Page 170

170 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

note: pinned tied base portal frames can

be used in mining areas but care is
needed to ensure that the tie is able
to resist both the tie force and mining
stress and that the elongation of the tie
does not adversely affect the moments in
the frame

tie rod tie rod

three pin arch subjected to fixed arch subjected to a similar

differential vertical settlement differential vertical settlement
of support of supports
original rotation cannot take place without
final inducing increased bending moments
rotation takes place at pin as shown therefore increased
joints and arch relocates itself danger of failure
above the foundation

Note: walls and other building elements need to be detailed to accommodate

both mining movement and the associated distortion of the frame

Fig. 10.4 Effect of subsidence on pinned/fixed frame.

Assuming a stiff beam, a uniform distributed pressure loads, then we must aim for a continuous uniformly
below the beam of 50 kN per metre run would result. loaded beam with reactions equal to the column loads.
Referring to the diagrams shown in Fig. 10.6, it can be If we now refer back to the original loads and con-
seen that the point of zero shear occurs at the mid- sider them as reactions, we can then place upon them
length of the beam and that the maximum resulting a beam uniformly loaded with similar reactions (see
shear force is equal to 500 kN. Since the maximum Fig. 10.10). The beams in Fig. 10.10 have been chosen by
bending moment is equal to the area of the shear force ending the beam near the smaller loads and cantilever-
diagram to one side of the point, the maximum bending ing out over the heavier loads.
moment is as follows: If these beams are now adopted, assuming that ground
conditions and site boundaries will allow this, the revised
(500 × 10) (250 × 5)
Max. BM at mid-point = − ×2− bending moments and shear forces can be assessed. The
2 2
total load on each beam is now 1250 kN and the length
= −5000 − 625 = −5625 kNm of each beam is 25 m. Let the resultant load act at a
distance x from the 250 kN load (see Fig. 10.11). Taking
It also follows that the bending moment diagram
moments about this column’s position:
would be approximately that shown in Fig. 10.7.
If the resulting bending moments are considered, it (500 × 10) + (500 × 20)
can be seen that for its full length the beam is hogging x= = 12 m
1250
and the resulting deflected shape would be of convex
outline (see Fig. 10.8). Since a 0.5 m cantilever has been given to this end of the
It is also apparent that much smaller bending beam the resultant load acts at 12.5 m from each end
moments and shear forces would result if a deflected and hence is symmetrical.
shape similar to a normal continuous beam supporting The resulting pressure, again assuming a stiff beam,
a uniform load could be achieved (see Fig. 10.9). is 50 kN per metre run, as for the previous beam.
If, therefore, we set out to achieve this and keep in Referring to the shear force diagram for this beam (see
mind that the fixed forces in this case are the column Fig. 10.12), it can be seen that a number of zero shear
SFDC10 1/8/06 11:16 AM Page 171

Foundation Selection and Design Procedures 171

500 kN 500 kN 250 kN 250 kN 500 kN 500 kN

10 m 10 m 10 m 10 m 10 m
A B C D E F

loading beam 1

tie beam small pad foundation

P 2500
typical pinned base portal = = 50 kN/m run
L 50

lightweight roof roof wind girder

50 m

pressure diagram

point of zero
shear 500 kN 500 kN
small pad foundation gable wind bracing
250 kN
typical beam and column
construction, pinned feet
–250 kN
–500 kN –500 kN
25 m

shear force diagram

Fig. 10.6 Continuous foundation beam 1.

large foundation to
resist large bending
maximum bending
moment with small
moment
vertical load

typical fixed base portal

for same building

Fig. 10.5 Arrangement and effect of superstructure –5625 kNm

support on foundation.

points occur. Consider point A and again using the

area of the shear force diagrams to obtain the bending Fig. 10.7 Bending moment diagram beam 1.
moments:

225 × 4.5
BM at A = = 506.25 kNm
2

(275 × 5.5) (225 × 4.5)

BM at B = 506.25 − +
2 2

= 506.25 − 756.25 + 506.25 = 256.25 kNm

Fig. 10.8 Deflected shape beam 1.
250 × 0.5
BM at C = = 6.25 kNm
2

Bending moments can similarly be obtained for each

position on the beam, but by inspection the maximum
value will be 506.25 kNm at A.
If the result on this beam is compared with that of
the previous beam it will be found that the maximum Fig. 10.9 Desired deflected shape beam 1.
SFDC10 1/8/06 11:16 AM Page 172

172 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

U.D.L. U.D.L.
100 250 250 100 200

400 500 120 120 200

500 kN 500 kN 250 kN 250 kN 500 kN 500 kN

400 400 400 400 200
Fig. 10.10 Jointed foundation beam.
300 500 500 500 200

R
plan showing columns thus
500 kN 500 kN 250 kN 250 kN 500 kN 500 kN and load thus 200 in kN

a
A B C D E F
b c f
x

4.5 m 10 m 10 m 0.5 m d

Fig. 10.11 Jointed foundation beam – resultant load e

location.

beam with no cantilevers

225 kN 225 kN 225 kN
(a)
100 250 250 100

simple beam with 1 cantilever simple beam

–25 kN
(b) (c)
–275 kN –275 kN 400 500 120 120

Fig. 10.12 Jointed foundation beam – shear force beam with cantilever each end
diagram.
(d)
400 400 400 400
bending moment is less than one-tenth of that of the beam with cantilever one end
earlier solution and the shear force has been reduced to
approximately one-half, both emphasizing the import- (e)
ance of the selection of the foundation beam arrange- 300 500 500 500
ment to be used.
beam with cantilever each end
The previous example illustrates the need for the engineer
to use a basic knowledge of structures to exploit the condi- (f)
tions. It can be seen that it is not economic to have a contin- 200 200 200 200
uous beam foundation which bends in either a hogging or
dishing form under a number of loads unless site restric- beam layout selected to give small bending
moments using knowledge of continuous beams
tions prevent alternative solutions. The aim should there-
with similar reaction relationship to column loads
fore be to achieve bending more in the form of a normal
continuous beam being bent in alternate bays in each Fig. 10.13 Beam loads.
direction. To achieve this aim it is necessary to inspect the
loads and to relate these to continuous members which
develop in various ground conditions and the effect of the
would have similar reactions (see Fig. 10.13).
foundation stiffness on these pressures (see Fig. 10.14).

10.6 Exploitation of foundation stiffness Again armed with this knowledge the engineer should
and resulting ground pressure exploit the conditions to his advantage.

In addition to the basic knowledge of structural theory there For example, the stiffness of a foundation should only be
is also a need to keep in mind the basic pressures which sufficient to distribute the applied load down to a suitable
SFDC10 1/8/06 11:16 AM Page 173

Foundation Selection and Design Procedures 173

rigid foundations flexible foundations Practical application of the design process is obviously
necessary to gain experience and confidence of foundation
U.D.L. U.D.L.
design/selection which is one of the most challenging and
rewarding aspects of engineering.
foundation on sand foundation
SECTION B: FOUNDATION DESIGN
CALCULATION PROCEDURE
pressure
pressure
10.8 Introduction
The currently accepted hybrid approach to foundation
design in the UK means that while bearing pressures are
on clay checked on a working stress basis, the foundation members
are designed using limit-state methods. This often leads to
confusion in the design of foundations though with some
forethought and methodology in the superstructure design
it is a relatively straightforward matter to establish the
foundation loads in a format which can be used for both
parts of the design process.

In the vast majority of cases the design method can be

simplified and this shall be looked at in detail first to estab-
lish the principle to be adopted. In addition a method for
dealing with most foundation and loading types will also
on sandy clay/
clayey sand be introduced.

typically assumed theoretical pressure distribution U.D.L. s 10.9 Definition of bearing pressures
deflected shape shown thus
The site investigation, laboratory analysis, established
for point loading on rigid foundation pressure distribution
principles of soil mechanics, and most importantly the
would be similar to those for U.D.L. s, however for engineer’s own judgement are used to assess the allowable
flexible foundation see below bearing pressure which the soil can support – this assessment
is covered in section A of Chapter 2.
point loads
This allowable bearing pressure is required to provide a
sufficient factor of safety against failure in terms of bearing
capacity (i.e. ultimate collapse failure), usually taken as 3,
and against settlement (i.e. serviceability). This allowable
bearing pressure is assessed in one of two forms:

typical pressure flexible foundation (1) Total allowable bearing pressure. The maximum pressure
distribution which can be applied at the soil/foundation interface
by the foundation and the loads acting upon it.
Fig. 10.14 Foundation stiffness and resulting ground (2) Net allowable bearing pressure. The maximum increase in
pressure. pressure which can be applied at the soil/foundation
interface (i.e. the difference in pressure after the foun-
dation is loaded compared with that in the soil before
construction is started).

bearing capacity and accommodate the resulting settle- The difference between these two cases in its simplest
ment, since the bending moment developed would be form is shown in Fig. 10.15. It is common practice for simple
much smaller on the flexible foundation than the rigid foundations such as axially loaded pads and strips to be
foundation. The flexible foundations will result in higher designed on the basis of checking the net allowable bearing
pressures directly under the load and when the stiffness pressure against the load from the superstructure ignoring
and pressures are taken into account the resulting bending the weight of the foundation. This is a valid method given
moments produced are much smaller. that the weight of the foundation is typically of the same
order of size as the weight of the soil it replaces (24 kN/m3
10.7 Conclusions for concrete compared with 20 kN/m3 for soil). Providing
the surcharge remains the same the error involved is minimal
As stated in the introduction to this section the foundation
compared with the inaccuracies of basic soil mechanics.
selection process is the most difficult to define. The check-
lists, guides and the examples should have given the reader It is, however, fundamentally important that the total
a feel for the foundation selection and design process. allowable bearing pressure is not confused with the net
SFDC10 1/8/06 11:16 AM Page 174

174 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

(a) before construction

G.L.

existing soil pressure

s = γD
foundation D
depth of

existing overburden load

S S = γDA

where γ = density of soil

A = area of foundation

(b) after construction

load from final total load
superstructure = P T=P+F
where F is the load from
the self weight of the
buried foundation and
G.L.
its backfill
final total bearing pressure
T
t =
depth D

F A
P+F
t =
A
=p+f
final net bearing pressure
n =t−s
P+F
normally the density of the concrete = − γD
foundation and backfill density of soil A
F P
and s = γD and the net bearing pressure n
A A

Fig. 10.15 Definition of loads and pressures – simple case.

allowable bearing pressure. If, for example, a soil has a total of settlement as this will be dependent on the type, size and
allowable bearing pressure of 80 kN/m2 at a depth of 2 m, actual applied bearing pressure adopted in the design. It
the load which the foundation can support is is therefore necessary for the engineer to make a separate
assessment of the allowable bearing pressure in relation to
P = (80 − 2γ)A
settlement criteria and to ensure that the site investigation
Taking γ as 20 kN/m3 and where A is the area of the base in m2 provides the necessary information to make that assessment.

P = 40A kN
10.10 Calculation of applied bearing
If, however, the total allowable bearing pressure was erro- pressures
neously taken to be the net allowable bearing pressure,
then the load which the foundation could support would be Figure 10.15 shows the typical example where the loading
calculated as is axial and there is no variation in ground level or sur-
charge. While this simple example will cover a large
P = 80A kN proportion of foundations constructed, the more general
Thus in this example the error is 100%! situation needs to be considered, firstly for calculating the
total and net bearing pressures with variations in surcharge
When considering wind loading conditions the total allow- and/or ground levels and then for the effects of introduc-
able bearing pressures are increased by 25% in line with ing asymmetrical loading.
the factor used in permissible stress design codes used for
structures prior to the introduction of the limit-state design While on good bearing soils modest surcharges and/or
codes. changes in ground levels will have little effect on the bear-
ing capacity of the soils, in poor soil conditions or where the
It should not be forgotten that unless specific reference load changes are significant they can have a dramatic effect.
has been made to the contrary the allowable bearing pres-
sure is usually based on the ultimate bearing capacity For a general case therefore the net increase in load, N, is
(typically with a factor of safety of 3) without an assessment given by the formula
SFDC10 3/8/06 10:36 AM Page 175

Foundation Selection and Design Procedures 175

(a) new ground level higher than existing

P

new
SS G.L. FS

existing
G.L.
F T
S

SB FB

before after construction

(b) new ground level lower than existing

SS
existing P
G.L.

new FS
S G.L.

F T

SB FB

before after construction

existing load = S
total final load = T =P+F
net load = T – S = P + F – S

notes: (1) the existing surcharge SS must have been in place for sufficient time to be considered
as a permanent load. If this is not the case the existing surcharge SS should be ignored.
(2) If the net bearing pressure is negative then consideration should be given to
the effects of heave, particularly on clay soils.

Fig. 10.16 Definition of loads and pressures – general case.

N = (total load after construction) − and FB = load from buried foundation and backfill
(total existing load) S = SS + SB (see Fig. 10.16)
=T−S where SS = existing surcharge load (taken as zero except
where T = total load after construction at underside of where it has acted as a permanent load)
foundation and SB = load from existing overburden.
and S = existing load at underside of foundation Therefore the net increase in load may be rewritten as
T=P+F
where P = load from superstructure N=T−S
and F = load from foundation =P+F−S
= FS + FB (see Fig. 10.16) and the net increase in soil pressure, for an axially loaded
where FS = final foundation surcharge load foundation, is given by
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176 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

N (4) Variations in relative loads on combined bases (e.g.

n=
A bases carrying two or more columns).

T S Thus in a general case the total pressure under a base with a

= − small out-of-balance moment is
A A
T MT
=t−s t= ± for single axis bending (see Fig. 10.17 (a) and
A Z
(b)), and
Alternatively,
T M Tx M Ty
P+F S t= ± ± for biaxial bending (see Fig. 10.18).
n= − A Zx Zy
A A
The moment MT is calculated by taking moments about the
=p+f−s centroid at the underside of the foundation. In these cases it
This is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 10.16. is usually beneficial to consider the total bearing pressure
which allows for the balancing effect of the resultant force
It should be noted that where the soil level has been due to eccentric loads and/or applied moments.
significantly reduced by a major regrading of the site or
by construction of basements and the like, consideration As with simple beam design if
should be given to the effects of heave particularly in clays MT T
or where there are artesian groundwater pressures. >
Z A
It is almost always sufficiently accurate to take the weight
the pressure will be negative and tension, theoretically,
of the new foundation and backfill as equal to the weight of
will be developed. However, for most foundations it is
soil displaced, i.e. FB ~ SB. Thus the equations for net increase
impossible to reliably develop tension, and the foundation
in load and net increase in soil pressure simplify to:
pressure is either compressive or zero.
N = P + FS − SS
For a simple rectangular foundation
and
MT T
P + FS − SS >
n= ⎛ BL2 ⎞ BL
A ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 6 ⎠
= p + fS − sS 6M T
>T
When the ground levels and surcharge pressures are only L
nominally changed, FS ~ SS , and so the formulae reduce to
MT L
>
N=P T 6

P L
n= or eT >
A 6

=p where eT is the resulting eccentricity of the foundation.

Therefore if eT is less than L/6, the foundation will be
i.e. the net increase in soil load is equal to the load from the fully in compression. This is known as the middle third rule
superstructure as mentioned previously. which is illustrated in Design Example 6 in Chapter 11
In the examples above, the foundations have been axially (section 11.3.2).
loaded such that the total bearing pressure is given by Where eT is greater than L/6, a triangular stress distribu-
P+F tion is generated under part of the base and zero under the
t= (see Figs 10.15 and 10.16) remainder, and the maximum bearing pressure is calcu-
A
lated using the shortened base theory, which, for a rectangular
While this is the most common situation, and it is clearly an base is
efficient design principle to create a foundation which uses
2T
the maximum available bearing pressure over its entire tmax =
3B ⎛⎜ − eT ⎞⎟
base, there are many occasions when this is not practical L
and non-uniform foundation pressures have to be con- ⎝2 ⎠
sidered. This non-uniformity is typically caused by: (see Fig. 10.17 (c)).
(1) The applied superstructure load P not being on the Again benefits can be made by considering the total bearing
centroid of the foundation. pressure, thus utilizing the foundation loads which reduce
(2) The superstructure being fixed to the foundations such the overturning and increase the effective length of the
that moments are transferred into the foundation (e.g. pressure diagram. Consideration should also be given to
fixed bases of rigid sway frames). the positioning of the base so that the vertical loads P and
(3) The application of horizontal loads. F are used to counteract the effects of any moment or
SFDC10 1/8/06 11:16 AM Page 177

Foundation Selection and Design Procedures 177

(a) loading diagram

L
C
L P T
width of rectangular typical loading
base = B eP combination
M

T =P+F
H PeP + M + Hh
F eT =
h T
eT M = Te T

(b) bearing pressure T M

distribution where t max = +
A Z
L
eT < T Te T
6 t min = +
t max A Z
T 6Te
T MT = + 2 T
t min = − LB LB
A Z
T 6Te
= − 2 T
LB LB

L
(c) bearing pressure
distribution where 2
L 2T
eT > L t max =
eT – eT BL b
6 2
= 2T
L
3B ( 2
)
– eT

t min = 0
t max

Note: tension (–ve) pressure Note: centre of pressure × base area

cannot be generated between diagram is on the line of the resultant
underside of base and soil, force T. This applies for all foundation
therefore pressure is positive shapes but in this case forms a
(i.e. in compression) or zero
Lb = 3 ( L2 – e )T
triangular stress/force block

length of base
in compression

Fig. 10.17 Foundation in bending about single axis.

horizontal loads. In the example shown in Fig. 10.17, the pressure (net or total) with the applied foundation pressure
load P should be to the left of the centreline such that the (net or total) and it is recommended that pressures are com-
formula for calculating the total eccentricity becomes pared rather than loads in all cases to maintain consistency
and avoid confusion.
−PeP + M + Hh
eT =
T Eccentrically loaded rectangular pad or strip foundations
are generally designed on the middle third rule where this
The ideal situation is that eT should be zero or applies. For other shapes and conditions a trial and error
M + Hh basis is adopted. A base size is selected and the resulting
eP = bearing pressures compared with the allowable; the base
P
size is adjusted up or down and the calculations repeated
While it is appropriate to compare the existing load with until the maximum bearing pressure is close to the allow-
the new load on the ground when designing axially loaded able. Experience will soon enable the engineer to make a
foundations, in the more general case where the loads are fairly accurate first guess on the size of base required and
eccentric, it is necessary to consider the allowable bearing reduce the number of iterations necessary.
SFDC10 1/8/06 11:16 AM Page 178

178 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

eTx eTy

ePx ePy
T T

Mx My
P P

Hy Hx
F F
h h

L B
side elevation end elevation

PePx + Mx + Hy h PePy + My + Hx h
eTx = eTy =
T T
MTx = TeTx MTx = TeTx

B Mx
P My L
y

eTx
ePx
Hy

ePy
x Hx

eTy

T 6TeTx 6TeTy
t= − − T 6TeTx 6TeTy
LB LB2
LB 2 t= + +
2
LB LB LB 2

Fig. 10.18 Foundation in biaxial bending.

10.11 Structural design of foundation the top of the foundation to be distributed out to the full
members area of the base of the foundation. The load spread is usu-
ally taken to occur along a 45° line such that the thickness
This section covers the design of the foundation elements in
at the base of the foundation should be no less than the
terms of the structural resistance to the applied forces, but
maximum outstand between the edge of the column or
does not cover durability factors which are catered for by
wall applying the load to the foundation and the edge of
reference to BS 8110(1) or BS 5950.(2)
the foundation (see Fig. 10.19). No other structural design
The vast majority of foundations are constructed from con- is required for such foundations providing they are not
crete, either plain or reinforced, precast or in situ, though a required to span over soft spots. It should be remembered,
few foundations utilize masonry or steel grillage systems. as with any structural element, that the worst case loading
Each of these materials are currently designed using limit- condition needs to be determined and the loading case
state design methods familiar to most practising engineers. which produces the highest column axial load may not be
The simplest to design are the mass concrete or plain the one which creates the worst bearing pressure or ele-
masonry foundations which rely on natural load spread mental stresses. This is particularly so when considering
through the foundation to enable the point or line loads at foundations which are required to resist column base
SFDC10 1/8/06 11:16 AM Page 179

Foundation Selection and Design Procedures 179

wall or column Table 10.4 Typical load cases for ultimate limit-state
design of structural foundation members

Partial safety factor for loads

maximum
outstand = a
Load case Dead Imposed Wind
γG γQ γW

Dead + Imposed 1.4 1.6 –

Dead + Wind uplift 1.0 – 1.4
45° Dead + Wind downthrust 1.4 – 1.4
thickness of Dead + Imposed + Wind 1.2 1.2 1.2
foundation h ≥ a Accidental loading 1.05 0.35a 0.35

a Except for areas of storage where γQ = 1.0

Fig. 10.19 Load spread in mass concrete foundation.

moments and/or wind loads (it is frequently the case that Tu = (γGG + γQQ + γWPW) + (γ GFG + γ QFQ)
the size of a base on a bracing line is determined by the or = γG(G + FG) + γ Q(Q + FQ) + γ WPW
minimal dead load and maximum wind uplift) or when
In simple cases where wind loads are not critical the calcula-
designing balanced bases.
tions can be made simpler by using an overall combined
In the normal case the total unfactored column/wall load partial load factor γP for the superstructure load such that
from the superstructure will be of the form
Pu = γPP
P = G + Q + PW
Frequently γ P is taken conservatively as 1.5 (being half-way
where G = superstructure dead load (vertical) between γG = 1.4 and γQ = 1.6 for the dead + imposed case)
Q = superstructure imposed load (vertical) on the basis that very few building structures support
PW = superstructure wind load (vertical component) a total imposed load greater than the total dead load.
Alternatively a closer assessment can be made on the ratio
and the factored load from the superstructure will be
between dead and imposed loads and the value of γP
Pu = γGG + γQQ + γW PW obtained from Fig. 10.20.

where γG, γQ, γW are the appropriate partial load factors for Similarly combined partial safety factors γF and γT can be
the case under consideration, which can be taken from used for the foundation and total loads where
Table 10.4.
Fu = γ FF
The unfactored (characteristic) foundation load has pre- Tu = γTT
viously been expressed (see Fig. 10.16) as
Again these may be obtained from Fig. 10.20. The use of
F = FB + FS these combined factors is illustrated in the design examples
in Chapters 11–14.
where FB = load of the foundation and backfill
FS = foundation surcharge load. Having calculated the factored loads it is then necessary to
establish the factored foundation pressures, and to determine
For ultimate limit-state calculations it should be rewritten as

F = FG + FQ
100 0
where FG = foundation dead load (= FB + dead load com-
ponent of FS)
dead + imposed

dead + imposed

FQ = foundation imposed load (= imposed com- 75 25

imposed

ponent of FS)
dead

and the factored load from the foundation will be 50 50

Fu = γGFG + γQFQ
% of

% of

(γG and γ Q can be taken from Table 10.4). 25 75

The total unfactored (characteristic) load is

0 100
T = (superstructure load) + (foundation load)
T=P+F 1.4 1.45 1.5 1.55 1.6
= (G + Q + PW ) + (FG + FQ) combined partial load factors γP, γF, γT

and the total factored load at the underside of the Fig. 10.20 Combined partial safety factors for dead +
foundation is imposed loads.
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180 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

the resulting moments and shears in the foundation ele- (4) Calculate the total vertical load at the underside of the
ments, which should be designed in accordance with the foundation
appropriate British Standard.
T=P+F
While the loads already utilized to establish that the allow- (5) Calculate the eccentricity of the total load
able bearing pressure is not exceeded are unfactored service
loads, the factored loads are required for the design of PeP + M + Hh
eT =
the members. Some discipline is therefore required when T
designing the superstructure to keep the dead, imposed where h is the thickness of the base.
and wind loads separate so that they can be easily extracted. If the base is subject to biaxial bending, calculate eTx
This can be achieved either by recording the working load and eTy for the two axes from
reactions separately so that the loads can be used directly in
the determination of bearing pressure and factored up for PePx + M x + Hy h
eTx =
the design of the elements, or by recording the factored T
reactions separately so that the loads can be used directly
PePy + M y + Hx h
for the design of the elements and factored down for the eTy =
determination of bearing pressures. While there is no T
particular advantage in which way it is undertaken it is Consider if economy could be gained by offsetting the
recommended that a consistent approach is adopted for base to cancel out or reduce this eccentricity, and recal-
each project to avoid errors. culate as necessary.
(6) Assess which bearing pressure distribution is appropri-
10.12 General design method ate and calculate the total bearing pressure, t, in accor-
This section gives a general design method based on the dance with section 10.10 and Figs 10.21–10.23.
previously described calculations which allows for a sys- (a) Axial loading: i.e. uniform pressure eT ~ 0
tematic design process.
T
t=
Part 1: Calculation of bearing pressures for checking A
against allowable bearing pressures
(b) Axial plus bending with base pressure wholly
(1) Determine the relevant load cases to be considered compressive:
using engineering judgement and guidance from the (i) For single axis bending, the general equation is
limit-state code appropriate to the foundation material.
T TeT
The load factors to be used can be taken from Table 10.4 t= ±
A Z
which can be of further help in assessing critical load
cases. which becomes
For each of the load cases the following procedures
T 6TeT
should be adopted. t= ±
A BL2
(2) Calculate the superstructure characteristic (unfactored)
load in terms of for a rectangular base because
P = G + Q + PW L
eT ≤
H = HG + HQ + HW 6
and M = MG + MQ + MW
(ii) For biaxial bending, the general equation is
where P = superstructure vertical load
H = superstructure horizontal load T TeTx TeTy
t= ± ±
M = superstructure moment A Zx Zy

and the subscripts are which becomes

G = dead load T 6TeTx 6TeTy

t= ± ±
Q = imposed load A BL2 LB2
W = wind load.
for a rectangular base because
If the base is subject to biaxial bending calculate H and eTx eTy 1
M about both x and y axes to give Hx and Mx and Hy and ± <
L B 6
My.
(3) Estimate the foundation size using the middle third rule (c) Axial plus bending with zero pressure under part
where applicable, and calculate the foundation load of the base:
(i) For single axis bending, use the shortened base
F = FG + FQ
theory to establish the pressure diagram under
where FG = dead load from foundation the base such that the resultant is under the
FQ = imposed load from foundation. line of the total load T. From this calculate the
SFDC10 1/8/06 11:16 AM Page 181

Foundation Selection and Design Procedures 181

CHARACTERISTIC (UNFACTORED) ULTIMATE (FACTORED)

LOADING

T=P+F Tu = Pu + Fu

TOTAL BEARING PRESSURE

T
t= t u = pu + fu
A
Tu
=
A

RESULTANT ULTIMATE DESIGN

PRESSURE CAUSING BENDING
IN FOUNDATION – FULL METHOD

p u = t u − fu

RESULTANT ULTIMATE DESIGN

PRESSURE CAUSING BENDING
IN FOUNDATION – SHORT CUT METHOD

p u = γ Pp

Fig. 10.21 Design of axially loaded foundation.

maximum total bearing pressure. For a rectan- position relative to the column, to reduce eTx
gular base, this becomes and/or eTy as appropriate.
(7) Check t against the total allowable bearing pressure,
2T
t= ta (note: the total allowable bearing pressure can be
⎛L ⎞
3B ⎜ − eT ⎟ increased by 25% when resisting wind loads), or calcu-
⎝2 ⎠
late the net bearing pressure from
(ii) For biaxial bending, it is recommended that
n=t−s
this situation should not be allowed to develop.
Consider increasing the size of base or adjust its where s is the existing soil pressure.
SFDC10 1/8/06 11:16 AM Page 182

182 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

CHARACTERISTIC (UNFACTORED) ULTIMATE (FACTORED)

LOADING

Pep + M + Hh PuePu + Mu + Huh

eT = e Tu =
eT T e Tu Tu

eP e Pu
T=P+F Tu = Pu + Fu
P Pu

M Mu

H Hu
h F h Fu

TOTAL BEARING PRESSURE

Tu 6Tue Tu
tu = +
A BL2
T 6Te T T 6Te T Tu 6Tue Tu
t= − t= + tu = −
A BL2 A BL2 A BL2

RESULTANT ULTIMATE DESIGN

PRESSURE CAUSING BENDING
IN FOUNDATION – FULL METHOD

OR pu = t u − f u
note: this implies that there is a possible need
for reinforcement in the top of the foundation
and not that there is tension between the soil
and the foundation

RESULTANT ULTIMATE DESIGN

PRESSURE CAUSING BENDING
IN FOUNDATION – SHORT CUT METHOD

note: the short cut method does not indicate

the possible need for tension reinforcement
in the top of the foundation in cases
where t min < f pu = γT t − γF f

where all loading is a result of vertical

dead and imposed loads, pu = γPp

Fig. 10.22 Design of foundation in bending – base fully in compression.

SFDC10 1/8/06 11:16 AM Page 183

Foundation Selection and Design Procedures 183

CHARACTERISTIC (UNFACTORED) ULTIMATE (FACTORED)

LOADING

Pep + M + Hh PuePu + Mu + Hu
eT = e Tu =
eT T e Tu Tu

eP e Pu
T=P+F Tu = Pu + Fu
P Pu
M Mu

H Hu
h F h Fu

TOTAL BEARING PRESSURE

2T 2Tu
t= tu =
L L
3B
2
(– eT ) (
3B( – e Tu)
2
)
3 ( L2 – e )
T 3 ( L2 – e )
Tu note: t u ≠ γTt

RESULTANT ULTIMATE DESIGN

PRESSURE CAUSING BENDING
IN FOUNDATION – FULL METHOD ONLY

note: this implies that there is a possible need

for reinforcement in the top of the foundation −fu
and not that there is tension between the soil pu = tu − fu
and the foundation
note: pu ≠ γPp

NOTE: THE SHORT CUT METHOD

IS NOT APPROPRIATE IN THIS CASE

Fig. 10.23 Design of foundation in bending – zero pressure under part of base.

If n or t are greater than the corresponding allowable If n or t are very much less than the corresponding
bearing pressure, na or ta as appropriate, then adjust the allowable bearing pressure then, for economy, reduce
base size and/or the column eccentricity and recalcu- the base size and recalculate from section (3).
late from section (3). (8) If the base is of plain concrete, calculate the minimum
If n or t are less than the corresponding allowable depth where hmin = maximum distance from edge of
bearing pressure then check settlements (see section A column to edge of base (see Fig. 10.19).
of Chapter 2) and move on to section (8) below. If settle- (9) If the base is of reinforced concrete proceed to Part 2 below.
ments are not satisfactory, revise the base size and
recalculate from section (3). Foundation design complete.
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184 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

Part 2: Calculation of bearing pressures for design of Full method

reinforced concrete or steel foundation elements
(1) Calculate the ultimate superstructure loading in terms
Before progressing with the design of the reinforced con- of
crete elements of the foundation the engineer must make an
Pu = γG + γQQ + γW PW
assessment as to whether it is necessary to make a full re-
Hu = γG HG + γQ HQ + γW HW
analysis of the bearing pressures in the manner described
Mu = γG MG + γQ MQ + γW MW
above but using factored loads, or whether sufficient accu-
racy can be achieved by taking the short cut of multiplying where γG, γQ and γW are the load factors appropriate to
the bearing pressures by an overall factor γP, γF or γT as the load case under consideration (see Table 10.4).
appropriate. In the vast majority of cases the short cut (2) Calculate the ultimate foundation loading in terms of:
method is perfectly satisfactory but there are cases when
Fu = γ GFG + γ QFQ
it is not and the engineer must be careful! If in doubt he
should use the full method. Typical cases where the short (3) Calculate the total ultimate load
cut method does not apply include the following:
Tu = Pu + Fu
(1) Where wind loading forms a significant part of the
(4) Calculate the total ultimate load eccentricity
foundation loading particularly where generating uplift.
(2) Where a live load applied to the structure will increase PueP + Mu + Hu h
eTu =
the horizontal load, H, and/or moment, M, without a Tu
proportional increase in the vertical load, P.
(3) Where there is partial zero pressure under the founda- or for biaxial bending
tion (T is outside the middle third rule for rectangular PuePx + Mxu + Hyu h
foundations). eTxu =
Tu

Short-cut method and

(1) Determine the ultimate total pressure distribution, tu, PuePy + Myu + Hxuh
eTyu =
under the base from Tu
tu = γTt (5) Calculate the ultimate bearing pressure distribution using
the procedure in section 10.10 but with ultimate loads:
where γT = combined total load factor assessed with the
(a) Axial loading: i.e. uniform pressure eTu ~ 0
aid of Fig. 10.20
t = unfactored total stress distribution from Tu
tu =
Part 1, section (6) (a) or (b). A
(2) Determine the ultimate foundation pressure distribu-
tion, fu, under the base from (b) Axial plus bending with base pressure wholly
compressive:
fu = γF f (i) For single axis bending, the general equation is
where γF = combined foundation load factor assessed Tu TeTu
with the aid of Fig. 10.20 (usually 1.4 unless there is an tu = ±
A Z
imposed load element or uplift is being considered).
(3) Determine the resultant ultimate design pressure caus- which becomes
ing bending, pu , from
Tu 6TueTu
pu = tu − fu tu = ±
A BL2
(see Figs 10.21–10.23).
for a rectangular base because
Note that in the case of axially loaded foundations this
calculation can be reduced further by calculating pu dir- L
eTu <
ectly from the superstructure pressure 6
pu = γP p (ii) For biaxial bending, the general equation is
where γP = combined superstructure load factor Tu TueTxu TueTyu
assessed with the aid of Fig. 10.20 tu = ± ±
A Zx Zy
p = bearing pressure due to the superstructure.
(see Figs 10.21 and 10.22). which becomes
(4) Having determined the resultant ultimate design pres-
Tu 6TueTxu 6TueTyu
sure, pu, this is used to determine the ultimate shear, tu = ± 2
±
bending moments and axial forces using accepted A BL B2L
structural theory and to design those elements in accor- for a rectangular base because
dance with the appropriate British Standards.
eTx eTy 1
± <
Foundation design complete. L B 6
SFDC10 1/8/06 11:16 AM Page 185

Foundation Selection and Design Procedures 185

(c) Axial plus bending with zero pressure under part bending moments and axial forces using accepted
L structural theory and to design those elements in accord-
of the base, i.e. eTu > :
6 ance with the appropriate British Standards.
(i) For single axis bending, for a rectangular base
Foundation design complete.
2Tu
tu =
⎛L ⎞ Figures 10.21–10.23 show the various stress distributions
3B ⎜ − eTu ⎟
⎝2 ⎠ graphically and clearly show the difference between working
and ultimate loads and stresses, and the resultant ultimate
(6) Calculate the resultant ultimate design pressure from
pressure for foundation element design using both the full
pu = tu − fu and the short cut methods.

where fu is the factored pressure due to the foundation 10.13 References

construction and backfill defined by
1. British Standards Institution (1997) BS 8110–1, Structural Use of
F Concrete, Part 1: Code of Practice for Design and Construction. BSI,
fu = u
A London.
2. British Standards Institution (2002) BS 5950–1, Structural Use of
(7) Having determined the resultant ultimate design pres- Steelwork in Building, Part 1: Code of Practice for Design-rolled and
sure, pu, this is used to determine the ultimate shear, Welded Sections. BSI, London.
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 186

11 Design of Pads, Strips and

Continuous Foundations

11.1 Unreinforced concrete pads and strips this scheme avoids trench direction changes and hence
avoids the corner failure conditions of the trench sides.
11.1.1 Introduction
A disadvantage in some situations is the tendency of the
In general, shallow pads and strips are the economic founda- trench strips to pick up, via passive resistance, any longitu-
tion for most structures where ground conditions allow this dinal or lateral ground strains which may occur in the strata
solution. around the foundation. This can prove to be a major prob-
The suitability of shallow strips and pads should be one of lem in active mining areas and in sub-strata sensitive to
the first considerations for the engineer and their use tends moisture changes such as shrinkable clays. In some situ-
to form the normal foundation criteria against which the ations this problem can be overcome by the insertion of a
extra over cost of abnormal foundations tends to be judged. compressible batt against the trench faces (see Fig. 11.3),
but this must be considered for all directions and for
This does not mean however, that strips and pads should conflicting requirements since passive resistance is often
be used wherever possible since as they become deeper exploited in the superstructure and foundation design.
or more heavily reinforced the alternatives of vibro-
compaction and/or piles becomes competitive (see section In addition the high level of the concrete can create prob-
A of Chapter 10). However, at shallow depth, they are the lems for drainage and services entering the building if these
economic alternative. are not pre-planned and catered for. The top surface should
be low enough so as not to interfere with landscaping and
11.1.2 Trench fill planting. In some situations concrete trench fill can create
undesirable hard spots, and stone trench fill should be
A brief description of trench fill strips is given in sec- considered.
tion 9.3.4. The design of such strips is relatively simple, and
it is true to say that there is more design involved in making Stone trench fill used under the strip loads to transfer the
the decision to adopt such a foundation than in analysing loads to the lower sub-strata is more yielding than concrete
and sizing the appropriate trench fill.
Trench fill is often used in an attempt to:
(1) Reduce the foundation width where brickwork below
ground would need a wider footing to suit working
space, cracks
(2) Reduce the labour content of construction, and
(3) Speed up the construction of the footing, for example, corner
in conditions where trench supports are not necessary caves in
for short periods but would be required if the trench
were left open for a significant time. trench junction
The saving in excavation, labour, time and/or temporary
plan
works can in some situations be quite considerable. How-
ever, in loose ground the quantity of concrete used can
become both difficult to predict and/or considerable in trench sides
quantity particularly if trenches meet or cross at right angles. cave in

Strips excavated through poor ground to reach suitable

bearing strata can prove troublesome due to instability of
the trench sides, particularly at changes in direction of the soft loose
strip (see Fig. 11.1). This can be overcome by using suitable soil
trench supports. However, the problem can often be more
economically assisted by good design.

For example, Fig. 11.2 shows two alternative designs for the
section
same house foundations: in (A) the trenches would fail under
much less critical conditions than the trenches in (B) since Fig. 11.1 Trench instability at change in direction.
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 187

Design of Pads, Strips and Continuous Foundations 187

trench p.c. beam

if loose soil
trench

trench

trench
corners can be
critical A A

A B

p.c. beam

A B

scheme (A) scheme (B)

section A–A section B–B

(deep trench) (precast concrete
ground beam)

Fig. 11.2 Trench fill alternatives.

Compaction difficulties can be experienced in narrow

trenches cut in dry or relatively stiff sub-strata where
compaction of the fill at the edges is partly restricted by the
frictional resistance of the trench sides. This tends to show
itself in the concave surface of the compacted layer (see
Fig. 11.6). However, this can be overcome by using suitably
graded stone in relatively thin layers and by extra com-
paction at the edges of the trench.

Selection of suitably graded and shaped stone is particu-

concrete
trench fill larly important, for example, single sized rounded stone
compressible batt
against trench will tend to compact automatically during filling in a sim-
sides ilar way to say filling a trench with marbles. The marbles
immediately fall into contact on more or less the maximum
compaction due to the standard radius involved. However,
Fig. 11.3 Trench fill with compressible side formers. in some locations it is important to avoid forming a field
drain within the fill which may attract moving water, there-
trench fill which may produce excessive differential move- fore well graded material is essential in these situations.
ment between the main strip load area and the general slab
(see Fig. 11.4). 11.1.3 Trench fill design decisions
In soft wet conditions, the soft materials at the surface of the A typical trench fill foundation is shown in Fig. 11.7 where
trench bottom can be absorbed into the voids of a first layer (a) indicates a typical section, (b) shows the typical design
of no fines stones blinded by a second layer of well graded forces, and (c) illustrates the possible externally applied
stone. The second layer prevents the soft materials from ground strains which can prove critical. Such strains can
oozing up through the hardcore. This can prove to be a and do cause serious damage to buildings and their finishes.
clear advantage for difficult sites where the material is
The considerations to be made therefore in the design deci-
sensitive and wet and where good clean trench bottoms are
sions relate to:
difficult or impractical to achieve. By this method a stable
trench fill can quickly and easily be achieved in relatively (1) The depth and type of suitable ground-bearing strata
poor ground (see Fig. 11.5). relative to foundation loading.
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 188

188 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

P1 raft P1 raft

soft
hardcore sand hardcore

concrete firm stone

trench fill clay trench fill

strip load P1 P2 slab load strip load P1 P2 slab load

concrete ZERO
zero
trench consolidation
stone trench
clay sub-strata sand sub-strata movement sand sub-strata

clay sub-strata
clay sub-strata clay sub-strata

differential small differential

CONSOLIDATION CONSOLIDATION
(concrete trench) (stone trench)

Fig. 11.4 Stone versus concrete trench fill.

compacted layer
piered wall
voided zone voided zone

compacted
surface

concrete strip

graded stone
friction reaction
compacted in
at trench sides
layers

first stone layer

(no fines) pushed
into soft trench
bottom Fig. 11.6 Concave compacted surface.

Fig. 11.5 Trench fill in poor ground.

avoided where lateral forces may be picked up from below
(2) The likelihood of large horizontal ground strains due to ground on the sides of the footing. A void or cushion can
moisture changes in the sub-strata, mining activity or however be adopted to prevent the transfer of such forces
frost. where this is appropriate. Alternatively, the foundation
(3) The economy of trench fill versus normal strip footings. and its superstructure may, in certain circumstances, be
designed to resist the force transferred.
Considering (1), strip footings can prove economic for
medium loads at shallow-to-medium depths on firm-to- Considering (3), the economics of any potential solution
stiff sub-strata, for example, 100 –300 kN/m2 at 600–1500 vary with time and are dependent on:
mm deep on firm-to-stiff clay, firm-to-dense sand or firm- (a) Material costs and availability,
to-stiff sandy clay or clayey sand. (b) Excavation technology and machinery,
Considering (2), provided that the sub-stratum is not (c) Weather conditions and likely stability of trenches, and
a sensitive clay, i.e. not highly shrinkable, and provided (d) Manpower availability and other conditions relating to
that there is no likelihood of large ground strains from a particular site.
mining or other activities, then trench fill footings should As a general rule providing that the trenches can remain
be considered. Standard trench strips should generally be stable for a suitable period to allow excavation and casting
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 189

Design of Pads, Strips and Continuous Foundations 189

walls buckle

external internal

clay shrinks foundation

away rotation
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 11.7 Trench fill conditions.

of concrete, and that conditions (1) and (2) are appropriate, B − tw

h=
then trench fill should be considered in any comparison 2
exercises, particularly if the width of a normal strip footing
would be dictated by the working space required for brick- It also follows from Fig. 11.8 (b) that for a stone mass fill
laying below ground. based upon an assumed dispersion of 60°:

Under such conditions, the solution is likely to prove P

Bfill =
competitive both from a cost point of view and speed of na
construction. The speed of construction can be particularly (Bfill − B)√3
important where trench stability is time related and where and hfill =
2
foundations are being constructed through a winter period.
Under such conditions a mass concrete trench fill could where B is based on the bearing capacity of the fill material
be adopted. However, the use of stone or concrete is an but is not usually less than 450 mm.
economic decision based upon the ground conditions,
On this basis the minimum breadth and depth of a continu-
the long- and short-term stability of the trenches, and the
ous uniformly loaded strip can be easily sized. However,
availability of the materials (see Table 10.2).
many strips are not uniformly loaded and, in the case of
trench fill, the sizes to be adopted for economic reasons are
11.1.4 Sizing of the design often not those minimum sizes demanded by this part of
In the case of mass concrete trench fill the foundations can the design. For the non-uniformly loaded strip for example,
be sized using the assumptions that dispersion of load it may be necessary to consider the load dispersion in the
through the strip can be assumed to be at an angle of 45°. In longitudinal direction in order to arrive at the critical loading
the case of stone fill a dispersion of between 60° and 45° on the strip for determining the cross-section (see Fig. 11.9).
should be assumed depending on the size, quality, type,
As can be seen from the figure the concentrated loads from
grading and shape of the stone being used.
the piers can be assumed to disperse this load at a sim-
In general a 60° dispersion would be a conservative assump- ilar dispersion angle to that assumed in the cross-section,
tion and is often adopted. Though the normal depth of i.e. 45° for mass concrete trench fill and 60° for a stone
trench fill tends to be more than adequate to provide the trench fill. Using these assumptions in conjunction with an
required dispersion, nevertheless there is a need to check to assumed depth and the critical loaded length, the depth can
see that certain requirements are met. These requirements be determined by trial and error. Varying the assumed
would be similar to those adopted for unreinforced strips. depth the length determined from this calculation can be
The sizing of unreinforced strips or mass concrete or stone used to arrive at the minimum cross-section as indicated
trench fill for typical uniform axially loaded conditions i.e. previously. An alternative to this approach is to assume
the centreline of the resultant load is on the centreline of the that the local loads on the strip are similar to a mass pad,
strip footing, as shown in the cross-section in Fig. 11.8, and the section can be determined from the plan require-
would be as follows. ments to disperse the load (see the following example).

On the basis of Fig. 11.8 (a), assuming P equals the total load A typical mass pad load dispersion is shown in Fig. 11.10.
per unit run, B equals the required breadth of the strip, The load P being axial can be supported on a pad with its
h equals the required depth of the strip, and na equals the centre of gravity on a similar axis to the centre of gravity of
allowable bearing pressure, then it follows that B = P/na, the load. This solution would produce a uniform bearing
and for mass concrete, assuming a dispersion of 45°, pressure. If we assume the area required is A, then
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 190

190 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

uniform load = P uniform load = P

45° for mass loaded wall concrete

concrete thickness t w footing
tw

minimum stone
depth of fill
concrete h h
45°
strip

breadth B

h fill
footing section L of load, wall
C
and footing
60°

B fill
ground bearing n a = allowable
pressure bearing pressure
(a) (b)

Fig. 11.8 Load dispersion through mass concrete strip.

angle of masonry piers axial load P

dispersion

pier or column
load breadth b
concrete
trench fill reduced level load length l
required
foundation
loaded depth h
length

Fig. 11.9 Load dispersion from piers.

dispersed
P loaded
A= =B×L dispersed breadth B
na
loaded length L
where na = net allowable bearing pressure and B and L are
Fig. 11.10 Mass pad load dispersion.
the dimensions of the pressure area (see Fig. 11.10).

When deciding on the plan dimension it is preferable to

minimum depth. For example, for the two point loads
select a similar relationship for B and L to that of the
indicated in Fig. 11.12, a rectangular strip is the most
existing breadth and length of the pier. However in some
appropriate with a minimum unreinforced concrete depth
situations an unrelated relationship has to be adopted. In
equal to the maximum projection.
this case the worst direction of dispersion should be used
to determine the depth of the pad, e.g. the wider cantilever The design of a typical trench fill strip and pad foundations
should be considered at the appropriate angles (see are given in the following examples.
Fig. 11.11).
11.1.5 Design Example 1: Trench fill strip
In the case of trench fill and deep mass pads the required
footing
depth would normally be well within the nominal depth of
the selected strip to the extent that only the plan dimen- The internal load-bearing wall for a four-storey office block is
sions generally need to be calculated. to be supported on a strip foundation. Borehole investiga-
tions produced the consistent soil profiles shown in Fig. 11.13.
The design of the shallow mass pad is carried out by first
determining the area of pad required from the estimated Soil analysis shows that the sand fill is an unreliable
load and allowable bearing pressure and then determining bearing strata. The weathered sandstone has net allowable
the most economic shape to spread the load and give a bearing pressures of na = 400 kN/m2 for strip footings and
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 191

Design of Pads, Strips and Continuous Foundations 191

cantilever a x smaller
than cantilever a y
topsoil 300

ax loose sand fill 600

ay
compact weathered
sandstone 1000
ay

poorly cemented
column face 1000
sandstone bedrock

sides of excavation end of borehole

45° h
remained stable (no groundwater
during excavation encountered)
Fig. 11.11 Pad depth determined from maximum Fig. 11.13 Borehole log for Design Examples 1, 2 and 4.
cantilever.

r.c. columns Loadings

The loadings from the four-storey structure have been

calculated (as working loads) as follows.

(kN/m run)
Dead load from floors and roof = 137
Dead load from 215 mm thick
load-bearing wall = 55
Superstructure dead load, G = 192
45° 45° Superstructure imposed load
(from floors and roof), Q = 93
section 1–1 section 2–2 Net load = superstructure total load,
P = G + Q = 285 kN/m run

2 Size of base (normal method)

The foundation surcharge is considered small enough to be

neglected. The minimum foundation width is given by
1 1
superstructure load
B=
net allowable bearing pressure

P 285
= =
2 na 400

= 0.71 m
plan
In many instances this approximate method is satisfactory.
Fig. 11.12 Rectangular mass concrete pad/strip. Where the new foundation surcharge is large, or the allow-
able bearing pressure is low, the following method should
na = 550 kN/m2 for pads, both with a maximum of 20 mm be used.
settlement. The sandstone bedrock has a net allowable
pressure of na = 2000 kN/m2 for pad foundations. Size of base (allowing for foundation surcharge)
By inspection of the soil profile and analysis in Fig. 11.13, Dead load from new surcharge
the strip will be founded in the compact weathered sand-
= 20 kN/m3 × 0.3 m = 6 kN/m2
stone. The relatively even distribution of the loading will
not lead to unacceptable differential settlements and, as the Imposed load from new surcharge
sides of the excavations do not collapse in the short-term,
= 5 kN/m2 distributed load = 5 kN/m2
mass concrete trench fill footings have been selected as the
most appropriate foundation type. New foundation surcharge fs = 11 kN/m2
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 192

192 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

G = 192 kN/m
Q = 93 kN/m P = 285 kN/m
L stanchion
C

G = 2050 kN P = 4300 kN
Q = 2250 kN
line of dispersion original ground
of load level load dispersion original ground
level

300
topsoil
removed 300
topsoil
loose sand removed
fill 1000
45° 500
215 loose sand
fill

500 500 500 2000

weathered
B = 750 sandstone

n = 380 kN/m2 width B = 1500

Fig. 11.14 Trench fill strip footing design example.

sandstone

L = 1500
The weight of the new foundation is taken as approxim-
ately equal to the weight of soil displaced, and thus is
excluded from the above loads. n = P/A

From section 10.10, the net bearing pressure is

Fig. 11.15 Mass concrete pad base design example.
P
n= + fS − sS
A P
=
B
In this case the existing surcharge sS = 0.
285
P =
n= + fS 0.75
A
= 380 kN/m2
285
400 = + 11 In this example, n is nearly equal to the allowable pres-
B+1
sure, na. If it were significantly less, settlements would be
285 expected to be less than the 20 mm anticipated at a pressure
B=
(400 − 11) of na = 389 kN/m2.

= 0.73 m
11.1.6 Design Example 2: Deep mass concrete
As may be seen, the normal method value of B = 0.71 m in this pad base
example is sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes. A steel-framed building is to be built on a site adjoining that
Final selection of foundation width must take into account in Design Example 1 (see section 11.1.5), where variable fill
the width of the wall, together with an allowance for toler- extends down to the level of the bedrock. A heavily loaded
ance. It should also try to suit standard widths of excavator stanchion, carrying axial load only, is to be supported on a
buckets which are in multiples of 150 mm, e.g. 450 mm, pad foundation.
600 mm, 750 mm, etc. In this case a width of B = 750 mm It has been decided to found the heavily loaded base in the
would be appropriate, as shown in Fig. 11.14. sandstone bedrock, in order to minimize settlement. The
base is to be constructed as a mass concrete pad.
Actual net bearing pressure (ignoring foundation
surcharge) Loadings
The actual net bearing pressure beneath the strip footing The superstructure working loads are as follows:
may now be calculated, if required.
Superstructure dead load, G = 2050 kN
superstructure load Superstructure imposed load, Q = 2250 kN
Actual net bearing pressure, n =
foundation width Net load = superstructure total load, P = G + Q = 4300 kN
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Design of Pads, Strips and Continuous Foundations 193

Allowable bearing pressure

u.c.
From Design Example 1, the sandstone has a net allowable
proposed slab
bearing pressure of na = 2000 kN/m2. level

Size of base

The foundation surcharge due to the groundbearing slab is

small and can be neglected. Therefore,

Minimum area of superstructure load

=
foundation net allowable bearing pressure
P
A=
na trench backfilled
with compacted
4300 hardcore
=
2000
= 2.15 m2
= 1.47 m × 1.47 m
45° assumed
Therefore a 1.5 m × 1.5 m pad foundation will be used, as
dispersion
shown in Fig. 11.15.
Fig. 11.16 Stub column pad base.
The stanchion bases are set at a common depth of 300 mm
below slab level, and the remaining depth of excavation
down to the sandstone rock is taken up by the mass con-
crete base.
11.1.7 Unreinforced concrete strips
The minimum depth of base required, before it becomes
necessary for reinforcement to be introduced, is 500 mm The unreinforced strip footing requires slightly better
(see depth to angle of load dispersion in Fig. 11.15). Clearly ground conditions than trench fill to maintain trench stab-
a mass concrete base is adequate in this instance. ility during construction of the masonry over it.

The choice between the full sized mass concrete pad and The adoption of a thin strip means that the trenches tend to
the stub column solution is determined from economic remain open longer during construction than in the case
considerations. of the trench fill solution to allow bricklayers or masons to
work from within the trenches. However, the overall cost of
The economic change-over point is where the cross-section the work often proves less than for trench fill and on many
required for groundbearing purposes becomes excessively sites proves to be easily achieved. It has the added advant-
wasteful in terms of the cost of concrete compared with the age of more easily accommodating services but suffers
cost of introducing shuttering to form the smaller cross- similar disadvantages to trench fill in active mining areas.
section. Situations where this would apply are: The choice between trench fill and concrete strips usually
depends upon cost.
(1) Where the pads are very deep,
(2) Where the allowable groundbearing pressures are very The width of the strip is generally the nearest suitable
low, or excavation standard bucket width to that of the design
(3) Where, due to the nature of the ground, a shuttered pad width required from the calculations. However, for deep
is required in any case. strips the working space required for bricklayers can
determine the width required. The thickness is generally
The lower pad plan size is determined from the loading selected to be greater than the overhang (i.e. this is based
and the allowable groundbearing capacity. If the section is upon a 45° dispersion of load through the mass concrete,
reduced at higher level, the size at the point where it is see Fig. 11.18).
reduced is generally based upon a 45° dispersion of load
through the mass concrete (see Fig. 11.16). Where this guidance would give a thinner strip than that
practical from a construction point of view, or that desir-
The upper pedestal cross-section is determined from the able from a performance requirement, a greater nominal
load, the allowable bearing stress below the base plate and thickness is used. Longitudinal bending considerations,
the allowable compressive stress on the mass concrete particularly where the strip requires to be continuous
in conjunction with a suitable practical and economic size below door openings etc. (see Fig. 11.19), is one of the situ-
for construction. For example, the size determined from ations which may demand a thicker strip than that given
stress considerations often needs to be rounded up to a by the general 45° line. However, this would only apply if
larger practical mass concrete cross-section particularly dispersion of load along this length of footing is required to
where the mass pier is relatively tall (see Fig. 11.17). reduce the bearing pressure.
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 194

194 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

column required
to give adequate
column required quality concrete
relatively small
by calculation in a deep pour
load

very poor
quality fill
deep

low bearing
capacity pad required
for bearing
soft silt

Fig. 11.17 Mass pier criteria.

overhang
11.2 Reinforced concrete pads and strips

11.2.1 Introduction
A brief description of reinforced pads and strips is given in
sections 9.3.1 and 9.3.3.

depth greater 45° line These pads are used in similar locations to those of the mass
than overhang concrete pad, but where the reduction in cost of mass con-
crete exceeds the cost of the additional labour and materials.
Fig. 11.18 Unreinforced strip. These extras would include providing the reinforcement
and any extra shuttering, blinding, or working space which
may prove necessary for the reinforced solution.
small The plan size and shape is determined from the vertical
overhang
load and allowable bearing stress in conjunction with any
physical requirements. The depth and amount of reinforce-
ment is determined from the resulting bending moments
and shear force considerations (see Fig. 11.20) or from
past experience. The experience basis is often used where
reinforcement needs are related to variable ground for a
familiar location and use or where there is a need to
section depth
required cater for a number of time-related variations in differential
settlement.

11.2.2 Design decisions

45°
The decision to reinforce a concrete foundation of this type
section usually follows the realization that the ground conditions
are variable and/or deep trench fill is uneconomic.

Reference to Table 10.2 and Chapter 10 on choice of founda-

door tion types will assist in this decision.
G.L. opening G.L.
11.2.3 Sizing up of the design
The depth and width of the reinforced concrete strips are
determined in a similar way to that adopted for unrein-
forced strips and trench fill. The depth to the underside of
continuous strip the footing is determined by the ground conditions and the
level of suitable sub-strata, taking into account the need to
elevation
be below the effect of any critical frost heave or swelling
Fig. 11.19 Continuous strip through opening. and shrinkage of sub-strata.
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 195

Design of Pads, Strips and Continuous Foundations 195

loading

bending
moment
diagrams

mesh top and bottom

reinforced
strip

cross longitudinal
wires bars
cross-section longitudinal section

Fig. 11.20 Reinforced concrete strip design conditions.

The fabric reinforced strip is used generally where there is The thickness of the foundation should be determined by
both relatively poor ground and smallish loads or where designing for the cantilever action of the strip taking into
some slight movements are expected from differential account the bending, shear and bond stresses to be accom-
settlement or subsidence. modated and allowing for the longitudinal moments and
forces (see Fig. 11.20).
More heavily reinforced strips, using bars and not fabric,
are used where ground conditions are more critical and/or For strip footings a generous thickness for bending is
loading more excessive (see Fig. 11.21). necessary in order to maintain the shear and bond stresses
within permitted limits and in order to produce an eco-
For particularly heavy loads and/or poor ground, beam
nomic balance for the ratio of concrete to reinforcement.
strips are often used (see sections 9.3.6 and 9.3.7).
The detailed design of a reinforced concrete strip is covered
For axially loaded strip foundations, the breadth of the strip in Design Example 3 which follows, but in general the
required is: calculated foundation thickness required for shear and
bending compression is rounded up to the nearest 50 mm
P
B= as the economic thickness for the strip foundation.
na
where P is the superstructure load/unit run and na is the 11.2.4 Design Example 3: Reinforced strip
net allowable bearing pressure. foundation
The load-bearing wall of a single-storey building is to be
supported on a wide reinforced strip foundation.

A site investigation has revealed loose-to-medium granular

soils from ground level to some considerable depth. The
soil is variable with a safe bearing capacity ranging from
75–125 kN/m2. Also some soft spots were identified, where
the bearing capacity could not be relied upon.

The building could be supported on ground beams and

piles taken down to a firm base, but in this case the solution
chosen is to design a wide reinforced strip foundation
capable of spanning across a soft area of nominal width.
To minimize differential settlements and allow for the soft
Fig. 11.21 Section through reinforced strip. areas, the allowable bearing pressure will be limited to
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 196

196 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

na = 50 kN/m2 throughout. Soft spots encountered during This is all dead load, thus the combined partial load factor
construction will be removed and replaced with lean mix for foundation loads, γF = 1.4.
concrete; additionally, the footing will be designed to span
2.5 m across anticipated depressions. This value has been Sizing of foundation width
derived from the guidance for local depressions given in
Chapter 13 on raft foundations. The ground floor slab is New ground levels are similar to existing ones, thus the
designed to be suspended, although it will be cast using the (weight of the) new foundation imposes no additional
ground as permanent formwork. surcharge, and may be ignored.

The minimum foundation width is given by

Loadings

(kN/m run) superstructure load

B=
Dead load from roof and suspended net allowable bearing pressure
ground floor = 27 P
Dead load from wall = 13 =
na
Total dead load, G = 40
Imposed load from roof and suspended 59
=
ground floor, Q = 19 50
Net load = superstructure total load, P = 1.18 m
P = G + Q = 59 kN/m run
Adopt a 1.2 m wide × 350 mm deep reinforced strip founda-
If the foundations and superstructure are being designed
tion, using grade 35 concrete (see Fig. 11.23).
to limit state principles, loads should be kept as separate
unfactored characteristic dead and imposed values (as
above), both for foundation bearing pressure design and
for serviceability checks. The loads should then be factored
up for the design of individual members at the ultimate
limit state as usual.
G = 40 kN/m
For foundations under dead and imposed loads only, P = 59 kN/m
Q = 19 kN/m
factoring up loads for reinforcement design is best done
by selecting an average partial load factor, γP, to cover both
dead and imposed superstructure loads from Fig. 11.22
(this is a copy of Fig. 10.20).

Q as a percentage of P is 100Q/P = (100 × 19)/59

= 32%.

From Fig. 11.22, the combined partial safety factor for

superstructure loads is γP = 1.46.

Weight of base and backfill, f = average density × depth = t w = 280 =

= 20 × 0.9
= 18.0 kN/m2 900

350
100 0
dead + imposed
dead + imposed

75 25 B = 1200
imposed

dead

50 50

bearing pressure
25 75 p = 49.2 kN/m2
% of
% of

0 100 ultimate design

1.4 1.45 1.5 1.55 1.6 pressure
combined partial load factors γ P , γ F , γ T pu = 71.8 kN/m2

Fig. 11.22 Combined partial safety factor for dead + Fig. 11.23 Reinforced strip foundation design example
imposed loads. – loads and bearing pressures.
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Design of Pads, Strips and Continuous Foundations 197

Reactive upwards design pressure for lateral Mu 7.6 × 106

=
reinforcement design bd 2
1000 × 2832
Actual superstructure superstructure load
= = 0.09
pressure, p width of base
As(req) = 0.02% bd [BS 8110: Part 3: Chart 2(1)]
P
= This is less than the minimum reinforcement in BS 8110:
B
Part 1: 3.12.5(2) given by
59
= As(min) = 0.13% bh
1.2
0.13
= 49.2 kN/m2 = × 1000 × 350
100
Pu
Ultimate reactive design pressure = = 455 mm2/m
B
Provide T10 bars @ 150 c/c = 523 mm2/m (see Fig. 11.24)
γ P
= P
B 523 × 100
=
1.46 × 59 1000 × 283
=
1.2 = 0.18% bd

= 71.8 kN/m2 Allowable concrete shear stress

Alternatively this can be calculated as vc = 0.44 N/mm2 [BS 8110: Part 1: Table 3.8(2)]
pu = γP × (superstructure bearing pressure) Shear force at face of wall
= γP p
= 1.46 × 49.2 ⎛B t ⎞
Vu = pu × ⎜ − w ⎟
= 71.8 kN/m2 ⎝2 2⎠

⎛ 1.2 0.28 ⎞
Lateral bending and shear = 71.8 × ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
b = 1000 mm.
= 33.0 kN/m run
10
Effective depth, d = 350 − 50 (cover) − 12 −
2 Vu
Shear stress, vu =
= 283 mm bv d

Cantilever moment at face of wall 33.0 × 103

=
2 1000 × 283
⎛B t ⎞
pu ⎜ − w ⎟
⎝2 2⎠ = 0.12 N/mm2
Mu =
2
Thus vu < vc , therefore no shear reinforcement is required.
2
⎛ 1.2 0.28 ⎞
71.8 ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠ Loading for spanning over depressions
=
2
Where a local depression occurs, the foundation is acting
= 7.6 kNm/m run like a suspended slab. The ultimate load causing bending

T10 @ 150 c/c 8T12

h = 350

L = 2500
nominal span over soft spots
section elevation

Fig. 11.24 Reinforced strip footing design example – reinforcement.

SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 198

198 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

and shear in the foundation is the total load i.e. superstruc- Depression at corner of building
ture load + foundation load, which is given by
The previous calculations have assumed that the depres-
Tu = Pu + Fu sion is located under a continuous strip footing. The
= γPP + γFF depression could also occur at the corner of a building
= γPP + γF fB where two footings would meet at right angles. A similar
= (1.46 × 59) + (1.4 × 18.0 × 1.2) calculation should then be carried out, to provide top rein-
= 86 + 30 forcement for both footings to cantilever at these corners.
= 116 kN/m
11.2.5 Design Example 4: Reinforced
Longitudinal bending and shear due to depressions pad base
The axially loaded pad base in Design Example 2 (sec-
Ultimate moment due to foundation spanning – assumed
tion 11.1.6) is to be redesigned as a reinforced base, founded
simply supported – over a 2.5 m local depression is
in the weathered sandstone. Assuming settlements have
TuL2 been judged to be satisfactory, the base will have an allow-
Mu = able bearing pressure, na = 550 kN/m2.
8

116 × 2.52 Loadings

=
8
Dead load, G = 2050 kN
= 91 kNm Imposed load, Q = 2250 kN
Net load = superstructure total load, P = 4300 kN
Width for reinforcement design is b = B = 1200 mm.
Since dead and imposed loads are approximately equal, a
12 combined partial load factor of γP = 1.5 will be used.
Effective depth, d = 350 − 50 (cover) −
2

= 294 mm Area of base

Mu 91 × 106 superstructure load

= Required area of foundation =
bd 1200 × 2942
2 allowable bearing pressure

= 0.87 P
=
na
As(req) = 0.23% bd [BS 8100: Part 3: Chart 2(1)]
4300
=
0.23 550
= × 1200 × 294
100
= 7.8 m2
= 812 mm2
Adopt a 3.0 m × 3.0 m square base, i.e. L = B = 3.0 m (see
Provide 8 T12 bars = 905 mm2 Fig. 11.25).

100As 905 × 100

= Reactive design pressure on base for concrete design
bd 1200 × 294
Pressure due to superstructure superstructure load
= 0.26% bd =
loads, p area of base
Allowable concrete shear stress, vc = 0.49 N/mm2 P
[BS 8110: Part 1: Table 3.8(2)] =
A
TuL
Shear force, Vu = 4300
2 =
3.0 × 3.0
116 × 2.5 = 477 kN/m2
=
2
Ultimate design pressure, pu = γP × (superstructure
= 145 kN bearing pressure)
V = γPp
Shear stress, vu = u
bvd = 1.5 × 477
145 × 103 = 716 kN/m2
=
1200 × 294
Depth of base
= 0.41 N/mm2
The base and its reinforcement must be capable of resisting
Thus vu < vc = 0.49 N/mm2, therefore no shear reinforce- bending, beam shear and punching shear. At first glance it
ment is needed. is not always possible to judge which is critical. The process
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 199

Design of Pads, Strips and Continuous Foundations 199

B = 3000 Table 11.1 Estimating effective depth for reinforced

pad base design example

Required effective depth, d (mm)

Design chart Value of y-axis of design 100As

for: chart bd

0.25 0.50
L = 3000

Bending P = 4300 kN 830 570

1.5d 2d
= 900 = 1200 P 4300
Beam shear = = 1433 kN 580 560
B 3.0

PL 4300 × 3.0
Punching shear = = 4300 kN approx. 600
B 3.0

For this particular example an average effective depth in

punching shear both directions of d = 600 mm will be selected.
beam shear
perimeter
plan Overall depth of base is, h = 600 + 25 (bar diameter)
+ 50 (cover)
= 675 mm
G = 2050 kN
P = 4300 kN
Q = 2250 kN
Bending

T25 @ 175 From Fig. 11.25, the cantilever moment at face of base
(each way) plate is
bplt = 400 2
⎛ L bplt ⎞
pu ⎜ −
⎝2 2 ⎟⎠
h = 675

Mu =
600
d=

2
2
⎛ 3.0 0.4 ⎞
716 ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
punching shear =
beam shear 2
failure cone failure plane
= 605 kNm/m width
section
Mu 605 × 106
=
bd 1000 × 6002
2
working
loads = 1.68
p = 477 kN/m2
As(req) = 0.45% bd [BS 8110: Part 3: Chart 2(1)]
ultimate 0.45
loads = × 1000 × 600
100
pu = 716 kN/m2
= 2700 mm2/m
Fig. 11.25 Reinforced pad base design example.
Use T25 bars @ 175 c/c each way = 2805 mm2/m

2805 × 100
=
of selecting a suitable depth for the base is simplified by use 1000 × 600
of the charts for estimating effective depths in Appendix H
(Figs H.2, H.3, H.4). The effective depth will be checked for = 0.47% bd
each case, assuming a typical reinforcement percentage
of between 0.25% and 0.50%. The results are shown in Shear
Table 11.1.
The base should be checked for both beam shear and
This indicates that bending is critical, i.e. it requires the gre- punching shear, since either may be critical. Grade C40
atest effective depth, for low percentages of reinforcement. concrete has been specified.
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 200

200 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

Local shear at column face Length of shear perimeter, u = 4bperim

The shear at the face of the column should be checked. = 4 × 2200

= 8800 mm
Pu
vu = Vpunch
(4 × bplt) d Shear stress, vpunch =
ud
4300
= 2979 × 103
(4 × 400) 600 =
8800 × 600
= 4.5 N/mm2
= 0.56 N/mm2 < vc = 0.57 N/mm2
This must not exceed 0.8√fcu
5 N/mm 2
⇒ okay.
[BS 8110: Part 1: 3.7.7.2(2)]
Comparison with vbeam = 0.12 N/mm2 indicates that, in this
0.8√fcu= 0.8√40 = 5 N/mm2 instance, punching shear is more critical than beam shear.
vu = 4.5 < 5 N/mm2 ⇒ okay. This is normally the case with square pad foundations. If
however a foundation size of say 2 m × 4 m had been chosen
Beam shear in this example, beam shear may well become critical.

Allowable concrete shear stress, vc = 0.57 N/mm2 Local bond

[BS 8110: Part 1: Table 3.8(2)]
Although not covered by BS 8110, local bond can be a prob-
From BS 8110: Part 1: 3.4.5.8, the critical location for beam lem in foundation design, and should therefore be checked
shear is at a distance 2d = 2 × 600 = 1200 mm from the face at sections with high shear stress. Local bond is given by
of the load (i.e. from the edge of the base plate in this
example). The shear force acting across this failure plane is Vu
fbs =
∑ usd
Vbeam = (design pressure) × (area of base beyond
critical location) where ∑ us is the sum of the bar perimeters at the section
being considered.
⎛L b ⎞
= pu ⎜ − plt − 2d⎟ Punching shear, Vu = 2979 kN
⎝2 2 ⎠
⎛ 3.0 0.4 ⎞ The length of the punching shear is u = 8800 mm.
= 716 × ⎜ − − 2 × 0.6⎟
⎝ 2 2 ⎠
T25 bars @ 175 centres each way are proposed. The total
= 72 kN/m width number of bars crossing the shear perimeter is u/175 = 50.
The local bond stress is
Vbeam
Beam shear, vbeam = Vu
bd fbs =
∑ usla
72 × 103
=
1000 × 600 where la is the lever arm which CP 110 approximates to the
= 0.12 N/mm2 effective depth d.

2979 × 103
Punching shear fbs =
(50 × π × 25)600
From BS 8110: Part 1: 3.7.7.6, the critical location for punch-
= 1.26 N/mm2
ing shear for a square load is a square perimeter a distance
1.5d = 1.5 × 600 = 900 mm from the face of the load. This is well within the allowable value of 4.1 N/mm2 for
grade C40 concrete, given by CP 110: Part 1: Table 21(3)
The length of one side of this perimeter is (BS 8110 does not give allowable local bond stresses).
bperim = bplt + 2(1.5d)
11.3 Pad foundations with axial loads and
= 400 + (2 × 1.5 × 600)
bending moments
= 2200 mm
There are various ways of dealing with pad foundations
Area of base outside of perimeter
which are subject to both axial loads and bending moments
Ashear = BL − b 2perim (and sometimes horizontal loads as well). The following
= (3.0 × 3.0) − 2.22 design examples will explore the various merits of the
= 4.16 m2 differing approaches to the design solutions. The designer
should keep in mind at all times the various loading com-
Shear force along perimeter, Vpunch = puAshear binations which can apply to any one base. It is not always
= 716 × 4.16 apparent which is the critical load case, and the base design
= 2979 kN often develops on an iterative basis.
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Design of Pads, Strips and Continuous Foundations 201

In each of the following design examples the net allow- Thus

able bearing pressure of the soil will be taken as na =
A
300 kN/m2. Bmin =
L
These examples concentrate on the analysis of foundation 2.1
bases to limit bearing pressures arising from combinations =
1.8
of vertical loads, horizontal loads, and bending moments.
The design of these bases, to resist bending and shear, = 1.17 m
should be carried out in a similar manner to Design
A width of B = 1.2 m will be adopted.
Examples 1– 4 earlier in this chapter.

Calculations for bending moments and shear forces within Bearing pressure check – calculation approach
the base will need to make due allowance for the variation The eccentricity eP = 0.08 m is less than L/6 = 1.8/6 = 0.3 m,
in bearing stresses across the base. and thus the formation is loaded in compression over the
full plan area of the base. Assume a width of B = 1.2 m.
11.3.1 Design Example 5: Pad base –
P M
axial load plus bending moment p= ±
A Z
(small eccentricity)
P M
A column pad base is subject to an axial load of 200 kN = ±
BL ⎛ BL2 ⎞
(dead) plus 300 kN (imposed), and a bending moment of ⎜ ⎟
40 kNm. To suit site constraints, the base is limited to a ⎝ 6 ⎠
length of L = 1.8 m. 500 40
= ±
1.2 × 1.8 ⎛ 1.2 × 1.8 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
Load eccentricity ⎝ 6 ⎠

When moments act on a foundation, it is normal to replace = 231 ± 62 kN/m2

them by positioning the vertical load at an equivalent Thus pmax = 293 kN/m2 and pmin = 169 kN/m2. These are less
eccentricity. The resultant vertical superstructure load is than the allowable bearing pressure of na = 300 kN/m2; the
P=G+Q width of B = 1.2 m is therefore satisfactory.
= 200 + 300
Resultant ultimate design pressures
= 500 kN
Since the base is fully in compression, ultimate design pres-
Q as a percentage of P is 100Q/P = (100 × 300)/500 = 60%.
sures, pu, are obtained by simply factoring up these pressures
From Fig. 11.22, the combined partial factor for superstruc-
using the combined partial safety factor γP.
ture loads is γP = 1.52.
pu(max) = γP pmax
The resultant eccentricity is given by = 1.52 × 293
M = 445 kN/m2
eP =
P pu(min) = γP pmin
= 1.52 × 169
40
= = 257 kN/m2
500
This is shown in Fig. 11.27.
= 0.08 m
Effect of offsetting the base
Bearing pressure check – design chart approach
Where the moment always acts in one direction, economies
A suitable base size can be checked or calculated using in the base size can be achieved by positioning the base
design chart H.1 in Appendix H. For the purpose of this eccentric to the vertical load. Thus if the centroid of the base
example this is reproduced in Fig. 11.26 below. Assuming a is offset by eP = 0.08 m, the pressure becomes uniform, and
superstructure bearing pressure of p = na = 300 kN/m2, is simply given by p = P/A. This would give

P 500 P
= = 1.67 m2 Areq =
p 300 na

Assuming a base length of L = 1.8 m, 500

=
300
eP 0.08
= = 0.044 = 1.67 m2
L 1.8
Compared to A = 1.8 × 1.2 = 2.16 m2, this would be a reduc-
From Fig. 11.26, this gives a required base area of
tion of 23%. This approach is used in Design Example 8
A = BL = 2.1 m2 (section 11.3.4).
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 202

202 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

0.025
e /L = 0.00 0.05 0.075 0.1
5 1/6

4.5 0.2

0 < e /L < 1/6:

fully in compression
LOAD/BEARING PRESSURE (m2)

0.25
= T/t (all eccentricities) or

4
3.5

.04
=0
= P/p (e /L < 1/6)

e /L

3 0.3

2.5 1/3

P
= 1.67
p
1.5
1/6 < e /L:
partial zero pressure
1

0.5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
AREA OF BASE A = BL (m2)

A = 2.1 m2

Fig. 11.26 Pad base (small eccentricity) design example – design chart H1 (Appendix H) for base size.

11.3.2 Design Example 6: Pad base – this, the bearing pressure calculations should be carried out
axial load plus bending moment in terms of total loads and pressures.
(large eccentricity)
Moment, M = 60 kNm (reversible)
A column pad base is subject to an axial load of 100 kN
(dead) plus 100 kN (imposed), and a bending moment of of which 75% is due to dead load and 25% is due to imposed
60 kNm. The bending moment may act in either direction; load
it is therefore not possible to reduce the eccentricity by off- Superstructure vertical load, P = G + Q
setting the base. In addition, site conditions limit the length = 100 + 100
of the base to L = 1.4 m. = 200 kN

Superstructure loads M 60
Superstructure eccentricity, eP = =
P 200
The large eccentricity of the applied loading suggests zero
pressure may occur under part of the base. In order to check = 0.3 m
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 203

Design of Pads, Strips and Continuous Foundations 203

vertical loads To calculate the foundation load, F, an estimate needs to be

and moments made of the base area, A.
G = 200 kN An axially loaded foundation has a superstructure bearing
P = 500 kN
Q = 300 kN pressure of p = P/A.
M = 40 kNm A foundation with the load acting on the edge of the middle
third (i.e. eP = –16 ) has a superstructure bearing pressure of
= = p = 2P/A.

In this case the load is acting outside of the middle third.

A reasonable estimate for establishing a trial base size is
width B = 1.2 m p = 2.5P/A. This gives

2.5 P
A=
L = 1.8 m p
2.5 × 200
=
300
equivalent vertical
load and eccentricity = 1.67 m2
e P = 80 mm
Foundation load, F = fA
= 10 × 1.67
P = 500 kN = 17 kN

This is all dead load. Thus the partial factor for foundation
loads is γF = 1.4.

Total load
Total vertical load, T = superstructure load +
foundation load
bearing pressure =P+F
= 200 + 17
= 217 kN
169
kN/m2 M
Total eccentricity, eT =
T
60
p = 293 kN/m2 =
217
= 0.277 m
ultimate design pressure
A check on the eccentricity of the total applied load gives

L 1.4
eT = 0.277 m > = = 0.23 m
257 6 6
kN/m2
The total load, T, therefore remains outside of the middle
third. This confirms that the base is not fully in compression
but has zero pressure over part of its length.
pu = 445 kN/m2
Allowable bearing pressure
Fig. 11.27 Pad base (small eccentricity) design example
– loads and bearing pressures. Net allowable bearing pressure, na = 300 kN/m2.

The existing overburden pressure, s, is assumed to be

This is greater than L/6 = 1.4/6 = 0.23 m. The resultant load
approximately equal to f = 10 kN/m2.
acts outside of the middle third, indicating zero pressure
over part of the base. The allowable bearing pressure will be calculated in terms
of total pressures.
Foundation loads
From section 10.10,
Foundation distributed load due to the 300 mm deep base
total allowable bearing = net allowable bearing pressure +
and 200 mm overburden is given by
pressure, ta existing surcharge
f = average density × depth = na + s
= 20 × 0.5 = 300 + 10
= 10 kN/m2 = 310 kN/m2
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204 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

vertical loads 2T
Bmin =
and moments Lbta
G = 100 kN
P = 200 kN 2 × 217
Q = 100 kN =
1.27 × 310
= 1.10 m
M = 60 kNm
A width of B = 1.2 m will be adopted. This gives a maximum
500

total bearing pressure of

F = 17 kN
2T
tmax =
BLb
L = 1400
2 × 217
=
C
L 1.2 × 1.27
T = 217 kN
equivalent e T = 277 mm = 285 kN/m2
vertical load
and eccentricity
Bearing pressure check using design charts

As an alternative, a suitable base size can be checked or

calculated using design chart H.1 in Appendix H. For the
purpose of this example this is reproduced in Fig. 11.29.
L b = 1270
T 217
=
ta 310
= 0.70
total
bearing eT 0.277
pressure =
L 1.4
= 0.20
t
From the design chart, this gives A = BL = 1.55 m2, thus
zero bearing pressure
285 over this length A
kN/m2 Bmin =
L
Fig. 11.28 Pad base (large eccentricity) design example 1.55
– loads and bearing pressures. =
1.4
= 1.11 m
Calculation of bearing pressures
A width of B = 1.2 m will be adopted.
The actual stress distribution is triangular, as shown in
Fig. 11.28, with the total vertical load, T, located at the
Ultimate loads
one-third point of the pressure diagram for equilibrium.
The effective length of the base, Lb (the length over which Ultimate superstructure load, Pu = Gu + Qu
the bearing stresses occur), is thus given by = γGG + γQQ
⎛L ⎞ = (1.4 × 100) + (1.6 × 100)
Lb = 3 ⎜ − eT ⎟ = 300 kN
⎝2 ⎠

⎛ 1.4 ⎞ Ultimate foundation load, Fu = γF F

= 3⎜ − 0.277⎟ = 1.4 × 17
⎝ 2 ⎠
= 24 kN
= 1.27 m
Total ultimate load, Tu = Pu + Fu
Since the bearing pressure diagram is triangular, the load T = 300 + 24
will act at the edge of the middle third of the effective base = 324 kN
area Ab = BLb. The maximum total bearing pressure will
therefore be As stated previously, 25% of the moment M = 60 kNm is
2T 2T due to imposed load. From Fig. 11.22, this gives a combined
tmax = =
Ab BLb partial load factor of 1.45. Thus

Setting tmax equal to the allowable pressure ta , the equation Ultimate moment, Mu = 1.45 × 60
may be rearranged to give = 87 kNm
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 205

Design of Pads, Strips and Continuous Foundations 205

0.025
e/L = 0.00 0.05 0.075 0.1
5 1/6

4.5 0.2

0 < e /L < 1/6:

fully in compression
4

0.25

3.5
LOAD/BEARING PRESSURE (m2)

3 0.3
= T/t (all eccentricities) or

2.5 1/3
= P/p (e/L < 1/6)

2
0.
=
L
e/

1.5
1/6 < e/L:
partial zero pressure
1

T = 0.7
t
0.5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
AREA OF BASE A = BL (m2)

A = 1.55 m2

Fig. 11.29 Pad base (large eccentricity) design example – design chart H1 (Appendix H) for base size.

Mu design must be obtained, in accordance with section 10.12,

Total ultimate eccentricity, eTu =
Tu by calculating the total ultimate pressure, tu, and subtracting
the foundation ultimate pressure, fu.
87
=
324 The total ultimate bearing pressure is calculated in a similar
manner to the bearing pressure under working loads
= 0.269 m
⎛L ⎞
(Note this is not equal to the working load eccentricity Lb = 3 ⎜ − eTu ⎟
⎝2 ⎠
eT = 0.23 m calculated previously.)
⎛ 1.4 ⎞
= 3⎜ − 0.279⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
Ultimate design pressures
= 1.29 m
Since there is partial zero pressure below the base, the
resultant ultimate design pressure, pu, for reinforcement For vertical equilibrium, Tu = tu(max)LbB/2, thus
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 206

206 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE PU

ultimate applied MU
loads

f U 14 kN/m2

equivalent ultimate
total load
TU e Tu = 269 mm

L b = 1290 mm

ultimate total tU
bearing pressure

419
zero bearing pressure
kN/m2

FOUNDATION MEMBER DESIGN

PU

MU

–14 kN/m2
resultant ultimate
design pressure
(for design of
structural foundation
member)
pu = t u − fu
405 kN/m2

Fig. 11.30 Pad base (large eccentricity) design example – ultimate limit state.

2Tu 11.3.3 Design Example 7: Pad base – axial

tu(max) =
LbB load plus bending moments about both axes
2 × 324 A column pad base is subject to the axial load and biaxial
=
1.29 × 1.2 bending moments shown in Fig. 11.31 (a). The bending
moments about each axis are reversible, and there is thus
= 417 kN/m2
no benefit to be gained by offsetting the base relative to
pu(max) = tu(max) − fu the column. The net allowable bearing pressure is again
na = 300 kN/m2.
= tu(max) − γF f
= 419 − (1.4 × 10) As a rough guide, in order to select a trial size for a biaxially
= 405 kN/m2 loaded base, the base area A should be chosen to be
between A = 2.0 P/p and A = 2.5 P/p. In this example
The actual distribution of pu is shown in Fig. 11.30. this gives
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 207

Design of Pads, Strips and Continuous Foundations 207

P = 300 kN The resulting bearing pressure diagram is shown in

Fig. 11.31 (b).
3
y
x 11.3.4 Design Example 8: Pad base – axial and
horizontal loads
4 My = 25 kNm
Mx = 50 kNm 1 The stanchion of a moment-resisting frame is to be founded
on a pad foundation. The stanchion is assumed to be pinned
x y at its base; the vertical loads are G = 175 kN (dead) and
L=
16 2 0 Q = 225 kN (imposed). The horizontal thrust due to dead
00 140
B= and imposed (working) loads is H = 50 kN.

Design approach
pad base
(a) loads and dimensions In general, for bases where horizontal loads are significant,
it is necessary to assume a base size and then check it
under combined vertical and horizontal loading, as well as
p3 = 99 kN/m2
against sliding (and, on occasion, overturning). This may
p1 = 265 kN/m2
involve a number of iterations, to fine-tune the necessary
3 base size.
p4 = 3 kN/m2
The designer should first seek ways of cancelling out the
4 1 horizontal force, e.g. by tying the frame feet together via
a tie rod or reinforcement within the slab (see Design
Example 1 in section 12.2.4). This example assumes such
note: these pressures methods to be impractical in this particular situation.
indicate the base is 2
wholly in compression The loading is from a rigid frame, where in this case the
p2 = 169 kN/m2
moment from the critical load case (dead + imposed loads)
(b) bearing pressure diagram always acts in the same direction. This will be turned to
advantage by offsetting the base to cancel out the eccen-
Fig. 11.31 Biaxially loaded pad base design example.
tricity of the applied loads.

⎛ 300 ⎞ ⎛ 300 ⎞ Previous iterations have indicated a base size of 1.5 m × 1.5 m
A = 2.0 ⎜ ⎟ to 2.5 ⎜ ⎟ is likely to produce an economic answer.
⎝ 300 ⎠ ⎝ 300 ⎠
= 2.0 m2 to 2.5 m2
Loadings and eccentricities
A trial size of A = 1.6 × 1.4 = 2.24 m2 will be checked.
Superstructure load, P = G + Q
Bearing pressures = 175 + 225
= 400 kN
Bearing pressures at the corners of the base are calculated in
a similar manner to the uniaxial bending case in Design The foundation distributed load due to the 1000 mm deep
Example 5 (section 11.3.1), taking into account the variation base and 300 mm overburden, assuming an average density
in stress about both axes. of 20 kN/m3, is given by
P M My
p= ± x ± f = 20 × 1.3
A Zx Zy = 26 kN/m2
P Mx My
= ± ± Foundation total load, F = fA
LB ⎛ BL ⎞
2 ⎛ LB2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ = 26 × (1.5 × 1.5)
⎝ 6 ⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠ = 58 kN
300 50 25
= ± ± The horizontal thrust at the base of the stanchion exerts a
1.4 × 1.6 ⎛ 1.4 × 1.6 2 ⎞ ⎛ 1.6 × 1.4 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ moment MT at the underside of the pad given by
⎝ 6 ⎠ ⎝ 6 ⎠
= 134 ± 83 ± 48 kN/m2 MT = hH
= 1.0 × 50
p1 = 134 + 83 + 48 = 265 kN/m2 < na = 300 kN/m2 = 50 kNm
⇒ okay.
p2 = 134 + 83 − 48 = 169 kN/m2 Resultant total vertical load, T = P + F
p3 = 134 − 83 + 48 = 99 kN/m2 = 400 + 58
p4 = 134 − 83 − 48 = 3 kN/m2 = 458 kN
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 208

208 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

CL
axial load

G = 175 kN
P = 400 kN
Q = 225 kN
P = 400 kN
300

G.L. 750 860

H = 50 kN H = 50 kN
(a) loads acting at
top of pad base
h = 1000

base offset
(width B = 1500)

L = 1500

P = 400 kN

(b) equivalent loads

F = 58 kN and moment acting
at u/s of base
M = hH = 50 kNm

H = 50 kN

T = 458 kN T = 458 kN
e T = 110 mm
e T = 110 mm

(c) equivalent resultant (d) resultant loads at u/s

loads acting at u /s of base after base has
of base been offset by 110 mm

H = 50 kN H = 50 kN

750 750
C
L resultant load

vertical total bearing

pressure diagram
t = 204 kN/m 2
t = 114 kN/m2

t = 294 kN/m2
300

T = 458 kN
kγ0.3
2 × 17 × 0.3
= 10.2 kN/m2
h = 1000

Hfs

H = 50 kN
Hfb = µT kγ1.3
= 0.5 × 458 2 × 17 × 1.3
= 229 kN = 44.2 kN/m2

(e) horizontal loads and

horizontal resistance

Fig. 11.32 Design example for pad base with vertical and horizontal loads.
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 209

Design of Pads, Strips and Continuous Foundations 209

The corresponding eccentricity, eT, is given by Assume that the soil investigation has indicated a coeffici-
ent of friction of µ = 0.5 to be suitable for the base, and a
MT
eT = passive lateral pressure coefficient of K = 2.0 for the side of
T
the foundation.
50
= The horizontal resistance due to base friction is given by
458
Hfb = µT
= 0.110 m = 0.5 × 458
The centroid of the base will therefore be offset relative = 229 kN
to the stanchion by 110 mm, to give a uniform bearing From Fig. 11.32 (e), the horizontal resistance due to passive
pressure. This is shown in Fig. 11.32. pressure, taking γ as 17 kN/m2, is given by

Allowable bearing pressures (10.2 + 44.2) hB

Hfs =
2
Net allowable bearing pressure, na = 300 kN/m2.
= 27.2 × 1.0 × 1.5
The existing overburden pressure, s, is assumed to be
= 41 kN
approximately equal to f = 26 kN/m2.
Total horizontal resistance is
As discussed in section 10.11, the total allowable bear-
ing pressures should be used in this situation. From Hf = Hfb + Hfs
section 10.10, = 229 + 41
= 270 kN
total allowable bearing pressure, ta = net allowable bearing
pressure + existing Hf
Factor of safety against sliding =
surcharge pressure H
= na + s
270
= 300 + 26 =
50
= 326 kN/m2
= 5.4
Vertical bearing pressure
A factor of safety of 2.0 is normally adequate, ⇒ okay.
The total vertical bearing pressure is given by
With this factor of safety of 2.0, the maximum allowable
T horizontal load is
t=
BL
Hf
Ha =
458 factor of safety
=
1.5 × 1.5
270
=
= 204 kN/m2 2.0
This is well below the allowable pressure of ta = 326 kN/m2, = 135 kN
and this base size would therefore be excessively large if
it were soley dealing with vertical loads. This margin is Check on combined vertical and horizontal loading
however necessary to satisfy the condition for combined
From section 1.3.5, the condition which must be satisfied
vertical and horizontal loading (see below).
for combined loading is
It should be noted that the uniform stress condition will
T H
only apply if the vertical and horizontal loads from the + <1
stanchion continue to act in the same proportion. In prac- Ta Ha
tice there will usually be additional load cases (e.g. dead which may be rewritten in this case as
plus wind, dead plus imposed plus wind) which will
produce loads of different magnitudes and proportions. If t H
+ <1
wind loads are significant the bearing pressures for these ta Ha
load cases should also be checked, making due allowance
204 50
for the 25% increase in allowable bearing pressure under + <1
wind loading. 326 135
0.62 + 0.37 = 0.99 < 1 ⇒ okay.
Horizontal resistance to sliding
11.3.5 Design Example 9: Shear wall base –
In this example the base has been cast with the ground act-
vertical loads and horizontal wind loads
ing as permanent shuttering. The ground at the rear of the
base is well-compacted granular material forming a road The shear wall foundation in Fig. 11.33 is to be designed
sub-base. Passive resistance may therefore be assumed. for the loads shown. The base has an area of A = BL = 2.0 m ×
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 210

210 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

8.0 m = 16 m2. The net allowable bearing pressure at the Q

Bearing pressure due to imposed loads, q =
level of the foundation is na = 250 kN/m2. The foundation is A
to be cast using the excavated trench sides as a shutter.
1600
=
Loadings 16

The vertical superstructure dead and imposed loads are, = 100 kN/m2
respectively, G = 2000 kN and Q = 1600 kN. The moment MT
and horizontal shear at ground level arising from wind Bearing pressure due to wind loads, w = ±
Z
loads are MW = 1200 kNm and HW = 250 kN.
MT
With reference to Fig. 11.33, the moment M at level of =±
⎛ BL2 ⎞
underside of foundation – is given by ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 6 ⎠
MT = MW + DHW
1700
= 1200 + (2.0 × 250) = ±
= 1700 kNm ⎛ 2.0 × 8.0 2 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝ 6 ⎠
Individual bearing pressure components = ± 80 kN/m2
G Assuming an average density of 20 kN/m3, the bearing
Bearing pressure due to dead loads, g =
A pressure due to weight of foundation and backfill is

=
2000 f = density × depth
16 = 20 × 2.0
= 40 kN/m2
= 125 kN/m2
Allowable bearing pressure
(a) loads at ground level
Net allowable bearing pressure, na = 250 kN/m2.
G = 2000 kN
Q = 1600 kN Bearing pressure due to existing overburden s is taken as
approximately equal to that due to the new foundation and
backfill, i.e.
M W = 1200 kNm
s = f = 40 kN/m2

As discussed in section 10.11, the total allowable bearing

pressure should be used in this situation. From section 10.9,

HW = total allowable bearing pressure, ta = net allowable bearing

250 kN pressure + existing
surcharge pressure
= na + s
= 250 + 40
D= 2m

= 290 kN/m2
B
=2 8m
m L= Total allowable bearing pressure under wind loading =
1.25ta = 363 kN/m2.

Bearing pressure check

(b) loads at underside of foundation level Bearing pressures for the different load cases are given in
G = 2000 kN Fig. 11.34 (a).
Q = 1600 kN M T = M W + DH W
F = 640 kN Total bearing pressure under dead loads + imposed loads,
= 1700 kNm
t1, is given by

t1 = (g + q) + f
= (125 + 100) + 40
= 265 kN/m2

Total bearing pressure under vertical loads + wind load is

H = HW = t3, where
250 kN
t3 = (g + q + w) + f
= (125 + 100 + 80) + 40
Fig. 11.33 Shear wall base design example – loads. = 345 kN/m2
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 211

Design of Pads, Strips and Continuous Foundations 211

(a) BEARING PRESSURES

DEAD + IMPOSED DEAD + WIND DEAD + IMPOSED + WIND

(G + Q ) + F (G + W ) + F (G + Q + W ) + F
(TO CHECK AGAINST OVERTURNING)
LOADCASE 1 LOADCASE 2 LOADCASE 3

g 125 125 125

q 100 100

–80 –80
w
+80 +80

f 40 40 40

t 265 85 185
245
t1 t2 t3 345

(b) ULTIMATE BEARING PRESSURES

DEAD + IMPOSED DEAD + WIND DEAD = IMPOSED + WIND

= 1.4 (G + F ) = 1.4 (G + F ) = 1.0 (G + F ) = 1.2 (G + F )

+ 1.6Q + 1.4W + 1.4W + 1.2Q + 1.2W

LOADCASE 1 LOADCASE 2a LOADCASE 2b LOADCASE 3

gu 175 175 125 150

qu 160 120
−112 −112 −96

wu

+112 +112 +96

fu 56 56 40 48

tu 391 53
119
222
343 277
414

(c) RESULTANT PRESSURE FOR FOUNDATION MEMBER DESIGN

pu = t u − f u

335 13
63
173
287 237
366

Fig. 11.34 Shear wall base design example – pressures.

SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 212

212 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

Table 11.2 Load cases for the ultimate limit state of beam required to resist bending moments and shear
forces and that required to achieve the allowable bearing
Load case Load combination pressures.

1 1.4 (dead) + 1.6 (imposed) If the two widths are similar then the rectangular beam
2a 1.4 (dead) + 1.4 (wind) tends to be economic. However, on relatively poor-quality
2b 1.0 (dead) + 1.4 (wind) sub-strata the beam width required to achieve the allow-
3 1.2 (dead) + 1.2 (imposed) + 1.2 (wind) able bearing pressures often far exceeds that required for
bending and shear resistance. In the latter case it tends to
prove economic to reduce the beam width and spread the
If t3 is greater than 1.25t1, then wind load is critical. load through a flange slab on the soffit of the beam.
t3 = 345 kN/m2 > 1.25t1 = 1.25 × 265 = 331 kN/m2
11.4.2 Design decisions
Thus wind load is critical in this example. The economic design of continuous beam strips can
be greatly affected by the choice of curtailment of the
The allowable bearing pressure under wind loading is
lengths of beams (see section A in Chapter 10 for further
1.25ta = 363 kN/m2 > t3 = 345 kN/m2 ⇒ okay. information).

Horizontal load resistance They are generally used where longitudinal bending
moments are a major problem for the foundation design,
Because the foundation is to be cast using the trench i.e. in variable ground, soft sub-strata, or where loading is
sides as a shutter, it is considered that the horizontal force variable in the length of the beam. They are also used in
HW = 250 kN will be resisted by a combination of passive some areas of mining activity etc., where bending from
pressure and friction. In addition, since the proportion differential subsidence movement is critical but where
of horizontal to vertical loading is small, it is felt that the tensile and compressive ground strains in the foundation
unity factor need not be separately calculated. This con- can be controlled.
trasts with Design Example 8 (see section 11.3.4) where a
relatively lightly loaded foundation with a large horizontal The decision to use a continuous beam strip usually follows
load was located at a shallow depth, and there was there- the need to
fore a need to check the foundation for combined vertical (1) Reduce differential settlements below framework
and horizontal loading. columns.
(2) Combine foundations which would otherwise tend to
Ultimate design pressures overlap.
When wind loading is critical, foundations need to be (3) Ease construction by the use of continuous strips rather
designed for the standard load cases in Table 10.4, repro- than separate pads when they are becoming closely
duced above as Table 11.2. spaced.

The ultimate bearing pressures for these different load The decision to use an inverted T rather than a simple
cases are shown in Fig. 11.34(b). rectangular beam would result from bearing pressure
criteria demanding excessive beam widths for bearing when
For each load case, the individual pressure components are compared to widths required to resist bending and shear.
first summated to give the total ultimate bearing pressure
tu = gu + qu + wu + fu. In this example this indicates that the 11.4.3 Sizing of the design
underside of the foundation remains fully in compression
under all ultimate load combinations. The sizing of the rectangular beam is similar to the sizing of
the upstand beam of the inverted T, i.e. based mainly upon
The ultimate design pressure pu = tu − fu is then calculated bending moments and shear forces. However, the beam
for each load case, for design of foundation members, and width must in this case satisfy that required for allowable
is shown on Fig. 11.34 (c). This shows that the maximum bearing pressure criteria for the full contact area of the
ultimate design pressure is 366 kN/m2 and that in this beam.
instance there is no negative design pressure (the base
being in compression under all combinations). For inverted T beams the bearing stresses are reduced to an
acceptable amount by the use of the ground strip forming
11.4 Rectangular and tee-beam the flange of the inverted T.
continuous strips
The main rib of the T beam is then determined from the
design requirements for longitudinal bending and shear
11.4.1 Introduction
forces keeping a reasonably standard profile for shutter
Rectangular beam strips are briefly discussed in section 9.3.6 reuse to make the beam economic. The flange thickness and
and the inverted T-beam strip in section 9.3.7 where it reinforcement is determined from the bending moments
is mentioned that the main difference in the two beam and shear forces acting on the cantilever slab/flange (see
foundations relates to the relationship between the width Fig. 11.35).
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 213

Design of Pads, Strips and Continuous Foundations 213

column loads
load

LOADING

pressure

BENDING
MOMENTS

REINFORCEMENT

cantilever bars longitudinal bending +ve and −ve reinforcement

Fig. 11.35 Inverted Tee beam – typical loads, moments and reinforcement.

Casting of the beam is usually carried out in two lifts, the

ground slab being cast up to the top of the flange leaving a
roughened surface with the cage reinforcement projecting.
The main beam is then cast on the cleaned surface of the
slab up to its top level (see Fig. 11.36).

11.4.4 Design Example 10: Continuous Tee

1st stage beam footing with uniform bearing pressure
ground slab cast
A continuous beam foundation is required to carry the
three column loads shown in Fig. 11.37 (a), on poor soil
column starters with a net allowable bearing pressure of na = 35 kN/m2. To
keep bearing pressures within this limit, a wide flange will
be introduced at the bottom, forming an inverted Tee beam.

Size of footing
To minimize differential settlements, the length of the beam
has been chosen so that the resultant of the three applied
loads falls in the middle of the beam, i.e. there is a uniform
2nd stage bearing pressure under working loads. The superstructure
ground beam completed total load is given by

Fig. 11.36 Typical casting stages for inverted ∑ P = PB + PC + PD

Tee beam. = (GB + QB) + (GC + QC) + (GD + QD)
= (200 + 300) + (200 + 300) + (175 + 75)
= 1250 kN

giving a uniform loading on the foundation of 1250/25 =

50 kN/m run.
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 214

214 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

C
L resultant
∑P
12.5 m 12.5 m

G B = 200 kN G C = 200 kN G D = 175 kN

Q B = 300 kN Q C = 300 kN Q D = 75 kN
4.5 m 10.0 m 10.0 m 0.5 m

A E
B C D (a) loading diagram
(working loads)

uniform bearing pressure

600

(b) cross section

800
150

1500

Fig. 11.37 Continuous beam with uniform pressure design example –working loads.

∑P factoring up the loads to ultimate values can cause the

Minimum width of footing =
naL resultant of the applied loads to move off the centreline
of the footing, and the uniform bearing pressure diagram
1250
= then changes into a trapezoidal diagram. This will be
35 × 25.0 checked as follows.
= 1.43 m
Distance of centreline of applied loads from A is given by
A footing size of 600 mm wide by 800 mm deep, with a
X ∑ Pu = LABPBu + LACPCu + LADPDu
flange 1500 mm wide and 150 mm deep, will be assumed
for reinforcement design (see Fig. 11.37 (b)). [(4.5 × 760) + (14.5 × 760) + (24.5 × 365)]
X=
1885
Ultimate loads and reactions
X = 12.4 m
Factored ultimate loads become
∴ ePu = 12.5 − 12.4 = 0.1 m
PBu = 1.4GB + 1.6QB
= (1.4 × 200) + (1.6 × 300) Maximum and minimum ground reactions are given by
= 760 kN ∑ Pu ePu ∑ Pu
pu(max) , pu(min) = ±
Similarly A Z

PCu = (1.4 × 200) + (1.6 × 300) = 760 kN 1885 0.1 × 1885

= ±
PDu = (1.4 × 175) + (1.6 × 75) = 365 kN 25 × 1.5 ⎛ 2 1.5 ⎞
⎜ 25 × ⎟
∑ Pu = 760 + 760 + 365 = 1885 kN ⎝ 6 ⎠
Unless dead and imposed loads are in the same propor- = 50.2 ± 1.2
tion for all applied loads – rarely the case – the process of = 51.4 or 49.0 kN/m2
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 215

Design of Pads, Strips and Continuous Foundations 215

For a genuinely trapezoidal bearing pressure distribution, (−275)

MCD = MC + 5.5 = 256 − 756 = −500 kNm
the shear forces and bending moments would need to be 2
calculated from the ultimate loads and bearing reaction,
(225)
taking due account of the trapezoidal shape of the pressure MD = MCD + 4.5 = −500 + 506 = 6 kNm
2
diagram. In this case however for all practical purposes
these values are near enough equal, and an experienced Bending moments are plotted in Fig. 11.38 (b).
engineer would carry out the design using an average UDL
of pu = 50.2 kN/m2 or 50.2 × 1.5 = 75.3 kN/m run. The ulti- Ultimate shear forces and bending moments
mate loading diagram, and approximated ultimate bearing Since both the working loads and ultimate loads are taken
reaction, are shown in Fig. 11.38(a) and (b), respectively. as producing a uniform pressure distribution, ultimate
shears and moments can be obtained by simply factoring
Working load shear forces and bending moments up the working load shears and moments.
For a suspended continuous beam, only the span loading is The superstructure working load and ultimate load have
initially known. Moments, shear forces and support reac- previously been calculated as ∑ P = 1250 kN and ∑ Pu =
tions are derived via moment distribution or some other 1885 kN respectively. All working shears and moments
equivalent elastic analysis, using the relative stiffnesses of should therefore be factored up by
the various spans.
∑ Pu 1885
γP = = = 1.51
It is tempting to invert a continuous foundation beam and ∑ P 1250
analyse it in a similar manner – especially if a continuous This factor has been applied to the shear forces and bending
beam computer program is at hand – but this would be moments in Fig. 11.38 (b), and the resulting ultimate shears
incorrect. In this situation the support reactions are already and moments are plotted in Fig. 11.38 (c).
known, and the shear force and bending moment diagrams
are derived from simple statics without taking into account Longitudinal bending and shear reinforcement
the relative stiffnesses of the different spans. Shear forces
are obtained by resolving forces vertically at column loca- This example will only look at the reinforcement needed to
tions; the bending moments are then equal to the area of the satisfy the maximum values of bending moment and shear
shear force diagram. force, in order to confirm that the concrete section size
is satisfactory. In a full design, moments and shears along
If the ratio of dead load to imposed load is the same on the length of the beam would be considered, and bending
all columns then it is acceptable to calculate the design reinforcement and shear links would be curtailed to suit.
moments directly from the factored loading. In this case
25
however the load ratio is not the same on each column, and Effective depth, d = 800 − 40(cover) − 12 −
to calculate the moments from the approximated factored 2
UDL will produce significant errors. The simplified UDL = 735 mm
approach does work satisfactorily if the shear forces and
Maximum ultimate moment = MBu = 764 kNm
bending moments are first calculated using working loads,
and then the load factors applied to the results. MBu 764 × 106
=
bd2 600 × 7352
Working load shear forces are calculated from left to right,
using simple vertical equilibrium. = 2.36
(Note: as the flange is in tension the rectangular section only
VBA = pLAB = 50 × 4.5 = 225 kN
is used at this location.)
VBC = VBA − PB = 225 − 500 = −275 kN
VCB = VBC + pLBC = −275 + (50 × 10.0) = 225 kN As(req) = 0.65% bd [BS 8110: Part 3: Chart 2(1)]
VCD = VCB − PC = 225 − 500 = −275 kN
0.65
VDC = VCD + pLCD = −275 + (50 × 10.0) = 225 kN = × 600 × 735
100
VDE = VDC − PD = 225 − 250 = −25 kN
= 2867 mm2/m
The shear force diagram has been plotted in Fig. 11.38 (b).
Provide 6 T25 bars = 2945 mm2
Working load bending moments will be calculated from
2945 × 100
the area of the shear force diagram in Fig. 11.38 (b), again =
working from left to right. 600 × 735
= 0.67% bd
225
MB = 4.5 × = 506 kNm vc = 0.60 N/mm2 [BS 8110: Part 1: Table 3.8(2)]
2

(−275) Vu(max) = VCDu = 415 kN

MBC = MB + 5.5 = 506 − 756 = −250 kNm
2 VCDu 415 × 103
vu = =
(225) bvd 600 × 735
MC = MBC + 4.5 = −250 + 506 = 256 kNm
2 = 0.94 N/mm2
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 216

216 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

PB = 500 kN PC = 500 kN PD = 250 kN WORKING LOADS

(PBu = 760 kN) (PCu = 760 kN) (PDu = 365 kN) (ULTIMATE LOAD)
4.5 m 10.0 m 10.0 m 0.5 m

A E
B C D LOADS

(a) LOADS

225 kN 225 kN 225 kN

+ + +
E SHEAR FORCE
A B C D
− − –25 kN

–275 kN –275 kN

4.5 m 5.5 m 4.5 m 5.5 m 4.5 m 0.5 m

–500 kNm

–250 kNm −
− BENDING
+ MOMENTS
+ 6 kNm
256 kNm

506 kNm

(b) WORKING LOAD SHEARS AND MOMENTS

339 kN 332 kN 325 kN

+ + +
SHEAR FORCE
E (ULTIMATE)
A B C D
− − –40 kN

–421 kN –428 kN

4.5 m 5.6 m 4.4 m 5.7 m 4.3 m 0.5 m

–755 kNm

–378 kNm −
− BENDING
MOMENTS
+
9 kNm (ULTIMATE)
+
387 kNm

764 kNm

(c) ULTIMATE SHEARS AND MOMENTS

Fig. 11.38 Continuous beam with uniform pressure design example – shears and moments.
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 217

Design of Pads, Strips and Continuous Foundations 217

Lateral reinforcement in flange

The bottom flange should in theory be designed to canti-

lever 450 mm beyond the main 600 mm × 800 mm beam.
For this short cantilever span, subjected to the low level of
bearing pressure in this example, the resulting reinforce-
4T25 ment is expected to be nominal.
links T12 @
375 c/c
11.4.5 Design Example 11: Continuous
T10 @ 300 c/c rectangular beam footing with trapezoidal
bearing pressure
T10 T10 A concrete framed building has columns at 5 m centres,
6T25 with a heavily loaded column located adjacent to the
site boundary. The net allowable bearing pressure is na =
400 kN/m2. To keep bearing pressures within this limit, a
Fig. 11.39 Continuous beam with uniform pressure continuous rectangular beam footing will be used, as shown
design example – reinforcement details. in Fig. 11.40 (a).

It is assumed that site constraints preclude the alternative

solution of a trapezoidal balanced foundation – see sections
12.3.3 and 12.3.6.

vu − vc = 0.94 − 0.60 [BS 8110: Part 1: Table 3.7(2)] Bearing pressures

= 0.34
< 0.4 N/mm2 ⇒ use nominal links throughout. The superstructure total load is

0.4 bv sv ∑ P = PB + PC + PD
Asv(req) =
0.95 fyv = 1000 + 500 + 500
= 2000 kN
using 2 × T12 legs = 226 mm2,
Taking moments about the beam centreline, the corres-
226 × 0.87 × 460
sv = ponding eccentricity, eP, is given by
0.4 × 600
eP ∑ P = 5.0PB − 5.0PD
= 377 mm
5.0 × 1000 − 5.0 × 500
eP =
Use 2 legs of T12 @ 375 centres = 754 mm /m (see 2
2000
Fig. 11.39).
= 1.25 m
Local bond Checking that this is within the middle third:
Local bond is given by L 11.0
= = 1.83 m > 1.25 m
Vu 6 6
fbs =
∑ usla
It is, thus the base is fully in compression.
where ∑ us = sum of the bar perimeters at the section
Maximum and minimum bearing pressures are
being considered
la = lever arm, which CP 110 approximates to the ∑ P eP∑ P
effective depth, d. pmax, pmin = ±
A Z
Shear force is Vu = 415 kN.
1 ⎛ ∑ P eP ∑ P ⎞
= ⎜ ± 2 ⎟
The main steel is 6T25 bars. B⎝ L (L /6) ⎠

The local bond stress is 1 ⎛ 2000 1.25 × 2000 ⎞

= ⎜ ± ⎟
B ⎝ 11 (112 /6) ⎠
Vu
fbs =
∑ us d =
1
(181.8 ± 124.0)
B
415 × 103
=
(6 × π × 25)735 =
305.8 57.8
,
B B
= 1.20 N/mm2
For pmax
na = 400 kN/m2
This is well within the allowable value of 3.75 N/mm2
for grade C35 concrete, given by CP 110: Part 1: Table 21(3) 305.8
B= = 0.76 m
(BS 8110 does not give allowable local bond stresses). 400
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 218

218 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

site boundary

PB = 1000 kN PC = 500 kN PD = 500 kN

0.5 m 5.0 m 5.0 m 0.5 m

(a) WORKING LOADS

A B C D E
C
L
∑ P = 2000 kN e P = 1.25 m

(b) RESULTANT LOAD

AND ECCENTRICITY

(c) BEARING PRESSURE

DIAGRAM
pmin = 72.3 kN/m2

pmax = 382.3 kN/m2

Fig. 11.40 Continuous beam with trapezoidal pressure design example – working loads.

A foundation width of B = 800 mm will be chosen. This Calculation of shears and moments for a trapezoidal
gives bearing pressure distribution
1
pmax, pmin = (305.8, 57.8) Shear forces are simply calculated by taking vertical
0.8 equilibrium at any point along the beam. This can be
= 382.3 kN/m2, 72.3 kN/m2 done directly from the loads and reactions (Fig. 11.42 (a)
and 11.42 (b)), or by means of the equivalent formulae
This pressure distribution is shown in Fig. 11.40 (c).
in Fig. 11.41 (c).

Ultimate loads and reactions Bending moments at a cross-section are equal to the area
of the shear force diagram to one side of the section. These
In this particular example the imposed load is assumed to
can be determined by calculating these areas in a similar
make up 50% of the superstructure load. Ultimate loads are
manner to Design Example 10 in section 11.4.4, but taking
thus obtained by multiplying working loads by a combined
due account of the curved shape of the shear force diagram
partial load factor of γP = 1.5. The resulting ultimate loads
arising from the trapezoidal pressures. Alternatively
are shown in Fig. 11.42 (a).
they can be calculated using the equivalent formulae in
Provided this 50% of level of imposed load applies to Fig. 11.41 (d).
all columns, ultimate bearing pressures are similarly
obtained by factoring the working bearing pressures by Ultimate shear forces
1.5. These have been multiplied by the beam width, B =
Shear forces will be calculated from left to right, using the
800 mm, and shown as bearing reactions per unit length in
formulae in Fig. 11.41 (c).
Fig. 11.42 (b).
VAB = 0
To reduce the number of subscripts, the u subscript for ultim-
ate loads has been dropped from the ultimate reactions, (pA + pB)LAB
VBA = VAB +
shears, and moments in the remainder of this example. 2
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 219

Design of Pads, Strips and Continuous Foundations 219

P1 P2

(a) TYPICAL SPAN SHOWING

COLUMN LOADS

L12

1 2

(b) TRAPEZOIDAL BEARING

REACTION DIAGRAM
p1 p2

V10
V21 (c) SHEAR FORCE DIAGRAM

+ V12 = V10 − P1

(p1 + p2)L 12
− V21 = V12 +
2
(p2 − p1)x 2
VX = V12 + p1x +
2L 12
V12
V23

M12 (d) BENDING MOMENT DIAGRAM

− at a distance x from ‘1’

+ + p1x 2 (p2 − p1)x 3
M(x) = M1 + L12x + +
M2 2 6L 12
2
M1 (2p1 + p2)L 12
M 2 = M1 + V12L12 +
6

Fig. 11.41 Continuous beam with trapezoidal bearing pressure – formulae for shears and moments.

(458.7 + 441.8) 0.5 Finally, as a check that VED = 0,

=0+ = 225.1 kN
2 (pD + pE)LDE
VED = VDE +
VBC = VBA − PB 2
= 225.1 − 1500 = −1274.9 kN
(103.7 + 86.8) 0.5
(p + p )L = −47.1 + = 0.5 kN ⇒ near enough.
VCB = VBC + B C BC 2
2
The resulting shear force diagram is plotted in Fig. 11.42 (c).
(441.8 + 272.8) 5.0
= −1274.9 + = 511.6 kN
2 Ultimate bending moments
VCD = VCB − PC
Bending moments at column positions will be calculated,
= 511.6 − 750 = −238.4 kN
from left to right, using the formula in Fig. 11.41 (d).
(pC + pD)LCD
VDC = VCD + (2pA + pB)LAB
2
2 MB = MA + VABLAB +
6
(272.8 + 103.7) 5.0
= −238.4 + = 702.9 kN
2 (2 × 458.7 + 441.8) 0.52
=0+0+
6
VDE = VDC − PD
= 702.9 − 750 = −47.1 kN = 56.6 kNm
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 220

220 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

PBu = 1500 kN PCu = 750 kN PDu = 750 kN

0.5 m 5.0 m 5.0 m 0.5 m

(a) ULTIMATE
LOADS
A B C D E

p E = 86.8 kN/m
pD = 103.7 kN/m (b) ULTIMATE BEARING
pC = 272.8 kN/m REACTIONS

p B = 441.8 kN/m
pA = 458.7 kN/m
702.9 kN
511.6 kN
225.1 kN
+ +
(c) SHEAR FORCE
− DIAGRAM
−41.1 kN
− −238.4 kN

−1274.9 kN

−1947.4 kNm
−1607.7 kNm

−1499.5 kNm (d) BENDING MOMENT

DIAGRAM

13.9 kNm
56.6 kNm

Fig. 11.42 Continuous beam with trapezoidal pressure design example – ultimate loads.

(2pB + pC)L BC
2
This is close to zero when compared with the maximum
MC = MB + VBCLBC +
6 moment. Reworking the example using an additional
decimal place of accuracy would give a value closer to zero.
(2 × 441.8 + 272.8) 5.02
= 56.6 − 1274.9 × 5.0 +
6 Maximum ‘mid-span’ moments are obtained by calculating
the point of zero shear from the formula in Fig. 11.41 (c) and
= −1499.5 kNm
calculating the moment at this point using the formula in
(2pC + pD)L CD
2
Fig. 11.41 (d).
MD = MC + VCDLCD +
6
For span BC, the point of zero shear is given by
(2 × 272.8 + 103.7) 5.02
= −1499.5 − 238.4 × 5.0 + (pCB − pBC )x2
6 Vx = 0 = VBC + PBx +
2LBC
= 13.9 kNm
(272.8 − 441.8)x2
Finally, as a check that ME = 0, 0 = −1274.9 + 441.8x +
2×5
(2pD + pE)L DE
2
ME = MD + VDELDE + 0 = −16.9x2 + 441.8x − 1274.9
6
(2 × 103.7 + 86.8)2 hence x = 3.3 m (from the quadratic formula).
= 13.9 − 47.1 × 0. 5 +
6 For span BC, the maximum moment is found to occur at
= 2.6 kNm x = 3.3 m.
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 221

Design of Pads, Strips and Continuous Foundations 221

pBx2 (pC − pB)x3 C

L stanchion
MBC = MB + VBCx + +
2 6LBC CL grillage
441.8 × 3.32 vertical
= 56.6 − 1274.9 × 3.3 + +
2 load P
applied moment M
(272.8 − 441.8) 3.33
6×5

= −1947.4 kNm
resultant P at
For span CD, the maximum moment is found to occur for e eccentricity e where
x = 0.9 m. M
e=
P
pCx2 (pC − pB)x3
MCD = MC + VCDx + +
2 6LCD

272.8 × 0.92
= −1499.5 − 238.4 × 0.9 + +
2

(103.7 − 272.8) 0.93

6×5
= −1607.7 kNm

The resulting bending moment diagram is plotted in

Fig. 11.42 (d). U.D.
pressure
Reinforcement

Having calculated the ultimate shear forces and bending Fig. 11.43 Foundation eccentricity to counteract
moments, a suitable beam depth should be chosen, and base moment.
bending and shear reinforcement calculated in accord-
ance with BS 8110 (see, for example, Design Example 10 in
section 11.4.4). surrounds are not being used. The size of the base in terms
of plan area will, unless eccentric loads and/or moments
11.5 Grillage foundations are applied, be dependent upon P/na as previously shown
for the other pad foundations. If however, bending
11.5.1 Introduction moments or eccentric loads are applied to the foundation
an effective eccentricity of the foundation below the stan-
A brief description of the use of grillage foundations is
chion is desirable, the eccentricity of the foundation being
given in Chapter 9 (section 9.6.5) where their use for tem-
made to coincide with that of the applied loadings. By this
porary foundations is discussed together with durability
method an axial/symmetric (assumed uniform) pressure
requirements for more permanent use.
below the base can be achieved (see Fig. 11.43). A check
should be made to ensure that other load combinations, for
11.5.2 Design decisions example, the condition of vertical load and maximum
As discussed in section 9.6.5 the decision to use a grillage bending moments, are adequately catered for within the
could result from detail.

(1) The need to support very heavy point loads, and/or The beams within the grillage will generally consist of two
(2) To provide a temporary foundation which allows the layers at right angles positioned below the main steel base
possibility of simple reuse. plate of the stanchion. An increased number of beam layers
would only be adopted if the resulting design produced
The use of a grillage for temporary bridge works supports excessively large beam sections to accommodate the result-
is probably one of the most common modern uses for ing stresses. When using steel beams the sizing of the sec-
grillage foundations. They are also often encountered as tions can be roughly produced by reference to safe load
column bases within older existing steel framed buildings. tables for allowable shear and bending moments. A more
accurate analysis for the final design can then be carried out
11.5.3 Sizing of the design based upon a sketch layout of these preliminary sizes.

Since the main economic use for grillage bases involves

11.5.4 Design Example 12: Grillage
heavy loads the need to provide adequate shear and bend-
foundation
ing resistance tends to be the major criteria for design.
In addition to providing shear resistance it is sometimes A steel grillage foundation has been chosen to provide tem-
necessary to stiffen up the webs of steel beams if concrete porary support during bridge construction. The foundation
SFDC11 3/8/06 10:37 AM Page 222

222 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

is required to support a maximum axial load of P = 1200 kN, The maximum upper tier bending moment is calculated as
of which 25% is imposed load. The soil has an allowable the area of the shear force diagram (Fig. 11.45 (c)).
bearing pressure of na = 100 kN/m2.
⎛ 218 − 87 ⎞ ⎛ 305 ⎞
Mu = (0.7 × 218) − 0.15 ⎜ ⎟ + 0.35 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
Size of base
= 196 kNm
P
Required area of base =
na The lower tier ultimate shear forces are obtained from the
loading diagram (Fig. 11.45 (f)).
1200
=
100 V12 = 0

= 12 m2 1.95 ⎛ Pu ⎞ ⎛ 1740 ⎞
V21 = ⎜ ⎟ = 0.42 ⎜ ⎟ = 184 kN
4.60 ⎝ 4 ⎠ ⎝ 4 ⎠
To suit site conditions, a base size of 4.6 m × 2.6 m will be
chosen, giving a base area of 12.0 m (see Fig. 11.44). ⎛P ⎞ ⎛ 1740 ⎞
V23 = V21 − ⎜ u ⎟ = 184 − ⎜ ⎟ = −33 kN
⎝ 8⎠ ⎝ 8 ⎠
Ultimate bending moments and shear forces
The maximum lower tier bending moment is calculated as
For 25% imposed load, Fig. 11.22 gives a combined partial the area of the shear force diagram (Fig. 11.45 (g)).
load factor of γP = 1.45. Thus
⎛ 184.4 ⎞
Mu = 1.95 × ⎜ ⎟
Pu = γP P ⎝ 2 ⎠
= 1.45 × 1200
= 179 kNm
= 1740 kN

The upper tier ultimate shear forces are obtained from the Design of steel to BS 5950
loading diagram (Fig. 11.45 (b)).
Assuming the concrete casing provides lateral restraint to
P 1740 the compression flange, and provided the shear force is less
VAB = u = = 218 kN
8 8 than 0.6Pv , where Pv is the ultimate shear capacity, then the
ultimate moment capacity is given by Mc (BS 5950: Part 1:
⎛ P ⎞ ⎛ 1740 ⎞
VBA = VAB − 0.15 ⎜ u ⎟ = 218 − 0.15 ⎜ ⎟ = 87 kN 4.2.5(4)). Pv and Mc can be obtained from safe load tables
⎝ 1 × 2⎠ ⎝ 1 × 2⎠
published by the Steel Construction Institute (SCI). If the
Pu 1740 grillage beams were not encased in concrete, then addi-
VBC = VBA + = 87 + = 305 kN
8 8 tional checks would be required for lateral torsional buckling.

1 4
4600

2 3
1950 700 1950

C
L
A
250

D
700

C
B plt =
2600

1000
700

C
L

B
B B
700

A
250

Fig. 11.44 Grillage design example – plan.

SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 223

Design of Pads, Strips and Continuous Foundations 223

(a) section A–A

showing elevation
on upper beam
150 150

Pu /2 = 870 kN

Pu /8 = Pu /8 Pu /8 Pu /8 (b) loading diagram

218 kN (ultimate loads)
700 700 700

A B C D
305 kN
218 kN + (c) shear force
87 kN
−87 kN diagram
−
−218 kN
−305 kN

(d) bending moment

+ 196 kNm diagram

(e) section B–B

showing elevation
on lower beam

Pu /8 = Pu /8
218 kN
(f) loading diagram
(ultimate loads)

Pu /4 = 435 kN
184 kN
33 kN
(g) shear force
diagram
−33 kN
−184 kN
1 2 3 4

(h) bending moment

+ diagram

180 kNm 180 kNm

Fig. 11.45 Grillage design example – sections.

SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 224

224 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

Design of upper tier beams top mesh

To ensure the shear force is within 0.6Pv, this requires

Vu
Pv ≥
0.6

305
≥
0.6
typical slab reinforcement
≥ 508 kN
mesh in top prevents
From the SCI’s Guide to BS 5950: Volume 1,(5) a 457 × 152 ×
tension cracking
52 UB should be used which has the following properties
for grade S275 steel:

Pv = 564 kN (>508 kN)

Mc = 300 kNm (>196 kNm)

Design of lower tier beams

exaggerated + and − minor cracking
V bending not usually critical
Pv ≥ u
0.6
Fig. 11.46 Typical bending and reinforcement in
184 ground bearing slabs.
≥
0.6
≥ 307 kN distortions or cracking. Where such conditions do not exist
Again from the SCI publication, a 356 × 127 × 39 UB should then a suspended slab may need to be adopted.
be used which has the following properties for grade A floating slab can be of plain concrete or reinforced con-
S275 steel: crete depending on the quality of the sub-strata and the
loading condition. Generally they are reinforced and while
Pv = 385 kN (>307 kN)
it can be argued that under their loading conditions posi-
Mcx = 181 kNm (>179 kNm)
tive and negative bending moments will be produced, it is
Checks should also be carried out for web buckling and common to only reinforce with one layer of reinforcement,
bearing with stiffeners being provided as necessary. This usually using a mesh fabric. If one layer of reinforcement
is not critical for this design case as the grillage is wholly is used it can be located in the bottom, top or middle of
encased in concrete. the slab, depending on the designer’s requirements. How-
ever, generally a top mesh is usually considered the most
11.6 Floating slabs (ground slabs) suitable.

Cracking of concrete slabs is almost inevitable in some form

11.6.1 Introduction either as a result of shrinkage or bending tensile stress.
A floating slab or ground slab can be thought of as the Control over such cracking is usually more important on
most common form of raft foundation. It is basically a the top surface of the ground floor slab rather than on the
concrete slab with limited stiffness and reinforcement suit- underside and by providing the mesh in the top of the slab
able to disperse the normal floor loads over a greater area and accepting some cracking on the soffit the designer can
of sub-strata and to span over any depressions or soft spots. economically control the condition for most ground slabs
(see Fig. 11.46).
11.6.2 Design decisions If, however, there is a need for the slab soffit to be protected
then a bottom mesh can also be provided (see Fig. 11.47).
The design decisions relate to

(1) The loading anticipated on the slab.

(2) The ground conditions below the slab. top mesh 25 mm cover
(3) The need to maintain specific levels and finishes for a
normal design life within appropriate tolerances.
(4) The required durability.
(5) The control of shrinkage and other movements without
excessive cracking.

The floating slab is chosen when the sub-strata or a hard-

bottom mesh 50 mm cover
core layer over the sub-strata is suitable to allow a simple
slab to adequately disperse the loads without excessive Fig. 11.47 Doubly reinforced ground slab.
SFDC11 3/8/06 10:37 AM Page 225

Design of Pads, Strips and Continuous Foundations 225

edge condition isolation joint along sawn restrained

perimeter and around columns joints (max 6 m c/c)

30 m
part cantilever maximum estimated A
part span soft spot two
way span

B B
A
soft spots
section

Fig. 11.48 Typical design depression.

30 m

In all cases one of the most important aspects of the design

and construction is to maintain adequate cover for both wear
and tear of the surface and to provide adequate durability.

The slab is generally sized and reinforced on the basis of

experience. However, as with the crust raft, a calculated
design can be adopted using nominal rules based upon the
ground condition. For example, assumptions for variations formed restrained joints formed free-movement joint
in sub-strata and/or hardcore support can be made on the formed longitudinal free joints
basis of expected diameter of any soft spot which may have
18 m 18 m
to be spanned or cantilevered (see Fig. 11.48).

11.6.3 Sizing of the slab Fig. 11.49 Floating slab design example – plan
showing movement joints.
In general floor slabs are designed by eye from experience
and are made up of a sub-base layer of hardcore blinded The design process therefore should be to calculate the rein-
with either sand or concrete and sealed with a slip mem- forcement required for ground support, and then decide on
brane upon which the slab is cast. However, an alternative sawn or formed joint locations to minimise the thermal and
approach is to consider the make-up and performance shrinkage stresses in the panels. The analysis for ground
requirements in more detail. support can be assessed by the adoption of a design based
Floor slabs supported directly on the ground are subject to upon spanning or cantilevering over a depression similar
bending and shear forces resulting from differential move- to that adopted for crust rafts (see section 13.1.4). Due to the
ments in the ground support during loading. In addition relatively small loads applied to slabs, the likely settlement
they are subjected to thermal and moisture movements depressions tend to be of small diameter when compared
which can produce the critical stresses particularly in slabs with a similar crust raft condition (see Table 11.3).
on uniform support.
11.6.4 Design Example 13: Floating slab
Typical reinforcement proportions of 0.1–0.25% will not
A ground floor slab is to be designed for a single-storey
significantly affect the crack width and distribution. Limit-
supermarket measuring 60 m × 36 m on plan, as shown in
ing crack width to say 0.3 mm would require significant
Fig. 11.49. The slab is required to carry an imposed load of
amounts of reinforcement of the order of 0.4%. Current
25 kN/m2. The superstructure is a two bay portal frame on
thinking(6) is to saw the slab into panels approximately
separate foundations, and the soil is a medium dense sand,
6 m square, the thermal contraction and drying shrinkage
which the site investigation has indicated to be consistent
cracks being induced by the saw cuts. The use of square
across the site.
mesh ‘A’-type fabrics is now more common than ‘B’-type
fabrics and the ‘small panel’ approach is considered to Based on the relatively good ground conditions, a 150 mm
result in lower risk of cracking than the use of heavy fabric concrete slab on 150 mm of hardcore will initially be
and more widely spaced joints. assumed.
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 226

226 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

formed sealant
groove with arris
A142 mesh in top of protection if required saw cut groove,
slab throughout subsequently sealed

150

150
hardcore

sand
slip membrane R12 dowel bar 900 mm long A142 mesh, 900 mm long
@ 300 mm c/c one half debonded
formed free-movement joint sawn restrained-movement joint

section A–A

20 mm × 20 mm mastic as for debonded joint,

but optional here

20 mm thick filler R12 tie bars 900 mm

board long @ 600 mm c/c
isolation joint formed restrained-movement joint

section B–B (sub-base etc omitted for clarity)

Fig. 11.50 Floating slab design example – movement joint details.

L = design span for

local depression plan on depression at
unsupported corner of slab

one-way spanning (‘B’ or ‘C’ mesh)

UDL: Mu /b = (0.8L/2) fu (0.64L2 )/(0.8L)

= 0.32 fuL2 kNm/m
L av = 0.8L

point load: Mu /b = Pu (0.8L)/(0.8L)

= Pu kNm/m

area = 0.64L2 two-way spanning (‘A’ mesh)

UDL: Mu /b = 0.16fuL2 kNm/m

A393 mesh point load: Mu /b = 0.5Pu kNm/m

Fig. 11.51 Floating slab design example – designing for local depression.
SFDC11 1/8/06 11:17 AM Page 227

Design of Pads, Strips and Continuous Foundations 227

Table 11.3 Ground floor slabs – typical assumed (2) Calculate the loads acting over a depression located at
depressions an unsupported slab corner, as per Fig. 11.51. (This is
the worst case location for a depression.)
Sub-grade Typical soil types Typical assumed diameter In this example, the ultimate foundation loads due to
classification of depression (m)
slab self-weight and imposed load of 25 kN/m2 is given by
Consistent firm One only of 0.7 to 1.25 fu = 1.4(24 × 0.15) + (1.6 × 25)
sub-soil clay = 45 kN/m2
sand
sandy clay No significant point loads are assumed to act in this
clayey sand particular example.
gravel
(3) Calculate the cantilever moment per metre width adja-
Consistent type One only of 1.25 to 1.75 cent to this depression from Fig. 11.51.
but variable clay An A mesh is proposed, giving a two-way moment of
density i.e. sand
Mu = 0.16fu L2
loose-to-firm sandy clay
clayey sand = 0.16 × 45 × 0.952
gravel = 6.5 kNm/m

Variable soil Two or more of 1.75 to 2.25 (4) Calculate the corresponding area of mesh reinforcement
type but firm clay required.
silt
Effective depth, d = 150 − 20(cover) −
sandy clay
silty clay 6
(half bar diameter)
clayey sand 2
sand
firm granular fill
= 127 mm
gravel Width, b = 1000 mm
Variable soil Two or more of 2.25 to 3.0 Mu 6.5 × 106
type and clay =
bd2 1000 × 1272
variable density silt
sandy clay = 0.40
silty clay
clayey sand As = 0.11% bd [BS 8110: Part 3: Chart 2(1)]
sand
⎛ 0.11⎞
firm granular fill =⎜ ⎟ × 1000 × 127
gravel
⎝ 100 ⎠
= 140 mm2/m
An A142 mesh will therefore be satisfactory.
Joints and reinforcement for shrinkage purposes
Normally this reinforcement, calculated for the worst case
The slab is intended to be constructed using the long strip
condition at a slab corner, would be provided throughout
method. The slab will be cast in 60 m × 4.5 m strips, in an
the slab. In situations where this results in an excessive
alternate bay sequence, as shown in Fig. 11.49. The strips
amount of reinforcement, a separate calculation can be
being sawn into 6 m square panels as shown is practicable
carried out for a depression located in the middle of the
when the concrete is strong enough to avoid damage to
slab. This calculation would follow the procedures for raft
arrises and no later than 24 h after placing. If an A393 mesh
slabs in section 13.1.5.
is to be used, one formed free-movement joint along the
60 m length of the building will be appropriate.
11.7 References
Similarly, a formed free-movement joint should be provided 1. British Standards Institution (1985) BS 8110-3, Structural Use of
in the longitudinal direction. The various reinforcement Concrete, Part 3: Design Charts for Singly Reinforced Beams, Doubly
and joint details are shown in Fig. 11.50. Reinforced Beams and Rectangular Columns. BSI, London.
2. British Standards Institution (1997) BS 8110-1, Structural Use of
Spanning over local depression Concrete, Part 1: Code of Practice for Design and Construction. BSI,
London.
The principles are similar to those used for raft design in 3. British Standards Institution (1972) CP 110, The Structural Use of
Chapter 13. Concrete. BSI, London.
4. British Standards Institution (2002) BS 5950-1, Structural Use of
(1) Select a diameter for a local depression from Table 11.4.
Steelwork in Building, Part 1: Code of Practice for Design-rolled and
Modify it if required to take into account the thickness
Welded Sections. BSI, London.
of any compacted granular material/hardcore below 5. Steel Construction Institute (2000) Guide to BS 5950: Part 1:
the slab, as per Fig. 13.4 (a). Volume 1, 6th edn, SCI, Ascot.
In this example, with the sub-grade comprising a 6. Concrete Society (2003) Concrete Industrial Ground Floors – a
consistent medium dense sand, a design span of Guide to Construction. Technical Report No. 34, 3rd edn. Concrete
0.95 m will be used. Society, London.
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 238

13 Raft Foundations

13.1 Design procedures for within the raft structure itself. The arrangement and
semi-flexible rafts frequency of raft thickenings – and movement joints
where necessary – to achieve this involve as much art as
Chapter 9 has briefly discussed the various types of raft
science. Nevertheless, the following guidelines should be
foundations and their use, it is intended here to give more
considered when creating a suitable raft layout.
detailed design guidance and examples.

(1) Continuity of thickenings

13.1.1 Design principles
Thickenings should be continuous wherever possible, with
The design approach is based upon the practical assump-
no abrupt terminations or changes in direction. Although a
tion that all soils are variable, and all ground improvement
thickening will often be located to coincide with the main
treatments are imperfect. While ‘beam on elastic founda-
load-bearing elements of the superstructure, this is gener-
tion’ and similar analyses have their place, they tend to
ally not essential. The priority should always be to achieve
assume a consistent and uniform formation which does not
a consistent and robust arrangement of thickenings. It is
often accord with reality. Local depressions or soft spots
recommended that there be sufficient thickenings in both
will usually occur, and should therefore, particularly in the
directions to limit the aspect ratio for slab bays (i.e. length :
case of semi-flexible rafts, be designed for.
width) to a maximum of 2 : 1.
This approach to raft design consists of five main steps:
(2) Avoidance of areas of weakness
(1) Adopt a sensible layout of beam thickenings to avoid
stress concentrations and areas of weakness. Areas of weakness generally occur at re-entrant corners
(2) Check bearing pressure under concentrated loads on (see Fig. 13.13) and where re-entrant corners occur on both
slabs and beam thickenings. sides, resulting in a significant reduction in width of the
(3) Establish a design span for local depressions, based slab. Re-entrant corners should be dealt with by ensuring
on the ground conditions and thickness of compacted that both of the external thickenings meeting at the corner
hardcore filling. are continued past the corner as internal thickenings on the
(4) Design the raft slab areas to span over local depressions same lines. Such areas of weakness within the raft should
and to resist shrinkage cracking. be suitably strengthened, with additional thickenings if
(5) Design the raft beam thickenings to span over local necessary; alternatively, the weakness can be ‘acknow-
depressions. ledged’ by positioning a movement joint at this location
(see below and Fig. 13.17).
It should be emphasized that, as with all other aspects of
foundation design, it is not possible to exhaustively cover The other main possible source of weakness in a slab is via
every imaginable situation, i.e. in this case every possible poor detailing at thickening junctions and intersections.
combination of loading, raft profile and reinforcement, Suitable tying reinforcement should be provided at all
compacted fill, and ground conditions. Therefore, although corner, tee, and cross junctions, to ensure thickenings can
the guidance which follows should cover most normal situ- interact and share load with each other as necessary.
ations, any new design situation should be looked at wear-
ing one’s ‘engineering spectacles’ to spot those situations (3) Appropriate use of movement joints
where rules need adapting, or do not apply.
Movement joints are used to break up a large raft into
a number of smaller rafts. This may be done to reduce
13.1.2 Design of raft layouts
bending moments and shrinkage stresses in a large
Rafts form a dual levelling-out function. Firstly they take raft/superstructure (see section 13.1.5 (1)), or to avoid areas
concentrated loads (stress concentrations) from the super- of stress concentration.
structure and spread them more evenly onto the ground
Stress concentrations can occur at local reductions in width
below; secondly they mitigate the effects of soft spots (local
within a slab, or at junctions of limbs with the main mass
weaknesses) in the supporting ground through local span-
of the raft (see Design Example 2 in section 13.3.3). It is
ning action.
usually easier to deal with the strain energy associated
In order for rafts to fulfil this role it is necessary to avoid with these stress concentrations by introducing a move-
areas of undue stress concentration and zones of weakness ment joint and allowing movement to occur, rather than
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 239

Raft Foundations 239

strengthening the area by introducing additional reinforce- (a) slab with top reinforcement only
ment and thickenings.
tw
It is good practice to avoid excessively large or excessively
elongated rafts, and thus a larger building may well need P
to incorporate a number of movement joints. It is recom-
mended that rafts be limited to an aspect ratio (length :
width) of approximately 4 : 1, and in general a maximum hS
length of 20 m.
45°
It is important that, when a movement joint is introduced
into a raft structure, thickenings occur on both sides of the p ≤ pa
movement joint, to ensure the two halves do both act as
independent rafts. The movement joint should be carried B = t w + 2hS
up through the superstructure walls and suspended floors;
however it is generally not necessary to continue it through only suitable for P
Bpa
a tiled or slated timber roof structure, unless large differential
(t w + 2hS) p a
foundation settlements or longitudinal strains are expected.
(b) slab with top and bottom reinforcement
13.1.3 Bearing pressure design
P
Rafts are intended to take local stress concentrations, i.e.
line and point loads, and spread them over a larger area by
the time they reach the formation level, so as not to exceed
the allowable bearing pressure. This is done through the
combined influence of concrete thickness and profile, rein-
forcement, and thickness of hardcore/granular fill. Where
local bending of the raft is utilized to spread the loads over
a wider area, an ultimate limit-state analysis is carried out p = pa
to size the necessary reinforcement.
B = P/pa
(1) Slabs
bottom reinforcement must be capable of
While the slab thickness does contribute to the spread resisting moment
of concentrated loads, the main factor is the presence or Mu = (γp p) (B/2)2/2 = γpP 2/8pa
absence of bottom reinforcement. In slabs with top rein- and shear force
forcement only, the load is assumed to spread through
Vu = (γp p) (B/2) = γpP/2
the slab at 45°, i.e. as if it were mass concrete. In slabs with
bottom reinforcement, the reinforcement can act with the Fig. 13.1 Bearing pressure design for internal walls on
slab to form a local spread footing, distributing the load slabs without thickenings.
over a wider distance. These cases are shown in Fig. 13.1.
of the thickening beyond the line of action of the load) or by
(2) Internal beam thickenings spreading the load further into the raft, and using the slab
reinforcement to transfer a moment to a suitable reaction to
The width over which the load is assumed to spread is
balance the vertical loading eccentricity (see Fig. 13.3 (b)
primarily governed by the arrangement of reinforcement.
and (c)). This latter approach tends to be the more economic
The presence or absence of transverse reinforcement in
provided:
the thickenings, and bottom reinforcement in the slabs,
determines whether the load can be spread merely over the (a) The opposite edge thickening has a similar load inten-
bottom soffit of the thickening, or additionally over any sity, to balance the moment within the slab, and
sloping sides to the thickening or the adjacent slab. These (b) The slab reinforcement is sufficient for this moment to
cases are shown in Fig. 13.2. It is recommended that the slab develop.
is made thick enough to resist the applied shear, without
the use of shear reinforcement. (4) Effect of compacted hardcore/granular fill

The presence of compacted hardcore or granular fill below

(3) External beam thickenings
a raft enables further spreading of concentrated loads,
With external beam thickenings, the effect of eccentric reducing bearing pressures and slab bending moments.
loads is often the most dominant factor. With reference to Although almost all rafts have some thickness of hard-
Fig. 13.3 (a), the bearing pressure is initially checked assum- core/compacted fill, the beneficial effect of this thickness
ing a uniform pressure distribution of width 2x located con- is often ignored in practice except where this thickness is
centrically below the load. If the bearing pressure must be substantial. Where the thickness is taken into account a 60°
reduced, this is done either by increasing x (the projection spread is usually assumed (see Fig. 13.4).
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 240

240 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

(a) no transverse reinforcement in thickening (c) transverse reinforcement in thickening and bottom
reinforcement in slab

tw tw
P P

x x

hs
hb hb
x x
45°
Bb Bb

p p = pa
B
B = P/pa
B = B b /2 + t w /2 + h b
t w + 2h b
only suitable for P
Bpa bottom reinforcement at X–X must be designed for
Mu = (γp p) [(B – Bb – 2(h b – h S)/2]2/2

[(Bb /2 + t w /2 + h b)
(t w + 2h b)]pa
γp pa P
= – Bb – 2(h b – h S) 2
8 pa
(b) transverse reinforcement in thickening
and the concrete section sized for a design shear of
P tw Vu = (γp p) [B – B b – 2(h b – h S)]/2
γp pa P
= – B b – 2(h b – h S)
2 pa

hs
hb

45°

Bb

B = B b + 2(h b – h S)
only suitable for P
Bpa

[Bb + 2(h b – h S)]pa

Fig. 13.2 Bearing pressure design for internal beam thickenings.

13.1.4 Design span for local depressions 13.1.5 Slab design

Slabs must be designed to span over local depressions. As
(1) The information from the site investigation is used to
with normal suspended slabs, raft slabs are designed for
establish the diameter for local depressions. For typical
the serviceability limit states of deflection and shrinkage
ground conditions, Table 13.1 may be used for guidance.
(cracking), and the ultimate limit state of bending. In
This table is based on over 40 years’ experience by the
addition, slabs with concentrated loads may need to be
authors’ practice. Where exceptionally large depres-
designed for the ultimate limit state of shear.
sions are anticipated, e.g. due to the presence of old
mine workings, swallow-holes, pipes and sink holes, In many instances it is sufficient for raft slabs to contain top
their size must be determined from first principles. (See reinforcement only. Where there are poor ground condi-
section 4.2.2 and Chapter 6 for further guidance.) tions (large depressions) and/or concentrated loads, it may
(2) The design span for local depressions is established be necessary for these slabs to be reinforced both top and
from Fig. 13.5, based on the local depression diameter bottom. Rafts are normally reinforced using mesh (fabric)
and the depth of compacted hardcore or granular fill. reinforcement, with equal quantities of reinforcement in
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 241

Raft Foundations 241

(a) low loading intensity (P/pa  2x)

P P
x x

OR

p ≤ pa p ≤ pa

B = 2x B = 2x

only suitable for P
Bpa

2xpa

(b) high loading intensity (P/pa > 2x) – thick blinding layer
P
x

mass concrete
blinding

h≥
B
−x = =
2

p = pa

B = P/pa

(c) high loading intensity (P/pa > 2x) – slab restoring moment
P
x Requirements:
(1) Edge thickening on far side of raft must be similarly
loaded to balance moment
(2) Check that length of slab required to resist moment is
M reasonable. Slab must then be designed for moment
as follows:
M(0): xP − (paB) B/2 + M = 0
⇒ M = P 2/2pa − xP
design reinforcement for:
Mu = γp M = γpP (P/2pa − x)
0

p = pa

B = P/pa

Fig. 13.3 Bearing pressure design for external beam thickenings.

SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 242

242 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

(a) slab Table 13.1 Design diameter for local depressions

Soil classification Soil type Assumed diameter

of depression (m)

slab A One only of: clay, 1.0–1.5

Consistent firm sand, gravel, sandy
h fill Bconc compacted sub-soil clay, clayey sand
60° hardcore fill
B One only of: clay, 1.5–2.0
Bfill formation Consistent soil sand, gravel, sandy
type but variable clay, clayey sand
= Bconc + 1.15 h fill density, i.e. loose
to firm

C Two or more of: clay, 2.0–2.5

(b) internal thickening Variable soil type sand, gravel, sandy
but firm clay, clayey sand

D Two or more of: clay, 2.5–3.5

Variable soil sand, gravel, sandy
type and variable clay, clayey sand
density

hfill
Bconc
for ground-bearing slabs in Reference 1; experience has
Bfill shown these recommendations to be also appropriate for
raft slabs.
= Bconc + 1.15 h fill

(2) Deflection
(c) external thickening
(a) For slabs reinforced with top reinforcement only, select
a minimum average effective depth from Fig. 13.5. Large
depressions may require both top and bottom rein-
forcement to avoid uneconomic slab thicknesses.
compacted fill (b) For most slabs reinforced with both top and bottom
beyond edge of slab reinforcement, deflection is not a problem for the
raft as shown normal range of depression sizes and slab thicknesses
compacted in Tables 13.1 and 13.2, and therefore does not need to
hardcore fill be explicitly considered in these situations.
formation
Bconc (3) Bending
h fill
For slabs carrying distributed loading in normal domestic
B fill or commercial situations, e.g. imposed loads of up to FQ =
= Bconc + 1.15 h fill 7.5 kN/m2, bending will not normally be critical, and slabs
can simply be reinforced for shrinkage purposes. For slabs
notes: carrying concentrated line or point loads, or heavy indus-
B fill is to be used for checking bearing pressure at
formation level trial distributed loads in excess of 7.5 kN/m2, a bending
Bconc is to be used for checking bending within the concrete calculation should be carried out as follows:

Fig. 13.4 Effect of compacted hardcore fill on bearing (a) Using the design span from Fig. 13.5, calculate separ-
pressure design. ately all (ultimate) loads coming on to the plan area
of the circular depression shown in Table 13.3. Apply
moment factors, Km, to the various load types, e.g. uni-
both directions. Thus it is usual for raft slabs to be rein-
formly distributed, line, concentrated, as per Table 13.3.
forced using one of the British Standard ‘A Series’ meshes,
Calculate ∑(KmTu), the effective load for bending pur-
i.e. A142, A193, A252 or A393 mesh.
poses on the area of the depression.
(b) Using this load and the average effective depth, obtain
(1) Shrinkage
the required area of reinforcement from Fig. 13.6 (top
Based on the thickness of the slab and greatest overall reinforcement only) or Fig. 13.7 (top and bottom rein-
length of slab (or maximum distance between movement forcement) as appropriate.
joints), select an appropriate mesh size from Table 13.2. (c) Any top reinforcement required to deal with out-of-
These are based on the semi-empirical recommendations balance loads from external beam thickenings (see
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 243

Raft Foundations 243

slabs with top

reinforcement only
minimum allowable
effective depth (mm)
4.0 4.0

225
assumed diameter of depression (m)

200

design span of depression L (m)

3.0 3.0

soil c 175
lassi
ficat
ion
D 150

2.0 2.0
125
C
100
B
75
1.0 1.0
A

0 0
0 0.5 1.0
depth of hardcore/compacted material h fill (m)

Fig. 13.5 Design span of local depressions. For soil classifications see Table 13.1.

Table 13.2 Shrinkage reinforcement for raft slabs punching shear check in accordance with BS 8110.(2)
Where punching shear is found to be critical, either
Maximum dimension of raft (m) the layout of beam thickenings should be amended so
that the point load is positioned on the line of a beam,
Overall Fabric reinforcement to BS 4483 the slab should be thickened up locally, or the bottom
slab thickness
reinforcement increased locally to satisfy the design
(mm) A142 A193 A252 A393
requirements.
125 25 34 44 69
150 21 28 37 58 13.1.6 Beam design
175 18 25 31 49 Beam thickenings are designed to span over local depres-
200 16 21 28 44
sions, in a similar manner to slabs. Serviceability deflection
225 14 19 25 38
is not usually a problem for depressions in the range
covered by Table 13.1, and serviceability cracking will be
adequately covered by the shrinkage reinforcement within
section 13.1.3 (3) above) should be calculated separ- the slab. In most circumstances it is therefore only necessary
ately. This should be provided in addition to the to explicitly carry out calculations for the ultimate limit
shrinkage reinforcement calculated in (1) above, and states of bending and shear. Generally it will be necessary to
the bending reinforcement calculated in (3) (b) above. carry out separate checks for internal beams, edge beams,
and corner beams, i.e. edge beams at outside corners.
(4) Shear
(1) Bending
(a) Where beam shear due to a heavy line load is consid-
ered significant, carry out a normal beam shear check in (a) Calculate separately all critical (ultimate) loads coming
accordance with BS 8110.(2) Where shear is found to be on to the plan area of the circular depression shown
critical, either a beam thickening should be introduced in Table 13.4. The calculation will vary, depending on
along the line of the point load, or additional bottom whether the beam under consideration is an internal
reinforcement should be introduced locally to satisfy beam, an edge beam, or a corner beam.
the design requirements. (b) Apply moment factors Km to the various load types,
(b) Where it is considered that punching shear due to e.g. uniformly distributed, line, concentrated, as per
a point load may be significant, carry out a normal Table 13.4.
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 244

244 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

Table 13.3 Load types and corresponding moment factors for raft slabs

Top reinforcement only Top and bottom

Km
reinforcement

T1 TB1

Uniformly
distributed load 1.0
fS (kN/m2)

FS = fS(πL2/4) FS = fS(πL2/4)

T2 TB2

Parallel line
1.5
load P (kN/m)

∑ P = PL ∑ P = PL

T3 TB3

Lateral line
1.5
load P (kN/m)

∑ P = PL ∑ P = PL

T4 TB4

2 way line
1.5
load P (kN/m)

∑ P = 2PL ∑ P = 2PL

T5 TB5

Point load P (kN) 2.0

∑P=P ∑P=P

Reinforcement design See Fig. 13.6 See Fig. 13.7

(c) Calculate ∑(KmTu)L/b, where ∑(KmTu) is the effective (2) Shear

load for bending purposes on the area of the depres-
sion, b is the average (typically mid-height) width for (a) Calculate all critical (ultimate) loads coming on to the
internal and edge beams; for corner beams it is taken as plan area of the circular depression shown in Table 13.4.
the bottom width of the beam. (b) Calculate the shear force as Vu = Tu/2.
(d) Calculate the area of reinforcement required from (c) Calculate the corresponding shear reinforcement, in
Fig. 13.8 or Fig. 13.9 as appropriate. accordance with BS 8110: Part 1(2).
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 245

Raft Foundations 245

d = 225
500
d = 200

450

d = 175

400

d = 150
350

d = 125
300
∑ (KmTu)

250
d = 100

200

d = 75
150

100

50

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

AREA OF REINFORCEMENT EACH WAY = AS (mm /m) 2

CONCRETE GRADE 35
REINFORCEMENT GRADE 460

Fig. 13.6 Design chart for slabs with top reinforcement only.

The variations and extra design considerations relating 13.2.2 Sizing the design
to the various raft types, i.e. over and above these general
Such rafts can be designed either from experience simply
guidelines, are described in the following sections.
by adopting a known raft which has performed success-
fully on similar ground conditions and subjected to similar
13.2 Nominal crust raft – semi-flexible loadings or by calculation as discussed in sections 13.1–13.4.
Many local authorities have ‘standard’ designs which have
13.2.1 Design decisions been approved for use and are often agreed as ‘deemed to
satisfy’ building insurers’ requirements. It is wise to agree
As discussed in section 9.4.1 the nominal crust raft is used
with building control the design methodology prior to
where loadings are relatively light and ground condi-
preparation of detailed calculations.
tions reasonable. The raft is lightly reinforced and consists
of a basic ground slab with nominal thickenings (see The calculated design assumes that the slab and thickening
Fig. 13.15). should be capable of spanning and cantilevering over any
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 246

246 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

d = 225
1000
d = 200

900

d = 175

800

d = 150
700

600 d = 125
∑ (KmTu)

500
d = 100

400
d = 75

300

200

100

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

AREA OF REINFORCEMENT EACH WAY PER FACE = AS (mm /m) 2

CONCRETE GRADE 35
REINFORCEMENT GRADE 460

Fig. 13.7 Design chart for slabs with top and bottom reinforcement.

local depressions which may occur as a result of the loading of such downstands they should not be allowed to dictate
and/or sub-strata conditions. the design. For example, the strip wall loadings, shown in
Fig. 13.10, zig-zags across the building and if the downstand
Such rafts are used generally for relatively lightly loaded
thickenings were made to follow these lines an overall
conditions on reasonable ground. In such conditions these
weakness in the thickenings would result at each change in
lightly reinforced rafts can prove more economic than strip
direction and hence the overall behaviour of the raft would
footings particularly where the ground is reasonably level,
be adversely affected.
where the basic ground slab is used as the main body of
the raft and where small straight thickenings replace It is therefore important that a common straight line across
complicated layouts of wall strips. the building is used for the downstand which caters for
the local heavy loads and overall stiffness (see Figs 13.11
The layout of the downstands is determined from the
and 13.12).
overall raft stiffness requirements and while heavy load
lines and point loads will have a bearing on the location With regard to overall thickening layouts it may be
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 247

Raft Foundations 247

Table 13.4 Load types and corresponding moment factors for raft beams

Internal beam Edge beam Corner beam Km

I1 E1 C1

Uniformly L
distributed load 2 0.5
fS (kN/m2)

FS = fS(πL2/4) FS = fS(πL2/8) FS = fS(0.64L2)

I2 E2 C2

Parallel line
1.0
load P (kN/m)

∑ P = PL ∑ P = PL ∑ P = PL / 2

I3 E3 C3

Lateral line
1.0
load P (kN/m)

∑ P = PL ∑ P = PL /2 ∑ P = PL / 2

I4 E4 C4

L
2 – way line 2 1.0
load P (kN/m)

∑ P = 2PL ∑ P = 3PL /2 ∑ P = 2PL / 2

I5 E5 C5

Point load P (kN) 2.0

∑P=P ∑P=P ∑P=P

Reinforcement
design See Fig. 13.8 See Fig. 13.9

necessary when considering total raft behaviour to introduce must not be allowed to change the engineering judgement
thickenings purely for stiffness and in locations where no in such soils particularly where past performance has been
vertical load lines exist (see Fig. 13.13). proven.

For raft foundations adequate protection from weathering The raft is considered as a single element in determining
and frost effects on most granular soils, sandy clays and overall behaviour taking account of the stiffness of the
insensitive clays can be achieved with 450 mm cover, sim- raft, and then breaking the foundation down into a num-
ilar to road construction. Over-emphasis on clay shrinkage ber of small elements to simplify the design. These local
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 248

248 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

5000

4500

4000
d = 550
3500
d = 500

d = 450
∑ (K mTu) L /b (kN)

3000

d = 400
2500
d = 350
2000 d = 300

1500

1000

500

0
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
AREA OF REINFORCEMENT PER FACE/m WIDTH = A s /b (mm /m)
2

CONCRETE GRADE 35
REINFORCEMENT GRADE 460

Fig. 13.8 Design chart for internal and edge beams.

2500
d = 550
2250
d = 500
2000
d = 450

1750
d = 400
∑ (K mTu)L/b (kN)

1500 d = 350

1250 d = 300

1000

750

500

250

0
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
AREA OF REINFORCEMENT IN TOP FACE/m WIDTH = A s /b (mm2/m)
CONCRETE GRADE 35
REINFORCEMENT GRADE 460

Fig. 13.9 Design chart for corner beams.

SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 249

Raft Foundations 249

wall layout

Fig. 13.10 Zig-zag wall layout. plan on walls

plan on raft
plan on raft
Fig. 13.12 Irregular wall layout but straight
Fig. 13.11 Straight thickenings below raft. thickenings.

re-entrant corner

wall layout raft layout

Fig. 13.13 Thickening layout for raft stiffness.

conditions tend to dictate the cross-section dimensions of 13.2.3 Design Example 1: Nominal crust raft
the foundations with the overall behaviour being devel-
oped and incorporated into the design on the drawing A new housing estate, consisting of two-storey semi-
board. For example, if we take the raft shown in Fig. 13.13 detached properties, is to be built on a green field site.
and adopt the internal thickening layout discussed it can be The ground conditions consist of a soft to firm clayey sand.
seen that the reinforcement details for overall slab The net allowable bearing pressure for raft design is estim-
behaviour should ensure that beam thickenings can act ated at na = 100 kN/m2.
continuously. In particular the design should avoid local
weakenings in the concrete profile or reinforcement in vul- The foundation for each pair of houses is to be designed
nerable locations such as the internal angles of the raft (see as a raft foundation. Taking into account the ground condi-
Fig. 13.14). The detail therefore must ensure strong inter- tions and the relatively light loading, a nominal crust raft
sections at these locations where the overall shape of the is considered adequate. The wall layout, loadings, and
raft tends to weaken structural behaviour. corresponding raft layout are shown in Fig. 13.15.
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 250

250 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

weak concrete
profile

PLAN

bars stopped off

no starter bars

poor layout and detail weak reinforcement

detail
PLAN

main beam bars reinforcement passes

top cover 50 mm over junction
bottom cover 75 mm

A A main beam bars

SECTION A–A

improved layout and detail

Fig. 13.14 Weak and improved thickening layouts.

Loadings Bearing pressure design

The foundation load due to slab self-weight and imposed Because of the low level of loading, no explicit check on
load is bearing capacity is considered necessary.

f = fG + fQ Design span for local depressions

= 3.5 + 2.5
With reference to Table 13.1, the soil conditions are taken
= 6.0 kN/m2
to be medium Class B. From Fig. 13.5, assuming 150 mm of
fQ as a percentage of f is 100fQ /f = 42%. From Fig. 10.20, hardcore, the design span L is 1.6 m.
the combined partial safety factor for the foundation load is
γF = 1.48. Slab design

It is intended for the slab to have top mesh reinforcement

Wall line load, P = (wall dead load) + (wall imposed load) only. Figure 13.5 indicates that, for a design span of 1.6 m,
=G+Q a minimum average effective depth of 100 mm is required
= 15.5 + 10.5 to comply with the deflection requirements of BS 8110:
= 26.0 kN/m Part 1(2). A slab thickness of 125 mm will therefore be
adopted, with 20 mm top cover.
Q as a percentage of P is 100Q/P = 40%. From Fig. 10.20, the
combined partial safety factor for the superstructure loads For shrinkage purposes, Table 13.2 indicates, for a 12 m
is γP = 1.48. long slab, that A142 mesh is adequate.
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 251

Raft Foundations 251

6m 6m
walls slab
G = 15.5 kN/m fG = 3.5 kN/m2
Q = 10.5 kN/m fQ = 2.5 kN/m2
5m

party
wall
5m

plan on ground floor walls plan on raft foundation

B503 mesh A142 mesh

screed

125

175
450

400
400
section

Fig. 13.15 Nominal crust raft design example.

Because of the low level of distributed load, and the 13.3 Crust raft
absence of any significant wall line loads on the slab, there
is no need to carry out a local spanning check on the slab 13.3.1 Introduction
under ultimate loads. (If however, the internal thickenings
The crust raft is discussed in section 9.4.2 where it is
were omitted, and the slab required to carry their load, a
explained that it is a stiffer and stronger version of the
check should be carried out in a similar manner to Design
nominal crust raft. In this chapter it is intended to take this a
Example 2 in section 13.3.3.)
stage further through the design procedure and to an actual
example.
Beam thickening design

Similarly, the low level of loading, and the absence of con- 13.3.2 Design decisions
centrated point loads on the thickenings, indicate that these The crust raft is used where normal ground bearing sub-
can be sized and reinforced on a nominal basis. strata is relatively poor, where the depth to good load-
bearing soils is excessive, but where by dispersing the
For external thickenings, use pre-bent B503 mesh, as shown
loads differential settlements can be controlled. It is more
in Fig. 13.15, with the main T8 bars at 100 mm centres
attractive where these conditions exist on a relatively level
running along the length of the beam. This will result in
site, i.e. where few steps or changes in level exist.
at least three T8 longitudinal bars in the top and bottom
of the beam. The considerations for thickening layout and profile are as
for the nominal crust (see section 13.2).
For internal thickenings, again use pre-bent B503 mesh,
as shown in Fig. 13.15, with the main bars again running The design of the crust raft and its element cross-sections
longitudinally to help span over local depressions. tends to be based on a similar simplified analysis to that of
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 252

252 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

intact coal sandy clay and a clayey sand of variable density. The net
allowable bearing pressure for raft design is estimated to be
na = 75 kN/m2.

The wall layout and loadings are shown in Fig. 13.17.

Foundation layout
D
To avoid the need for deep foundations, a crust raft
founded at high level in the sandy clay and clayey sand is
to be adopted.

As with all rafts, the layout of thickenings, while taking

workings possible subsidence account of the location of load-bearing walls, is primarily
collapse at cross-over governed by the need to avoid discontinuities or other zones
of weakness within the raft. The layout shown in Fig. 13.17
Fig. 13.16 Subsidence prediction for shallow is one way of achieving this goal in this particular situation.
mine working. Three particular points to note are as follows:

(1) The introduction of a complete movement joint on grid

line 2. This splits an awkwardly shaped raft into two
the nominal crust raft but adopting a slightly more analyt-
approximately rectangular rafts. Note the doubling-up
ical approach. However, in order to arrive at a suitable span
of thickenings on both sides of the movement joint, to
and depression diameter a more detailed analysis of the
form two completely separate rafts.
ground conditions would be carried out. For example, if the
(2) The internal thickening of grid line 3, between grids
raft was to span over possible swallow-holes or shallow
A and B. This is deliberately positioned to achieve con-
mine workings a detailed study of borehole information
tinuity with the external thickening between grids B
particularly with regard to the existence of voids below
and D, and does not line with the load-bearing wall to
ground, combined with historical evidence of previous
the left of grid line 3.
collapses/depressions would be carried out. Excessively
(3) The internal thickening mid-way between grid lines 2
large voids or voids which were creating particular prob-
and 3. This is deliberately positioned to break up the
lems in the design of the raft could be considered for grout-
larger areas of raft slab between the thickenings on
ing in order to reduce the risk of collapse and reduce the
grids 2 and 3, and to keep the raft slab bays approxim-
diameter of design depressions. If grouting was to be
ately square on plan.
adopted then this would be carried out prior to construc-
tion of the raft foundation.
Loadings
When studying old shallow mine workings reference
Loads are shown in Fig. 13.17, and may be summarized as
should be made to Chapter 6. Historical details of pillar and
follows:
stall workings may be used in the anticipation of the max-
imum diameter of collapse at cross-over positions, etc. (see Foundation UDL, f = surcharge load, fS
Fig. 13.16). = (slab dead load) + (slab imposed load)
= fG + fQ
A word of caution should be given at this stage with regard
= 5.1 + 4.0
to the reliance on mining records since, as was emphasized
= 9.1 kN/m2
in Chapter 6, while shaft locations are often quite accurate
any records of pillar and stall workings tend to be less reli- fQ as a percentage of f is 100fQ /f = 44%. From Fig. 10.20, the
able. This is due to disintegration during oxidation of the combined partial safety factor for the foundation loads is
pillars, and/or the practice of robbing pillars at the end γF = 1.49.
of the workings’ normal life. These actions result in a ten-
Internal wall line load, Pi = (wall dead load) +
dency for larger depressions to occur but usually within
(wall imposed load)
a shorter period after completion of the mine workings.
= PiG + PiQ
The earlier completion of subsidence is an advantage. In
= 40 + 15
some cases, however, if pit props have remained in position
= 55 kN/m
un-rotted, early subsidence is prevented. These sorts of
conditions will be taken into account by the experienced PiQ as a percentage of Pi is 100PiQ/Pi = 27%. From Fig. 10.20,
engineer in assessing the borehole records and other the combined partial safety factor for the superstructure
records of the possible collapse mechanism and type and loads is γPi = 1.45.
size of void or depression to be spanned or grouted.
External wall line load, Pe = (wall dead load) +
= (wall imposed load)
13.3.3 Design Example 2: Crust raft
= PeG + PeQ
A new building is to be built in the grounds of an existing = 35 + 10
hospital. Ground conditions vary between a firm to soft = 45 kN/m
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 253

Raft Foundations 253

1 2 3 4
12 m 9m 5m

A
internal walls
PiG = 40 kN/m
PiQ = 15 kN/m
6m

B
6m

external walls
PeG = 35 kN/m
C PeQ = 10 kN/m

slab
5m

movement joint through

fG = 5.1 kN/m2
walls and foundation
fQ = 4.0 kN/m2

plan on ground floor walls

A
these thickenings are located to provide
an optimum arrangement of thickenings
within the raft; they do not align with
load-bearing walls above
6m

B
6m

C
5m

plan on foundation

Fig. 13.17 Crust raft design example – plan layout and loadings.
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 254

254 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

PeQ as a percentage of Pe is 100PeQ/Pe = 22%. From Fig. 10.20, b = 1000 mm

the combined partial safety factor for the superstructure
dmin = 150(slab) − 40(bottom cover) −
loads is γPe = 1.44.
10(bar diameter)
Allowable bearing pressure 10(bar diameter) −
2
From section 10.10, for zero existing surcharge load, sS, the = 95 mm
net bearing pressure is given by
Mu 8.3 × 106
n = p + fS =
bd2 1000 × 952
This may be rearranged to give a superstructure allowable
bearing pressure of = 0.92

pa = (net allowable pressure) − (foundation surcharge) As(req) = 0.25%bd [BS 8110: Part 2: Chart 2(3)]
= na − fs = 238 mm /m (bottom reinforcement)
2

= 75 − 9.1 Provide A252 mesh (bottom) = 252 mm2/m.

= 66 kN/m2
This minimum level of reinforcement may have to be
Bearing pressure check – slab supporting internal wall increased to allow for spanning over local depressions
(see below).
Pi
Required width of bearing, B =
pa Bearing pressure check – external wall thickening
55 Assume a uniform pressure distribution as in Fig. 13.3 (a),
=
66 dimensions as Fig. 13.18
= 0.83 m Pe 45
p= =
Some internal wall loads coincide with raft thickenings, 2x 2 × 0.2
others do not. Consider the latter as the worst case, and = 113 kN/m2 > pa = 66 kN/m2
design the slab locally in accordance with Fig. 13.1 (b).
This pressure is too great.
γPi Pi
Ultimate design pressure, pu = To keep p ≤ pa, one option is to increase the toe width
B
sufficiently to give
1.45 × 55
= Pe 45
0.83 x= =
2pa 2 × 66
= 96 kN/m2
= 0.34 m
p (B/2)2
Ultimate bending moment, Mu = u This is an increase in toe width of 340 − 200 = 140 mm. This
2
solution will be adopted in this case (see Fig. 13.18).
96(0.83/2)2
= A second option would be to provide a thick blinding layer
2
below the edge thickening, as in Fig. 13.3 (b). This would
= 8.3 kNm/m require a width of

line of action of
x = 200 t W = 150
external wall
load Pe
140 Pi

original A393 mesh screed 150 slab

proposed
profile

3T16 3T16

3T16
final
design 3T16 h = 600
profile
50 blinding 150 hardcore
300 h = 450

b = 680 bav = 750

Fig. 13.18 Crust raft design example – section through raft.

SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 255

Raft Foundations 255

P 45 From Table 13.3, cases T1 and T2, the moment factors, Km,
B= =
pa 66 are 1.0 and 1.5, respectively.

= 0.68 m ∑(KmTu) = 1.0Fu + 1.5Pu

= (1.0 × 84) + (1.5 × 223)
The required thickness would be
= 418 kN
B 0.68 Examining Fig. 13.7, a 150 mm thick slab, with A393 mesh
h= −x= − 0.2
2 2 top and bottom is likely to be satisfactory. If the slab has
= 0.14 m 20 mm top cover and 40 mm bottom cover, it will have
average effective depths of 120 mm and 100 mm respect-
A third option is for the concrete profile to be left ively, giving a combined average effective depth of 110 mm.
unchanged, and the slab designed to counteract the loading Figure 13.7 indicates that approximately 320 mm2/m rein-
eccentricity, as in Fig. 13.3 (c). Thus the slab is required to forcement is required per face, thus A393 mesh is satisfactory.
provide an ultimate moment of resistance given by
This level of reinforcement is relatively heavy for a raft slab,
⎛ P ⎞ and is due to the large local depression span in this particu-
Mu = γ Pe Pe ⎜ e − x⎟
⎝ 2pa ⎠ lar example. The designer may wish to check the economics
of increasing the slab thickness in this case.
⎛ 45 ⎞
= 1.44 × 45 × ⎜ − 0.2⎟
⎝ 2 × 66 ⎠ Internal beam spanning over local depression
= 9.1 kNm/m Design the internal beams to carry an internal load-bearing
b = 1000 mm wall, spanning over a local depression. From Table 13.4, the
loading coming onto a 2.8 m diameter depression is as follows:
dmin = 150(slab) − 20(top) − 10(bar diameter) −
(πL2) (π × 2.82)
I1: Fu = γF fS = 1.49 × 9.1 ×
10(bar diameter) 4 4
2
= 84 kN
= 115 mm
I2: Piu = γPiPiL = 1.45 × 55 × 2.8
Mu 9.1 × 106 = 223 kN
=
bd2 1000 × 1152 From Table 13.4, the total effective load on depression for
= 0.69 bending is
∑(KmTu) = 0.5Fu + 1.0Piu
As(req) = 0.18%bd [BS 8110: Part 2: Chart 2(3)]
= (0.5 × 84) + (1.0 × 223)
= 207 mm2/m (top reinforcement)
= 265 kN
This reinforcement would be in addition to reinforcement Take average width of internal thickening to be b = 750 mm.
calculated below for spanning over local depressions. This
solution is relatively uneconomic in this situation, and one Average effective depth = 450 − 30(average cover) −
of the two previous options – the extended toe or the thick 16(bar diameter)
blinding layer – would be preferred. 10(link) −
2
= 402 mm
Design span for local depressions
∑(KmTu)L 265 × 2.8
With reference to Table 13.1, the soil conditions are taken =
b 0.75
to be medium Class D. From Fig. 13.5, assuming 50 mm
blinding and 150 mm hardcore, the design span L is 2.8 m. = 989 kN
From Fig. 13.8, the area of reinforcement required per face is
Slab spanning over local depression
As = 725b = 725 × 0.75
Consider the worst case situation where an internal load- = 544 mm2
bearing wall sits directly onto the slab. From Table 13.3,
calculate the loading coming onto a 2.8 m diameter depres- Provide 3T16 top and bottom, giving As = 603 mm2/m.
sion as follows. Shear reinforcement is calculated, in accordance with BS
2 8110, using
(πL )
Ultimate load from slab, Fu = γF fS
4 Tu
Vu =
2
(π × 2.8 )
2
= 1.49 × 9.1 ×
4 Fu + Piu
=
= 84 kN 2
84 + 223
Ultimate load from wall line load, Pu = γPiPiL =
2
= 1.45 × 55 × 2.8
= 223 kN = 153 kN
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 256

256 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

Edge beam spanning over local depression ∑(KmTu) = 0.5Fu + 1.0Peu

= (0.5 × 68) + (1.0 × 257)
Consider the worst case, where an internal wall meets the
= 291 kN
external wall (on grid line A). With reference to Table 13.4,
cases E1, E2 and E3, the total ultimate loads coming onto the b = 680 mm and d = 552 mm, as previously.
depression are as follows:
∑(KmTu)L 291 × 2.8
=
2
(πL ) (π × 2.8 ) 2 b 0.68
E1: Fu = γF fS = 1.49 × 9.1 ×
8 8 = 1198 kN

= 42 kN From Fig. 13.8, the area of reinforcement required per face is

E2: Peu = γPePeL = 1.44 × 45 × 2.8 As = 950b = 950 × 0.68

= 646 mm2
= 181 kN
Provide 4T16 top, giving As = 804 mm2/m. It is recom-
L 2.8
E3: Piu = γPiPi = 1.45 × 55 × mended that this reinforcement should extend a distance of
2 2 L√2 = 2.8 × √2 = 4.0 m from each corner.
= 112 kN Shear force for reinforcement design is
From Table 13.4, total effective load on depression for Tu Fu + Peu
bending is Vu = =
2 2
∑(KmTu) = 0.5Fu + 1.0Peu + 1.0Piu
= (0.5 × 42) + (1.0 × 181) + (1.0 × 112) 13.4 Blanket raft
= 314 kN
13.4.1 Introduction
Take average width of edge thickening to be b = 680 mm.
The design of the reinforced concrete raft which sits on the
Average effective depth = 600 − 30(average cover) − blanket is similar to that of the crust raft, the variation being
the design of the blanket below. The blanket is designed to
16(bar diameter)
10(link) − disperse any heavy point or knife edge loads and to interact
2 with the raft foundation. In addition the action of compact-
= 552 mm ing the stone blanket into the previously reduced level of
the sub-strata tends to search out any soft spots and compact
∑(KmTu)L 314 × 2.8
= the sub-strata during this operation. A typical specification
b 0.68 for the blanket would normally require that the compaction
= 1293 kN of the sub-strata prior to the stone filling should continue
until no further movement is evident and that a similar
From Fig. 13.8, the area of reinforcement required per face is requirement be applied to each layer of the stone. It should
be noted however that this applies mainly to granular soils;
As = 750b = 750 × 0.68
should silty materials or waterlogged clay/silts occur, then
= 510 mm
the compaction would have to begin after laying quite
Provide 3T16 top and bottom, giving As = 603 mm2/m. a deep layer of stone, in order to crust up the surface to a
Note: the top reinforcement to adjacent corners may need to suitable degree for operation of the plant. This is due to the
be increased (see below). need for an immediate equal reaction force to be available
from the sub-strata on application of the compaction force.
Shear force for reinforcement design is With many sands and free-draining sub-strata no problems
Tu Fu + Peu + Piu exist, however with saturated silts and soft clays porewater
Vu = = pressure cannot dissipate quickly enough. The reaction of
2 2
such soil if not adequately crusted is to pudding or cow belly
due to the load becoming temporarily supported on the
Corner beam spanning over local depression
contained water (see Fig. 13.19). The solution is to follow
With reference to Table 13.4, cases C1 and C4, the total ulti- the advice in section 8.2 on surface rolling.
mate loads coming onto the depression are as follows.
Blanket rafts are usually used for low-rise developments
C1: Fu = γF fS (0.64L2) = 1.49 × 9.1(0.64 × 2.82) on relatively poor quality ground, for example, where wet
= 68 kN conditions exist making excavation difficult or where sub-
strata varies (from sands to silts or sands to clays) leading to
(2L) (2 × 2.8)
C4: Peu = γPePe = 1.44 × 45 differential settlement.
√2 √2
In addition they are used in areas where hard spots (such
= 257 kN
as old foundation brickwork, strips, etc.) exist but can be
From Table 13.4, total effective load on depression for broken out to a level below the blanket sufficient to reduce
bending is the differential stiffness to an acceptable variation.
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 257

Raft Foundations 257

soil between saturated voids comparison. The blanket is used to reduce the differential
compacts but water cannot escape settlement and reduce bending moments in the raft founda-
saturated voids and temporarily supports load in a tion. Typical sites would be those on (1) variable sub-strata,
shown thus similar manner to a strong balloon
(2) granular fill materials, or (3) those for developments
filled with water
with foundations with concentrated loads where the eco-
applied load nomics of a blanket raft can prove to be very attractive.

13.4.3 Sizing the design

The sizing of the reinforced concrete raft is carried out in
a similar manner to that of the crust raft and reference
should be made to the design in section 13.3. The sizing of
the hardcore blanket however is generally determined by a
combination of engineering judgement and the dispersion
required for concentrated loads. The blanket is therefore
required to reduce the bearing stress at the blanket/sub-
reaction strata interface to an allowable pressure. The advantage
and added benefits of the interaction which are likely to
Fig. 13.19 Pudding or cow belly action. occur between the blanket and the raft are exploited in the
overall behaviour which forms part of the detailing and
the experienced engineer’s judgement and feel of the total
requirements. The authors make no apology for the fact
A
that foundation engineering is partly art and partly ana-
lysis, and the two must be blended in order to achieve
satisfactory economic results.

It should be noted also that this overall behaviour can

stone be time dependent particularly where rafts span from
housing blanket
granular materials to clay materials where the stresses at
roadway
any given time in the life of the raft can be very different
due to the variation in settlement time relationships
between the materials. In some cases joints would be incor-
porated between sections of the foundation to relieve unac-
A ceptably high stress concentrations. These pressures tend
to be related closely to porewater dispersion during stress-
stone ing of the sub-strata. For this reason the typical assumed
raft blanket dispersion for design of local elements is only a design tool
to achieve reasonable sizing and the overall behaviour
performance of the raft must be considered and assessed by
the experienced engineer.

section A–A A typical load dispersion assumed in the initial sizing of the
blanket depth would relate to the previously mentioned
Fig. 13.20 Blanket raft construction. 60°–45° dispersion discussed in section 13.1 and considera-
tion is given to the loss of stone during consolidation and
the overall behaviour of the raft and blanket interaction
The design is carried out by sizing from past experience or
over the design life of the building. A typical design is
using calculations from expected differences in ground
shown in section 13.4.4.
conditions and loadings.

Construction of the blanket raft is often carried out on a 13.4.4 Design Example 3: Blanket raft
similar basis to that of road construction, by reducing the
The crust raft in Design Example 2 (section 13.3.3) is
level in long strips and spreading and compacting the stone
required to be redesigned for a taller building, with wall
in layers in a similar strip construction process. For ex-
line loads increased to twice their previous value as shown
ample, long runs of domestic housing and flats can often
in Fig. 13.21. To avoid overstressing the ground, the raft
best be constructed by this method (see Fig. 13.20).
is to be founded on a blanket of compacted granular
material which will replace existing unsuitable ground.
13.4.2 Design decisions
Since the additional depth of blanket will reduce the local
The decision to use a blanket raft arises from the need to depression design span (see Fig. 13.5), shallower external
upgrade sub-strata and to disperse concentrated load and internal thickenings 450 mm deep and 300 mm deep
where the alternative of piling or vibro-compaction is con- respectively are proposed, to be excavated into the blanket
sidered to be either unnecessary or excessively expensive in (see Fig. 13.22).
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 258

258 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

1 2 3 4
12 m 9m 5m

internal walls
PiG = 80 kN/m
6m

PiQ = 30 kN/m

B
6m

external walls
PeG = 70 kN/m
C PeQ = 20 kN/m

movement joint through

5m

slab
walls and foundation fG = 5.1 kN/m2
fQ = 4.0 kN/m2

plan on ground floor walls

these thickenings are located to provide

an optimum arrangement of thickenings
6m

within the raft, they do not necessarily

align with load-bearing walls above

B
6m

C
5m

D
plan on foundation

Fig. 13.21 Blanket raft design example – plan layout and loadings.
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 259

Raft Foundations 259

Pe
700 x = 300 A393 mesh top Pi
and bottom
screed
75

150
h = 300
5T16 3T20
h = 450 3T20

5T16
blinding 300

1000
400 bav = 600
700
bav = 600 compacted granular
material ‘blanket’

Fig. 13.22 Blanket raft design example – section through raft.

Loadings From Fig. 13.1, it can be seen that bottom reinforcement

will be needed to spread the load over this width. In this
Loads and combined partial load factors are taken from
instance the reinforcement provided to span over local
Fig. 13.21 and Design Example 2 as follows:
depressions will be sufficient to cater for this condition. If
f = 9.1 kN/m2 γF = 1.49 a calculation is considered necessary, it will follow the
Pi = 2 × 55 = 110 kN/m γPi = 1.45 method used in Design Example 2 (see section 13.3.3).
Pe = 2 × 45 = 90 kN/m γPe = 1.44
Determination of blanket depth
Allowable bearing pressure From Fig. 13.4, assuming a 45° spread of load through the
From Design Example 2, the superstructure allowable bear- slab, and a 60° spread through the compacted material, the
ing pressure is width of bearing at formation level is

pa = 66 kN/m2 Bfill = Bconc + 1.15hfill

To avoid overstressing the subgrade material, this must
Design procedure for the blanket have a minimum value of
The purpose of the blanket is to spread the load sufficiently wall line load
Bfill =
to avoid overstressing the underlying bearing material. The allowable bearing pressure
design process therefore involves determining a depth of
Pi
blanket, hfill, such that the stresses do not exceed the allow- =
pa
able ones.
Rearranging, the required thickness of blanket (and blinding),
In this example this will be done for the situation where
to avoid overstressing the underlying material, is given by
internal load-bearing walls bear directly on the slab. The
width of the external thickenings will then be sized, so that Bfill − Bconc
hfill =
they in turn do not overstress the subgrade material. 1.15
Pi /pa − Bconc
Bearing stress in blanket below internal wall bearing =
1.15
on slab
(110/66) − 0.55
The blanket, composed of compacted granular material, =
1.15
has been judged to have an allowable bearing pressure of
pba = 200 kN/m2. The applied line load from internal walls = 0.97 m
is Pi = 110 kN/m. To avoid overstressing the blanket, the A 950 mm thickness of compacted material below slabs
slab is required to spread this load over a width given by plus 50 mm of blinding will be adopted, giving a blanket
Pi thickness of hfill = 1000 mm.
Bconc =
Pba
Determination of width of external wall thickening
110
= Since the edge thickenings project 300 mm below the
200
underside of the slab, the blanket thickness below the
= 0.55 m thickenings is given by hfill = 1000 − 300 = 700 mm.
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 260

260 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

From Fig. 13.4, the width of bearing at formation level is Line load from internal wall, Pu = γPiPiLs
= 1.45 × 110 × 1.85
Bfill = Bconc + 1.15hfill
= 295 kN
Again this must have a minimum value of
From Table 13.3, Cases T1 and T2, moment factors Km are
Pe 1.0 and 1.5 respectively.
Bfill =
pa ∑(KmTu) = 1.0Fu + 1.5Pu
Rearranging gives = (1.0 × 36) + (1.5 × 295)
= 479 kN
Bconc = Bfill − 1.15hfill
If the 150 mm thick slab has 20 mm top cover and 40 mm
Pe bottom cover, it will have average effective depths of 120
= − 1.15hfill
pa mm and 100 mm respectively, giving a combined average
effective depth of 110 mm. Figure 13.7 indicates approxim-
90
= − (1.15 × 0.70) ately 370 mm2/m reinforcement is required per face, thus
66 A393 mesh is adequate.
= 0.56 m
Internal beam spanning over local depression
From Fig. 13.3 (a), the effective bearing width of the edge
thickening for bearing pressure design is Design the internal beams to carry an internal load-bearing
wall, spanning over a local depression. From Table 13.4, the
Bconc = 2x loading coming onto a 2.0 m diameter depression is calcu-
Thus the minimum required value for x is lated as follows:
(πLi2) (π × 2.02)
0.56 I1: Fu = γF fS = 1.49 × 9.9
x= 4 4
2
= 43 kN
= 0.28 m
I2: Piu = γPiPiLi = 1.45 × 110 × 20
A projection of x = 300 mm will therefore be provided (see
= 319 kN
Fig. 13.22).
From Table 13.4, total effective load on depression for
Determination of width of internal wall thickening bending is

A similar calculation could be carried out for internal thick- Σ(KmTu) = 0.5Fu + 1.0Piu
enings. Instead in this instance the bottom slab reinforce- = (0.5 × 43) + (1.0 × 319)
ment will be fully lapped through the thickenings, using = 340 kN
loose bar reinforcement. This will then give a capacity at Take average width of internal thickening to be b = 600 mm
least as good as those situations where the internal walls (see Fig. 13.22).
bear directly onto the slab without thickenings.
Average effective depth = 300 − 30(average cover) −
The width of the thickening can thus be chosen to suit
20(bar diameter)
the local depression condition. In this instance a value of 10(link) −
300 mm will be assumed, it being a practical minimum 2
value to fit a reinforcement cage. = 250 mm
Σ(KmTu)L 340 × 2.0
Design span for local depressions =
b 0.6
With reference to Table 13.1, the soil conditions are taken
= 1134 kN
to be medium Class D, as per Design Example 2. From
Fig. 13.6, the design span is Ls = 1.85 m below slabs (hfill = From Fig. 13.8, the area of reinforcement required per face is
1.0 m), Li = 2.0 m below internal thickenings (hfill = 0.85 m), As = 1400b = 1400 × 0.6
and Le = 2.2 m below external thickenings (hfill = 0.70 m). = 840 mm2

Slab spanning over local depression Provide 3T20 top and bottom, giving As = 943 mm2/m.
Shear force for reinforcement design is
Consider the worst case situation, where an internal load-
bearing wall sits directly onto the slab. Calculate the load- Tu
Vu =
ing coming onto a 1.85 m diameter depression as follows: 2
(πLs2) Fu + Piu
Distributed load from slab, Fu = γF fS =
4 2
(π × 1.852) 43 + 319
= 1.49 × 9.1 =
4 3
= 36 kN = 181 kN
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 261

Raft Foundations 261

Edge beam spanning over local depression ∑(KmTu) = 0.5Fu + 1.0Peu

= (0.5 × 42) + (1.0 × 403)
Consider the worst case, where an internal wall meets the
= 424 kN
external wall (on grid line A). With reference to Table 13.4,
cases E1, E2 and E3, the total ultimate loads coming onto b = 600 mm and d = 402 mm, as previously.
the depression are as follows:
∑(KmTu)L 424 × 2.2
=
(πLe2) (π × 2.22) b 0.6
E1: Fu = γF fS = 1.49 × 9.1
8 8
= 1555 kN
= 25 kN
From Fig. 13.8, the area of reinforcement required per face is
E2: Peu = γPePeLe = 1.44 × 90 × 2.2
As = 1800b = 1800 × 0.6
= 285 kN = 1080 mm2
Le 2.2 Provide 4T20 top, giving As = 1257 mm2/m. It is recom-
E3: Piu = γPiPi = 1.45 × 110 ×
2 2 mended that this reinforcement should extend a distance of
L√2 = 2.2 × √2 = 3.1 m from each corner.
= 175 kN
Shear force for reinforcement design is
From Fig. 13.4, the total effective load on depression for
bending is Tu Fu + Peu
Vu = =
2 2
∑(KmTu) = 0.5Fu + 1.0Peu + 1.0Piu
= (0.5 × 26) + (1.0 × 285) + (1.0 × 175)
13.5 Slip sandwich raft
Take average width of edge thickening to be b = 600 mm
(see Fig. 13.22). 13.5.1 Introduction
Average effective depth = 450 − 30(average cover) − This raft is mainly used in active mining areas or where
clay is creeping on inclined sand beds where the horizontal
16(bar diameter)
10(link) − ground strains set up during subsidence or creep move-
2
ments would cause damage to the structure, if allowed to
= 402 mm be transferred up to it via the foundation (see Fig. 13.23).

∑(KmTu)L 473 × 2.2 By using a slip-plane of known resistance, the maximum

=
b 0.6 force which can be transferred from the ground to the
building before the plane ruptures can be calculated, and
= 1736 kN the raft designed to resist this force in any direction that it is
From Fig. 13.8, the area of reinforcement required per likely to occur.
face is

As = 1300b = 1300 × 0.6

= 780 mm2
cracks through
Provide 5T16 top and bottom, giving As = 1006 mm2/m. structure
Note: the top reinforcement to adjacent corners may need to
be increased (see below).

Shear force for reinforcement design is

Tu Fu + Peu + Piu
Vu = =
2 2 tensile ground
strain
Corner beam spanning over local depression

With reference to Table 13.4, cases C1 and C4, the total ultim- buckling of ground
floor slab
ate loads coming onto the depression are as follows:

C1: Fu = γF fS(0.64Le2) = 1.49 × 9.1(0.64 × 2.22)

= 42 kN compressive ground
strain
2Le (2 × 2.2)
C4: Peu = γPePe = 1.44 × 90
√2 √2
rotation of
= 403 kN footing

From Table 13.4, the total effective load on depression for Fig. 13.23 Effects on foundations from horizontal
bending is ground strains.
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 262

262 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

compressible fill

raft
sand slip-plane

flat slip sandwich raft

compressible fill hardcore dumplings

between downstands

raft

sand slip-plane
downstand slip sandwich raft

Fig. 13.24 Alternative slip sandwich rafts.

compressible apron
around raft

r.c. raft

compressive ground strain

Fig. 13.25 Section through raft and compressive apron.

The raft can be a flat slab profile thus avoiding the use The additional stresses are analysed by calculating the
of downstand thickenings which may pick up excessive forces transferred from the ground strain and these forces
passive load from the ground strain. Alternatively a slab are added to the design conditions already discussed for
with medium thickenings incorporating a design which other rafts.
provides a slip-plane below the hardcore dumplings (i.e.
the raised areas of hardcore protruding up between the 13.5.2 Design decisions
beam lines) can be used (see Fig. 13.24). The design decision to use a slip sandwich raft will depend
The ideal ground (i.e. uniform firm layers of non-frost- totally on the possible existence of critical horizontal ground
susceptible low shrinkability sub-strata) to facilitate a flat strains in the sub-strata during the life of the building and
slab rarely occurs on the site to be developed. Therefore, the need to restrict these forces to prevent them being trans-
to prevent damage from frost, clay heave or differential ferred in total to the superstructure. The use of jointing to
settlement, thickenings are often necessary. In such situ- reduce the overall building into small independent robust
ations the ground strains being picked up either have to units is part of the design process. In addition the possible
be designed to be resisted by the raft or a slip-plane layer need to incorporate compressible aprons around the raft
provided below the level of the downstands to reduce requires consideration in the design and it is dependent
the forces being transferred. The upper raft (above the upon the directions and magnitude of the ground strains
slip plane layer) of a slip sandwich raft can be any of the other (see Fig. 13.25).
rafts already designed and discussed in earlier sections
of this chapter. The difference between the slip sandwich 13.5.3 Sizing the design
raft and the other rafts relates to the slip-plane layer below The basic sizing of the raft to sit on the slip-plane would
the slab and the horizontal forces produced from the follow the principles already discussed in other sections of
ground strains transferred through the slip-plane. this chapter.
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 263

Raft Foundations 263

possible critical
failure lines rotate
parallel to wave face

T
plan on rectangular raft 2

Fig. 13.26 Simple rectangular raft. T

2

tensile force
transferred total
T T T
to raft = 2 2
T ×µ centre of gravity possible tensile
2 failure line

Fig. 13.29 Direction of tensile failure dependent on

direction of wave face.

ground strain frictional resistance if compressive ground strains are occurring then an apron
of slip-plane layer = µ must be introduced to prevent or restrict the amount of
strain transferred from passive pressure on the raft edges. If
Fig. 13.27 Forces on foundation from ground strains.
such pressures cannot be avoided then they must be added
to the force indicated above and allowed for in the design.
e eccentricity producing Any eccentricities of such forces should also be taken into
bending account in the design of the raft since these will produce
bending in the raft foundation (see Fig. 13.28) which indic-
ates an eccentric force on a downstand raft thickening.
raft slab If the plan shape adopted is not rectangular, for example,
CL
resistance
the L shape as shown in Fig. 13.29, then the two halves of
the building producing the force (µT)/2 from frictional
passive force resistance below the surface will produce tensile or com-
from compressive
pressive forces across a line which passes through the
ground strain
centre of gravity of the building and which will tend to
Fig. 13.28 Passive forces on raft downstands. rotate towards a line parallel to the subsidence wave.
Consideration must be given therefore to the additional
stresses produced by these forces including any bending
The additional requirements for the slip sandwich raft
moments across this face or on lines parallel to the face
however relate to the compressive and tensile forces likely
(see Fig. 13.29). Division of the slab into two separate
to be transferred through the slip-plane from the ground
rectangular rafts by the incorporation of a movement joint
strains. If a simple rectangular plan shape raft is considered
could be considered as an alternative approach. The
as shown in Fig. 13.26 (which would be the ideal plan shape
significant movements likely to occur here would however
for such a raft) and a 150 mm thick sand slip-plane, the
have to be allowed for in the detailing of the joint through
following simple analysis can be applied. Assume the total
the structure.
weight of the building and foundations to equal T and the
frictional resistance of the sand slip-plane layer to be equal
13.5.4 Design Example 4: Slip
to µ (see Fig. 13.27), the largest horizontal force which can
sandwich raft
be transferred up from the ground strain through the slip-
plane will be equal to (µT)/2. The reason for the total load The nominal crust raft for a pair of semi-detached propert-
acting down being halved is that the maximum force that ies in Design Example 1 (section 13.2.3) is now assumed
can be transferred as tension through the building must be to be located in a mining area. It will therefore be reworked
reacted by the other half of the load. This formula assumes as a slip sandwich raft, to accommodate the associated
that no other passive forces are being transferred to the ground strains.
foundation, i.e. that all forces are transferred via the sand as
The slip sandwich raft is designed on the assumption that
a frictional force. In practice the downstand beams would
the two halves of the raft – on either side of the centreline
be cast with sloping internal faces as in Fig. 13.30.
– are moving away from each other (tension), or towards
If however downstands project below the raft then the each other (compression). The maximum horizontal force
slip-plane layer should be positioned below such down- across the centreline of the raft, arising from the horizontal
stands and the downstands kept to a minimum. In addition strains in the underlying ground, is equal to the maximum
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 264

264 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

6m 6m

walls slab
G = 15.5 kN/m2 fG = 3.5 kN/m2
Q = 10.5 kN/m2 fQ = 2.5 kN/m2
C
L
5m
5m

plan on ground floor walls plan on raft foundation

1 layer of A196 mesh

top and bottom
compressible screed
material

125

200

150

compacted sand compacted granular

material

section

Fig. 13.30 Slip sandwich raft design example.

frictional force which can be transmitted across the slip- located at the level of the underside of the raft thickenings
plane into one half of the raft. to act as a slip-plane (see Fig. 13.30). The raft will be assumed
to behave as illustrated in Fig. 6.14 and Fig. 13.27.
Vertical loadings The Coal Authority guidelines(4) recommend the use of a
Loads are as Design Example 1 (see Fig. 13.15): coefficient of friction of µ = 0.66 for a sand slip-plane. The
length of the centreline is B = 10.0 m. The horizontal force
Foundation load, f = 6.0 kN/m2; γF = 1.48 per metre length across the centreline of raft is therefore
Wall line load, P = 26.0 kN/m; γP = 1.48 given by
µTu
Horizontal force across raft centreline Hu =
B
The raft is 10.0 m × 12.0 m. With reference to Fig. 13.30, the 0.66 × 1802
total ultimate vertical load on one half of the raft is =
10.0
Tu = (ultimate foundation load) + (ultimate wall loads) = 119 kN/m
= γF f(6.0 × 10.0) + γPP[(3 × 6.0) + (1.5 × 10.0)]
= (1.48 × 6.0 kN/m2 × 60 m2) + (1.48 × 26 kN/m × 33 m) Reinforcement design for raft tension
= 1802 kN
Provide high yield reinforcement to resist this force in
A horizontal layer of 150 mm of compacted sand will be tension such that
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 265

Raft Foundations 265

⎛ ultimate force in ⎞ ⎛ ultimate horizontal ⎞ depth required for

⎜ ⎟ =⎜ ⎟ structural purposes
⎝ reinforcement ⎠ ⎝ tension force ⎠
0.95fy As = Hu

Hu
As = building structure
0.95fy

119 × 103
=
0.95 × 460
= 272 mm2/m

Provide two layers of A193 mesh throughout, as shown in

Fig. 13.30. This compares with the single layer of A142 mesh
required for the nominal crust raft in Design Example 1.
depth required to
achieve allowable
Design for raft compression bearing capacity
The same tensile force calculated above can also act in com- Fig. 13.32 Raft depth dictated by bearing
pression. By inspection the raft concrete can accommodate requirements.
this magnitude of compressive stress.

13.6 Cellular raft need to be designed to span two-thirds of its total length
and to cantilever one-third of its length. Similarly rafts on
13.6.1 Introduction variable ground subjected to large differential settlements
may require such design parameters. This requirement
Cellular rafts are used where valuable increases in bearing on a building plan which is restricted to say 20 m on any
capacity can be achieved by the removal of overburden or one side can produce very large shear forces and bending
where severe bending moments may be induced due to moments thus requiring deep rectangular, I or box sections.
mining activity, seismic loadings, etc. The cellular form in
such situations can perform two functions (see Fig. 13.31). The size of these beams can often be reduced by jointing
The foundation while being economic for such situations is buildings into smaller units (see Chapter 6). Cellular rafts
one of the most expensive foundation types used. or other rafts which are formed from beams crossing at
right angles are difficult to assess since loads are resisted in
13.6.2 Sizing the design two directions by the framework. The designer must start
by calculating the design column loads and relating these
In the case of overburden removal the depth required may to the overall plan and ground pressures.
relate more to the excavation required to produce adequate
reduction in load than to the bending moment resistance of The calculations for the ground pressures based upon the
the cellular form (see Fig. 13.32). centre of gravity of the loads and the relative stiffness of the
raft foundation is then considered. In the case of the cellular
On the other hand it is more common for the raft depth to raft a stiff raft would normally be assumed (see Fig. 13.33).
relate to the moments likely to be induced and the reduced
overburden load to be a resulting bonus. For example, a raft With reference to Fig. 13.33, the centre of gravity of the load
designed to resist seismic loads or mining subsidence may would be calculated in the normal way and the resultant

C
L
heavy point loads x
from columns

ey ex

void void void

y y C
L

cellular raft

deep beams required removal of overburden

to resist large increases safe bearing centre of gravity
bending moment capacity at soffit of raft of loads, resultant x
(function 1) (function 2) load R

Fig. 13.31 Cellular raft. Fig. 13.33 Centre of gravity of load on stiff raft.
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 266

266 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

load would be the total addition of the loads on the frame- (4) The reactions to each beam line will be assumed to be
work for the design conditions being considered. proportional to the bearing area and ground pressure
on that line and when both directions are totalled they
The ground pressures at the corners of the raft would then
must be equal to the applied load at that point from the
be determined. Assume the resultant total load to be T, the
structure.
total area to be A, the moment in each of the two directions
to be Mx and My, the eccentricity in each direction to be ex Many methods of analysing foundations have been pro-
and ey, and the section modulus in those directions assum- posed, some assuming springs below the foundations, some
ing symmetrical plan to be Zx and Zy. The stress at each assuming uniform bearing pressure, some assuming non-
corner would equal linear bearing pressures, some trying to take into account
the stiffness of the raft foundation.
T Mx My
± ± At the end of the day the experienced engineer fully under-
A Zx Zy
stands that all these calculated methods, while being
Mx and My, being the resultant moments, equal T × ex and reasonable and theoretically logical, are not realistic. The
T × ey, respectively (see Figs 13.34 and 10.18). foundation which the engineer designs will not sit on the
As usual in design calculations these theoretical pressures soil which was taken to the laboratory for testing, it will
will not necessarily be achieved on site and the difficulty then not for its total life be resisting the loads calculated, it will
arises when the engineer tries to assess the actual ground not be of the stiffness assumed, it will not be subjected to
pressures. These pressures will be dependent on the sub- the settlements or movements anticipated by calculation.
strata, the flexibility of the raft, the actual loads occurring at With all this in mind the engineer uses analysis as one of the
any time and the time at which these pressures are consid- tools in the kit bag. The above knowledge produced by
ered relative to the original application of the load. design and calculation is taken into account and the design
adjusted in a direction which is more realistic.
None of these conditions can be assessed accurately nor is it
necessary to do so. The procedure to be adopted is for the To achieve this practical engineers will often make simple
engineer to apply the art of foundation design in producing assumptions to produce a quicker analysis while satisfying
calculations and details for the raft. This means taking con- themselves of the foundation requirements without the
sideration of these variables as part of the refinement of the need for complicated and often less accurate methods of
design at the detailing stage. Adjustments must be made analysis. A typical design approach for a cellular raft is
to sections, reinforcement, location of joints and to the shown in the following example.
number of beams on plan to produce a more realistic and
practical solution. The authors make no apology for sug- 13.6.3 Design Example 5: Cellular raft
gesting that foundation engineering is an art as well as The multi-storey steel-framed building shown in Fig. 13.35
a science since they have learnt this art from long and bitter is to be founded in an area where future mining work is
experience. The engineer doing this exercise therefore anticipated. Ground conditions comprise soft silty clay.
would begin by preparing a rough layout from practical
In order to be able to deal with the subsidence wave, and
experience indicating rough sizes likely to be required.
to found within the soft clay layer, it is decided to adopt a
Assumptions are then made, for example:
cellular raft as shown in Fig. 13.35. Calculations have
(1) The raft will be assumed to be stiff. shown that a maximum net allowable bearing pressure of
(2) The bearing pressure will be assumed to be trapezoidal, na = 50 kN/m2 is necessary to keep differential settlements
as indicated in Fig. 13.34. within acceptable limits.
(3) The load from the structure will be assumed to be fixed
To calculate the bearing pressure under normal loading,
at the design load for the analysis.
the raft is assumed to be stiff and the pressure distribution
is assumed to be uniform or linearly varying. The ground
ground pressures pressure acting on each beam line is taken to be propor-
at corners tional to the width of base slab carried by that beam line.
T Mx My T Mx My
+ + − +
A Zx Zy A Zx Zy In this example the full superstructure load is assumed to
act on the raft. In some situations – particularly narrow rafts –
higher bearing pressures can occur when the superstructure
assuming a rectangular imposed load only acts over part of the raft: where appro-
symmetrical plan i.e. Z same
for both edges on same axis priate this should be checked as a separate load case. This
approach is illustrated in Design Example 8 in section 13.9.3.

T Mx My T Mx My Loading
+ − − −
A Zx Zy A Zx Zy
Loads are taken from Fig. 13.35.
plan on raft
Superstructure dead load, G = 3(450 + 810 + 360) +
Fig. 13.34 Corner pressure below stiff raft with 2(225 + 405 + 180)
resultant load as Fig. 13.3. = 6480 kN
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 267

Raft Foundations 267

1 2 3 4 5
6.0 m 6.0 m 6.0 m 6.0 m

G = 450 kN
6.0 m

Q = 675 kN G = 225 kN
Q = 337.5 kN
G = 810 kN
Q = 1215 kN
B G = 405 kN
1.5 m

Q = 607.5 kN
C

G = 360 kN G = 180 kN
6.0 m

Q = 540 kN Q = 270 kN

plan on ground floor columns

B

A A

D
plan on foundations
B

0.3

0.6 0.3 0.3

3m

Ly = 24.3 m

section A–A

0.3

0.3 0.6 0.6

3m

Lx = 13.8 m

section B–B

Fig. 13.35 Cellular raft design example – dimensions and loading.

SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 268

268 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

Superstructure imposed load, Q = 3(675 + 1215 + 540) + ta = (net allowable bearing pressure) + (existing surcharge)
2(337.5 + 607.5 + 270) = na + s
= 9720 kN = 50 + 54
= 104 kN/m2
Superstructure load, P = G + Q
ta > t (= 86.5 kN/m2), therefore bearing pressure is okay.
= 6480 + 9720
= 16 200 kN
Design of bottom slab
Q as a percentage of P is 100Q/P = 60%. From Fig. 10.20, the Resultant ultimate upwards design pressure on bottom
combined partial safety factor for superstructure loads is slab is given by
γP = 1.52
pu = tu − γG(self-weight of slab)
Superstructure bearing pressure, p =
P = (γP p + γF f ) − 1.4(24 × 0.6)
A = (1.52 × 48.3) + (1.43 × 38.2) − (1.4 × 14.4)
= 107.9 kN/m2
16 200
=
24.3 × 13.8 The bottom slab should be designed as two-way spanning
in accordance with BS 8110.(2) It should be remembered that
= 48.3 kN/m2 as the load acts upwards in this case, the tensile reinforce-
ment will be required in the top mid-span and at the bottom
Foundation dead load, fG over the supports.

Slabs = 24 kN/m3 × (0.6m + 0.3 m) Design of beams – introduction

= 21.6 kN/m2
In the normal condition the I-section beams, formed by
Webs (averaged over an area 3.75 m × 6.0 m) the walls and slabs of the cellular structure, span 6 m and
7.5 m between the columns under the upward action of the
[(0.3 m × 3.75 m) + (0.6m × 6.0 m)]
= 24 kN/m3 × 2.1 m ground pressure. For the 3 m depth of beams involved,
3.75 m × 6.0 m
these spans are relatively small, and the corresponding
= 10.6 kN/m2 reinforcement would be light. It is anticipated that, to ride
the predicted subsidence wave, the critical load case comes
fG = 21.6 + 10.6 from the two-thirds spanning and one-third cantilever condi-
= 32.2 kN/m2 tion, described in section 13.6.2, and illustrated in Fig. 13.36.

The longitudinal and lateral beams shown are separately

Foundation imposed load, fQ
designed for these spanning conditions. In each instance
Ground floor slab imposed load, fQ = 6.0 kN/m2 the beam under consideration is designed to carry the
superstructure loads over an assumed depression caused
Foundation load = fG + fQ by the subsidence wave. In Fig. 13.36 these depressions
= 32.2 + 6.0 have each been positioned in a worst case situation relative
= 38.2 kN/m2 to the superstructure loads.
FQ as a percentage of f is 100FQ /f = 16%. From Fig. 10.20, The two-thirds spanning and one-third cantilever condition
the combined partial safety factor for foundation loads is would result in greatly increased ground pressures under
γF = 1.43. the parts of the raft which remain in bearing, with corres-
pondingly large settlements. The two-thirds spanning and
Total bearing pressure, t = (superstructure pressure) +
one-third cantilever design condition is intended to produce
(foundation pressure)
a stiff raft which can resist excessive differential settlements.
=p+f
Provided the bearing pressures do not exceed the ultimate
= 48.3 + 38.2
bearing capacity of the soil, it is not necessary to explicitly
= 86.5 kN/m2
check the bearing pressure under this condition.
This is a uniform bearing pressure as the centroid of the
loads coincides with the centroid of the foundation. Design of lateral beams

The ultimate superstructure loads shown in Fig. 13.36 are

Bearing pressure check calculated from the working loads in Fig. 13.35 as follows:
Net allowable bearing pressure at the formation depth of 3 PCu = (1.4 × 810) + (1.6 × 1215) = 3078 kN
m is na = 50 kN/m2. Assuming a unit weight of 18 kN/m3, PAu = (1.4 × 450) + (1.6 × 675) = 1710 kN
the existing overburden pressure is given by
The ultimate foundation load for a 6 m width of raft foun-
s = 18 × 3.0 = 54 kN/m2 dation is given by

From section 10.10, the total allowable bearing pressure at Fxu = γF f × 6.0 m
this depth is = 1.43 × 38.2 × 6.0 = 328 kN/m
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 269

Raft Foundations 269

longitudinal beam on grid line C

P2u = 3078 kN P3u = 3078 kN P4u = 3078 kN

2/3 spanning Fyu = 205 kN/m

(worst case) (for a width of 3.5 m)

a b

2.1 6.0 6.0 2.1

2Ly /3 = 16.2

lateral beams on grid lines 2, 3 & 4

PCu = 3078 kN

2/3 spanning
Fx u = 328 kN/m
(worst case)

4.6 4.6

9.2

PAu = 1710 kN

1/3 cantilever
Fxu = 328 kN/m
(worst case)

4.45 0.15

4.6

P4u = 3078 kN P5u = 1539 kN

1/3 cantilever
(worst case)

Fy u = 205 kN/m
(for a width of 3.5 m)
c

1.95 6.0 0.15

Ly /3 = 8.1

Fig. 13.36 Cellular raft design example – ‘two-thirds spanning and one-third cantilever’ condition.
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 270

270 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

Two-thirds spanning worst case: One-third cantilever worst case:

PCu(2Lx/3) Fxu(2Lx/3) 2 Fyu(Ly/3) 2

Mu = + Mu = cP4u + P5u(Ly/3) +
4 8 2
205 × 8.12
3078 × 9.2 328 × 9.22 = (1.95 × 3078) + (1539 × 8.1) +
= + 2
4 8
= 25 192 kNm (hogging)
= 10 550 kNm (sagging)
Vu = P4u + PCu + Fyu(Ly/3)
P F (2L /3) = 3078 + 1539 + (205 × 8.1)
Vu = Cu + xu x
2 2 = 6278 kN

3078 328 × 9.2 Reinforcement for bending and shear needs to be cal-
= + culated for both cases.
2 2

= 3047 kN 13.7 Lidded cellular raft

One-third cantilever worst case: 13.7.1 Introduction
2
Fxu(Lx/3) The lidded cellular raft is described in section 9.4.6 and due
Mu = PAu(Lx/3) +
2 to its formation tends to be a little less stiff than the true
cellular raft. The design calculations however follow similar
328 × 4.62
= (1710 × 4.6) + lines with the exception that the cross-section of the beams
2
tends to be restricted to inverted T and L shapes.
= 11 336 kNm (hogging) The advantage of this form over the pure cellular raft is that
Vu = PCu + Fxu(Lx/3) the upper slab can be detailed to allow it to be re-levelled
should the floor tilt or distortion become excessive for the
= 1710 + (328 × 4.6)
building’s use. Also in some locations the top of the lidded
= 3218 kN
raft can be constructed in precast units and may prove
Reinforcement for bending and shear needs to be calcu- more economic, avoiding the possible need for permanent
lated for both cases. formwork.

The raft is usually designed as a number of intersecting

Design of longitudinal beams inverted T beams taking advantage of the lower ground
slab as the flange of the T but ignoring the upper slab
Again using the working loads in Fig. 13.35, the ultimate
which could be constructed in timber joists and boards or
loads in Fig. 13.36 are given by
other form to suit the design requirements (see Fig. 13.37).
P2u = P3u = P4u = PCu = 3078 kN Remember that the strength advantage of the T beam can
P5u = (1.4 × 405) + (1.6 × 607.5) = 1539 kN only be used for midspan, where compression occurs in the
bottom of the beam. The section below the column must be
The ultimate foundation load for a 3.75 m width of raft designed as rectangular.
foundation is given by
The detail at the seating of the upper floor depends upon
Fyu = γF f × 3.75 m the need for re-levelling and the possible number of times
= 1.43 × 38.2 × 3.75 = 205 kN/m adjustments may need to be made.

Two-thirds spanning worst case:

2P2uab P3u(2Ly /3) Fyu(2Ly /3) 2

Mu = + +
(2Ly /3) 4 8 trimmer boarded floor

2 × 3078(2.1 × 14.1) 3078 × 16.2 205 × 16.22

= + +
16.2 4 8
joists
= 30 442 kNm (sagging)
jacking or wedging
for re-levelling
(P2u + P3u + PCu) Fyu(Ly /3)
Vu = +
2 2

3 × 3078 205 × 16.2

= +
2 2

= 6278 kN Fig. 13.37 Lidded cellular raft.

SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 271

Raft Foundations 271

As explained in section 9.4.6, the upper floor of the lidded These rafts are used where the bearing capacity below the
raft is a separate structure to the main inverted T and L beams is relatively good as is the bearing capacity of the
beams forming the concrete raft. ground below the slab and therefore there is no need to
design the total raft foundation when the two are linked
13.7.2 Sizing the design in the final drawing.

The design procedure is similar to that of the cellular raft The two are generally linked because of the added perfor-
except that the upper deck is simply designed to span as mance from the two separate elements when they are cast
a floor between the up-standing ribs. The remainder of monolithic. The beams may be required due to the point
the design follows the same procedure as before with the loads from column structures around the edge of the raft
exception already mentioned that the element sections or within the body of the raft and beams are designed to
become inverted T or L beams rather that I or box sections. span horizontally between these point loads. Similarly the
raft slab is designed to float on the ground between the
13.7.3 Design Example 6: Lidded beams but since the bearing capacity where these rafts
cellular raft are adopted is relatively good then a nominal design incor-
porating a top and/or bottom mesh is all that is required
The raft in Design Example 5 (see section 13.6.3) is required
in the slab.
to be redesigned as a lidded cellular raft, with the in situ top
slab replaced by widespan prestressed concrete planks, for These foundations are generally used in areas where quite
speed of construction. shallow sand deposits occur below the topsoil and where
there is no need to go to excessive depths around the edges
The analysis remains essentially identical to the closed cel-
of these rafts for heave or other problems. They can also be
lular raft in Design Example 5. The main difference comes
used where the strata changes slightly from perhaps clayey
in the design of the beams within the raft, for the two-thirds
sands to sandy/silty clays.
spanning and one-third cantilever conditions. The I-section
beams have been replaced by inverted T-section beams,
13.8.2 Sizing of the design
resulting in the loss of the compression flange in the
two-thirds spanning condition, and providing greatly The sizing of the sections is carried out by treating the beam
reduced space for positioning tension bars in the one-third strips as independent beams, designed as in Chapter 11.
cantilever condition. In situations where these beams are These two parts for the foundation are then tied as shown
heavily loaded, it will be necessary to increase the thickness in Fig. 13.39.
of the webs, or introduce a narrow top flange as shown
Any necessary adjustments that the engineer may feel are
in Fig. 13.38.
required due to the changes in behaviour resulting from
combining the elements are then made in the detailing of
13.8 Beam strip raft
the raft. For example, the linking together will generally
improve the raft performance by reducing the stresses in
13.8.1 Introduction
the two elements from those applicable if they acted alone.
The beam strip raft is described in section 9.4.7 and consists However, there will be some occasions, for example, when
of downstand beams in two directions tied together by a a local heavy load occurs on a downstand, where a local
ground bearing slab. The beam and the slab are designed as detail could become critical due to the change in behaviour,
separate elements which are combined together to finalize and additional reinforcement or a slight adjustment to a
the rafted design. detail may be needed.

precast concrete units

top flange thickening introduced

to help provide space for
tension bars
300 600
3000

600

Fig. 13.38 Lidded cellular raft example.

SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 272

272 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

Piu(B/2)
Ultimate moment, Mu =
r.c. column floating slab 2

160 × (0.78/2)
=
2
= 31 kNm/m

b = 1000 mm
beam strips
10(diameter)
d = 300 − 40(cover) − = 255 mm
Fig. 13.39 Beam strip raft. 2
Mu 31 × 106
13.8.3 Design Example 7: Beam strip raft =
bd 2
1000 × 2552
The blanket raft slab in Design Example 3 (see section = 0.48
13.4.4) is to be redesigned as a beam strip raft, for condi-
tions where local depressions are not anticipated and As(req) = 0.13%bd = 332 mm2/m
therefore will not form part of the design (see Fig. 13.40). [BS 8110: Part 2: Chart 2]
The net allowable bearing pressure is na = 150 kN/m2. Provide T10 bars at 225 mm c/c = 349 mm2/m or A393 mesh
reinforcement.
Loadings
Loads and combined partial factors are taken from Fig. 13.21 External beam strip design
and Design Example 3, as follows:
This design is carried out in accordance with Fig. 13.3,
f = 9.1 kN/m2; γF = 1.49 again in a similar manner to crust rafts. To maintain bearing
Pi = 110 kN/m; γPi = 1.45 pressure within that allowed, width of bearing required is
Pe = 90 kN/m; γPe = 1.44
wall line load
B=
Allowable bearing pressure allowable bearing pressure

In a similar manner to Design Example 2, the superstruc- Pe

=
ture allowable bearing pressure is Pa
pa = na − fS 90
=
= 150 − 9.1 141
= 141 kN/m2
= 0.64 m
Groundbearing slab design With reference to Fig. 13.3 (a) and (b), this requires the
The slab is to be designed simply as a groundbearing slab. effective projection of the toe beyond the line of the load to
From Fig. 13.21 the maximum dimension of the slab is 17 m. be B/2 = 320 mm. This is achieved either by increasing x
From Table 13.2, a 125 mm deep slab, with A142 mesh top as per Fig. 13.3 (a), or adding a thick blinding layer as per
reinforcement only, is adequate for shrinkage purposes. Fig. 13.3 (b). The latter option will be chosen in this case (see
Fig. 13.41).
Internal beam strip design Unlike the internal thickenings, there is no significant lat-
This design is carried out in accordance with Fig. 13.2, in a eral bending. The thickening width is therefore sized to suit
similar manner to crust rafts. To maintain bearing pressure the cavity wall above, the depth – including that of the thick
within that allowed, width of bearing required is blinding layer – is sized to avoid frost damage, and nominal
reinforcement is provided.
wall line load
B=
allowable bearing pressure 13.9 Buoyancy raft
Pi
= 13.9.1 Introduction
pa
110 The buoyancy raft works on a similar principle to that of a
= floating structure where the support for the raft is mainly
141
obtained by displacing the weight of earth or overburden
= 0.78 m by the volume of a large voided foundation. The raft
Try a 300 mm deep thickening, with the dimensions shown is described in section 9.4.8 and is often economically
in Fig. 13.41. Design the bending reinforcement as follows: achieved by making use of the voids as a basement struc-
ture (see Fig. 13.42).
Ultimate load on beam strip, Piu = γPiPi
= 1.45 × 110 It is designed so that sufficient overburden is removed to
= 160 kN/m allow the superstructure load to be applied to the ground
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 273

Raft Foundations 273

1 2 3 4
12 m 9m 5m

A
internal walls
PiG = 80 kN/m
PiQ = 30 kN/m
6m

B
6m

external walls
PeG = 70 kN/m
C PeQ = 20 kN/m
5m

slab
fG = 5.1 kN/m2
fQ = 4.0 kN/m2

plan on ground floor walls

A
6m

B
6m

indicates internal beam

5m

strip (these follow line of

internal walls)

plan on foundation

Fig. 13.40 Beam strip raft design example – plans.

with little or no increase in the original stress which existed The bottom slab can form the basement of the proposed
on the sub-strata prior to excavation and construction. Thus building, and be combined with the ground slab and retain-
the structure floats like a ship – which displaces water equal ing walls to act as the raft. It can also be of cellular form (see
to its own weight. Fig. 13.43).
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 274

274 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

R8 @ 300 + 6T10 A142 TOP

150

screed 75
150
225 T10 @ 225 c/c
150
470 200
780
120

120 200 320 concrete

blinding

Fig. 13.41 Beam strip raft design example – section.

CL
superstructure of building

basement introduced to reduce

the effective ground pressure
due to the building weight

void void
void
soft alluvial deposits

Fig. 13.42 Buoyancy foundation/basement.

resultant load from

building and centre of
gravity of raft

Fig. 13.44 Eccentrically loaded buoyancy raft.

underground tanks are required. The cases therefore where

void void the engineer would adopt such solutions tend to be limited.

13.9.2 Sizing the design

The overall sizing of the design would generally involve:

(1) Calculating the depth plan size and centre of gravity

Fig. 13.43 Cellular buoyancy foundation.
required for the overburden removal to suit structural
buoyancy.
The raft design takes into account any eccentricity of load (2) Comparing the results of (1) with the requirements for
and aims to keep differential settlements and tilting within tanks or basements to suit client’s needs.
acceptable limits (see Fig. 13.44), which shows how eccen- (3) Calculating the water pressure for (1) to check for
tric resultant loads can be caused by the basement projec- flotation.
tions, producing a uniform bearing pressure. (4) Combining the requirements of (1), (2) and (3) into a
mutually suitable voided foundation.
Since buoyancy foundations are expensive compared to
(5) Designing the external walls, floors, roof and separat-
more traditional forms they tend only to be used where
ing wall elements for the pressures, bending moments
suitable bearing strata is at too great a depth for other more
and shear forces including any projections to prevent
traditional alternatives. For this reason the foundation
flotation.
tends to be restricted to sites on very deep alluvial deposits
such as soft sands and silts and where loads on the founda-
13.9.3 Design Example 8: Buoyancy raft
tions can be kept concentric. Examples of such building
types would be schemes where deep basements can be A three-storey office building is to be founded in ground
economically incorporated into the design or where conditions consisting of large depths of silty sand. To avoid
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 275

Raft Foundations 275

Loadcase 1 Foundation UDL, f = slab load, fS = fG + fQ

full dead + imposed load = 12.6 + 3.0
= 15.6 kN/m2
G = 100 kN/m G = 100 kN/m
Q = 60 kN/m Q = 60 kN/m fQ as a percentage of f is 100fQ/f = 19%. From Fig. 10.20, the
P1 combined partial load factor for foundation loads is γF = 1.44.
= =
Loadcase 1: P1 = G + Q
= (100 + 100) + (60 + 60)
= 320 kN/m
Q as a percentage of P1 is 100Q/P1 = 38%. From Fig. 10.20,
3.5 m
the combined partial load factor for superstructure loads
is γP1 = 1.48.
1.0 m Loadcase 2: P2 = G + Q
= (100 + 100) + 60
fG = 12.6 kN/m2 = 260 kN/m
fQ = 3.0 kN/m2
Q as a percentage of P2 is 100Q/P2 = 23%. From Fig. 10.20,
9m
the combined partial load factor for superstructure loads
is γP2 = 1.45.
p= The loading eccentricity is given by
35.6 kN/m2
(eGG + eQQ)
eP2 =
P2
Loadcase 2
full dead load + out of (0 × 200) + (4.375 × 60)
=
balance imposed load 260

G = 100 kN/m G = 100 kN/m 262.5

=
Q = 60 kN/m Q = 0 kN/m 260
C
L
e Q = 4.375 m = 1.01 m
eP2 = 1.01 m
Allowable bearing pressure
Achieving no increase in bearing pressure above existing
P2 pressures corresponds to having a net allowable bearing
pressure of na = 0. From section 10.10, net bearing pressure is
n = p + fS − sS
This may be rearranged to give a superstructure allowable
bearing pressure of
fG = 12.6 kN/m2
fQ = 3.0 kN/m2 pa = na + sS − fS
= (net allowable bearing pressure) +
9m (existing surcharge) − (foundation surcharge)
= 0 + (20 kN/m3 × 3.5 m) − 15.6 kN/m2
= 54.4 kN/m2
p=
48.3 kN/m2 Bearing pressure check
P1
Loadcase 1: p1 =
Fig. 13.45 Buoyancy raft design example – section. L
320
=
9.0
problems with differential settlements, the building is to be
designed as a buoyancy raft with a usable basement, and = 35.6 kN/m2
bearing pressures are to be kept within the level of existing P2 eP2P2
ground stresses. It is to be assumed that the water-table Loadcase 2: p2(max) = +
L Z
exists at a level below the anticipated basement depth.
260 1.01 × 260
= +
Loadings 9.0 (9.02/6)
= 28.9 + 19.4
Loads are shown in Fig. 13.45. Two load cases are con-
sidered critical, as shown. The loads are as follows: = 48.3 kN/m2
SFDC13 1/8/06 11:19 AM Page 276

276 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

In both cases this is less than the allowable pa = 54.4 kN/m2 The remaining reinforcement in the basement slab will
⇒ okay. be sized to comply with shrinkage stresses and detailing
requirements in accordance with BS 8110 and other relev-
Ground heave ant codes of practice.

In this particular example, with ground conditions consist-

13.10 Jacking raft
ing of silty sands, significant ground heave is not expected.
Where the soil is predominantly cohesive (i.e. clays), the
13.10.1 Introduction
reduction in ground stress will result in heave, i.e. settle-
ment in reverse. Raft foundations suitable for jacking are specifically
designed versions of crust rafts, cellular rafts, lidded cellu-
As with settlement, heave will have a short-term (elastic)
lar rafts, beam strip rafts or other foundations whose stiff-
component, and a long-term (consolidation) component.
ness and behaviour is designed to resist the jacking forces
The amount of heave is calculated on the same basis as
and moments involved in the process of re-levelling.
settlement (see Chapter 2 on soil mechanics).
The raft is designed to cater for the bending and shear
From an engineering point of view, short-term heave will
forces likely to be produced during subsidence and re-
normally occur during the excavation period. Where its
levelling activity. Jacking points are built into the founda-
magnitude is considered significant, the level of the forma-
tion to allow for re-levelling and the type of raft and
tion can be monitored until the anticipated short-term
number of jacking points depends to a large extent on the
heave has taken place. The formation is then trimmed
proposed use, the size of the structure and the predicted
down to its required level, and construction of the new
subsidence likely to occur.
substructure proceeds.
The need for a jacking raft tends to be determined by the
Long-term heave is dealt with in the same way as long-term
unpredictability of subsidence and the practicalities for the
settlement. The anticipated amount of differential heave is
building user of re-levelling within the life of the building.
calculated, and the structure is designed to accommodate
As mentioned in section 9.4.9, domestic sites in areas of
this movement.
brine mining are typical of sites where such foundations
have been adopted and basically two design conditions
Foundation slab design
need to be considered.
By inspection, the worst case for design of the foundation
(1) To design for the normal subsidence condition for the
slab is load case 1.
site including bending moments and forces as pre-
Ultimate design pressure, pu = γP1p1 viously discussed for the raft type.
= 1.48 × 35.6 (2) Additional analysis and design to incorporate the struc-
= 52.7 kN/m2 tural requirements to resist stresses and distortions
during the jacking operations.
Design the slab to span simply supported between the
basement walls:
p L2 13.10.2 Sizing the design
Ultimate moment, Mu = u
8 From section 13.10.1 it can be seen that the initial sizing of
52.7 × (9.0 − 0.25) 2 the foundation for trial design would be to adopt gener-
= ous sizes for a standard raft of the type being proposed in
8
anticipation of embracing the jacking stresses.
= 504 kNm/m
The stresses produced during jacking are dependent on the
b = 1000 mm restrictions and methods of jacking and therefore tend to be
25(diameter) one-off designs for set conditions.
d = 450 − 25(top cover) − = 412 mm
2
13.11 References
Mu 504 × 106
= 1. Deacon, R.C. (1987) Concrete ground floors, their design, con-
bd 2
1000 × 4122 struction and finish, 3rd edn. Cement and Concrete Association,
Wexham Springs, Slough, UK.
= 2.97
2. British Standards Institution (1997) BS 8110-1, Structural Use of
As(req) = 0.83%bd [BS 8110: Part 3: Chart 2] Concrete, Part 1: Code of Practice for Design and Construction. BSI,
London.
0.83
= × 1000 × 415 3. British Standards Institution (1985) BS 8110-2, Structural Use of
100 Concrete, Part 2: Code of Practice for Special Circumstances. BSI,
London.
= 3445 mm2/m
4. National Coal Board (1975) Subsidence Engineers’ Handbook.
Provide T25 at 125 mm c/c (top) = 3927 mm2/m. NCB, Mining Department.
SFDC12 1/8/06 11:18 AM Page 228

12 Tied and Balanced Foundations

12.1 General introduction portal legs

Tied and balanced foundations are used to combine a num-

ber of superstructure loads in order to achieve acceptable H1 H1
bearing pressure. The combined base is used to balance out
or tie together difficult eccentricities of loading or horizontal tie to resist
forces. Such foundations usually result from an engineering force = H1
study of the superstructure loads to be transmitted onto the (a)
foundation. The engineer’s aim is to make the best use of the
magnitude and direction of such forces in balancing out or greater force smaller force
tying together eccentric reactions and horizontal thrust to H1 H2
economically achieve the required ground bearing pressures.

Particular problems exist where large lateral forces are

transferred at the top edge of a foundation from say portal
frames or when large column loads occur at or near site
1 tie to resist force = H2 plus 2
boundaries. Fortunately portal frames tend to have an equal a proportion of H1 – H 2
and opposite leg with similar opposing horizontal forces
foundations to resist force H1 – H2 passively
which can be reacted against each other. Buildings with
+ O.T. moments due to eccentricity of the
large column loads near to the boundary tend also to have passive reaction
other large column loads either internal to the building or
(b)
on an opposite boundary. The internal or opposite columns
can therefore be used to stabilize the moments produced Fig. 12.1 Tied foundation.
by the eccentricity from the outer perimeter frame. Typical
examples are given in the following sections.

12.2 Tied foundations 12.2.3 Sizing the foundations

The main pad foundations are designed in the same way as
12.2.1 Introduction those previously discussed in Chapter 11 but taking into
Tied foundations are often adopted as a means of exploiting account the tie force reaction in accordance with the above
to advantage opposing forces. This is achieved by linking considerations. The tie itself must be designed to resist the
them together via a tie or tie beam. The effect this has on force H1 or H2, as the case may be, and must be detailed to
the design is to reduce the horizontal force requiring to be transfer this force without excessive slip or failure between
resisted by the ground (see Fig. 12.1 (a)). the bases of the stanchions.

The use of a tie can reduce the amount of movement likely This is usually achieved by designing a tie rod for the total
to occur in developing the reaction and reduce the cost of force using appropriate permissible tensile stresses for the
the foundation. steel and ensuring that suitable mechanical anchorage or
bond anchorage is achieved in the details between the
12.2.2 Design decisions stanchion and tie (see Fig. 12.2).

In any situations where horizontal forces, such as thrusts In detailing these ties, the detailer should ensure that the
from portal frames, etc., act in opposite directions, con- tie acts on the centreline of the horizontal thrust force or
sideration should be given to connecting the forces via a tie that any eccentricity produced is designed into the founda-
in order to reduce or totally react a horizontal force. For ex- tion by the designer. The tie rod itself could contain a turn-
ample, if the forces are equal and opposite then the total force buckle for tensioning in order to reduce lateral movement
can be reacted. On the other hand, if the forces are opposite due to possible slackness in the rod, alternatively, if adjust-
and not equal, the smaller of the two forces can be tied and ment is not required, a reinforced concrete tie beam as
the remainder left to be reacted by foundation 1 or, if a shown in Fig. 12.3 could be used. Care should be taken
higher tie force is used, foundation 2 can also be utilized, to ensure axial tension across any connections which may
thereby reducing the force to be taken in passive pressure be required in the tie by the use of turn-buckle or male/
(see Fig. 12.1 (b)). female-type plate connectors. In the case of portal framed
SFDC12 1/8/06 11:18 AM Page 229

Tied and Balanced Foundations 229

U.C. stanchion
hook anchorage
into foundation base
tie rod turn-buckle
holding down
bolts

concrete encasement to tie rod

after adjustment of turn-buckle

Fig. 12.2 Tie anchorage.

r.c. tie beam portal leg P = 400 kN

H = 50 kN
tie force H = 50 kN
A

pad base

section A–A
L = 1.2 m
Fig. 12.3 Reinforced concrete tie beam.

factories it is often desirable to construct the floor slab after

erection and cladding of the building. In this case the engin- n = P/A
eer must ensure that all tie members are constructed and
covered prior to the erection of the steelwork, in order that
the presence of the tie members does not impede the con- Fig. 12.4 Tied base design example – loads and
struction process. pressures.

12.2.4 Design Example 1: Tied portal frame

Q as a percentage of P is 100 Q/P = (100 × 225)/400 = 56%.
base
From Fig. 10.20, the combined partial factor for dead and
The pad bases for a single-bay portal frame are to be joined imposed loads is γP = 1.51.
by a horizontal tie to take out the horizontal thrusts from
Horizontal thrust, H = 50 kN
the portal legs. The portal is similar to the one which was
designed as an untied portal in section 11.3.4. Loads and The horizontal thrust H arises from vertical loads G and Q,
dimensions are shown in Fig. 12.4. and will therefore have the same combined partial load
factor γP = 1.51.
Loadings
Size of base
From section 11.3.4,
From section 11.3.4, the net allowable bearing pressure,
vertical superstructure load, P = (dead load)
na = 300 kN/m2.
+ (imposed load)
=G+Q On the basis that the horizontal thrust will be taken out by
= 175 + 225 the tie joining the portal feet, the minimum area of founda-
= 400 kN tion required is
SFDC12 3/8/06 10:38 AM Page 230

230 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

superstructure load 12.3 Balanced foundations

Areq =
net allowable bearing pressure (rectangular, cantilever, trapezoidal
and holed)
P
=
na
12.3.1 Introduction
400
= A brief discussion regarding balanced foundations is given
300 in Chapter 9 and it is proposed in this chapter to con-
= 1.33 m2 sider these conditions a little further and to give design
examples.
= 1.15 m × 1.15 m

A base 1.2 m × 1.2 m will therefore be chosen. Comparison 12.3.2 Design decisions
with the example in section 11.3.4 shows that the introduc- The decision to use a combination of column loads to pro-
tion of the horizontal tie has reduced the base size. duce a combined balanced foundation would depend upon
a number of factors, for example:
Design of horizontal tie
(1) The spacing of the point loads.
The tie will be a mild steel bar, as shown in Fig. 12.5, encased (2) The combination of loads being considered.
in concrete for durability. (3) The restrictions of projections due to site boundaries.
Ultimate tensile force in bar, Hu = γP H (4) The overall eccentricities produced from the resultant
= 1.51 × 50 of the loads.
= 76 kN (5) The bearing area available.
(6) The need to produce a uniform pressure.
From BS 8110, the characteristic tensile stress fy = 250 N/mm2 (7) The economics compared to other possible alternatives,
for hot rolled mild steel. The partial material factor γs = 1.05. if any. For example, in some situations a combination of
The required cross-sectional area of bar is column loads can be used to balance out eccentric loads
ultimate tensile force which would otherwise extend isolated foundations
Amin = beyond the boundaries of the site. Balancing out these
ultimate design stress
column loads means that the boundaries can be main-
Hu tained within a base giving uniform pressure and this
=
⎛ fy ⎞ may prove more economic than say a piled solution.
⎜γ ⎟
⎝ s⎠ In other situations an attempt to balance out the loads may
76 × 10 3 produce cantilevers which would extend beyond the site
= boundaries therefore making it necessary to look at altern-
⎛ 250 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ative column combinations or alternative means of support
⎝ 1.05 ⎠
such as piling.
= 383 mm2
In most cases where these foundations are adopted they
Provide one number 25 mm diameter mild steel bar relate to: boundaries which are restrictive; foundations
(area = 491 mm2) to act as the tie. This will need to be which would otherwise overlap; or situations where, by
adequately anchored into the pad base as shown in Fig. 12.5. introducing a load from other columns onto the same
To prevent possible foundation spread from lack of fit, the foundation, bending moments are reduced and pressures
tie will incorporate a turn-buckle, to take up any slack prior become more uniform.
to steel erection.
12.3.3 Sizing up the design

(1) Rectangular balanced foundations

turn-buckle The foundation base is designed by calculating the posi-
tion of the resultant applied load and making the centre of
gravity of the base coincide with that of the downward
load.
This is done by first calculating the area of the base required
to resist the resultant load and then finding the most
economic rectangular pad to achieve this. The pad is then
located so that its centre of gravity is in the same position as
the resultant load (see Fig. 12.6).
tie rod encased
The base is then designed to resist the bending moments
in concrete
and shear forces produced by the solution, and the depth
Fig. 12.5 Tied base design example – tie rod detail. and reinforcement are determined and detailed accordingly.
SFDC12 1/8/06 11:18 AM Page 231

Tied and Balanced Foundations 231

resultant load (2) Cantilever balanced foundations

1500
0.5
The design of the cantilever balanced foundation is carried
out by assuming locations for the pad supports based upon
1000 CL loads 500 the physical considerations and calculating the reactions
from the cantilever beam. The reactions are then accom-
modated by calculating the required size of rectangular pads
for each reaction based upon a uniform bearing pressure.
1.5 1.5
The beam is then designed to support the loads from the
superstructure taking account of the induced bending and
CL base shear forces, etc. (see Fig. 12.7 for a typical example).

(3) Trapezoidal balanced foundations

The design is carried out by first of all calculating the area of

the base required for a uniform pressure to resist the total
applied load. The resultant load and its point of application
1.5 0.5 is then calculated. By fixing the dimensions for the length of
the base, the dimensions A and B (see Fig. 12.8 (a)) can be
calculated to give a centre of gravity which coincides with
the location of the resultant load.
2.5 2.5
The applied bending moments and shear forces are then
plan on base calculated and the reinforced foundation designed to suit.
Fig. 12.6 Rectangular balanced pad base.
(4) Holed balanced foundations

The design is carried out by first calculating the resultant

load and its location. The area required for the base is then

250 500

beam

pad pad

centroid of bases
and loads

simplified loading diagram A B

(a) trapezoidal base

S.F. diagram

B.M. diagram
(b) holed base
Fig. 12.7 Bending and shear diagram for typical
cantilever base. Fig. 12.8 Trapezoidal and holed balanced foundation.
SFDC12 1/8/06 11:18 AM Page 232

232 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

determined by dividing the resultant load by the allow- which for a square base gives plan dimensions of 3.65 m
able bearing pressure. By fixing the length of the base an × 3.65 m. This size will be used for internal columns,
average width can hence be determined, and by inspection with proportionally smaller sizes for perimeter and corner
of the eccentricity of the resultant load, an allowance can columns.
be made for an approximate size of hole and a trial width
The building is however built tight to the site boundary
determined (see Fig. 12.8 (b)).
along two sides, as shown in Fig. 12.9. To keep foundations
From this trial width a size and location for the hole can within the site boundary, the four columns adjacent
be calculated to give a centre of gravity for the base which to the corner will share a combined base. The base
will coincide with that of the applied loads and result in a will be designed as a rectangular balanced foundation
uniform pressure. in order to minimize bearing pressures and differential
settlements.
Having determined the base dimensions the bending
moments and shear forces can be calculated and the founda-
Size of combined base
tion design completed.
Superstructure total load, ∑ P = 2000 + 1000 + 1000 + 500
(5) General sizing considerations = 4500 kN

The size of the sections involved is based upon bending Taking moments about grid line 2 to calculate the distance
moments, shear forces and bond stresses in a similar man- of the centroid of the column loads from this grid line,
ner to any other reinforced concrete section. With founda-
∑ Px
tions, however, due to the slightly reduced shuttering cost X=
for concrete below ground compared to elevated sections, ∑P
it is often more economic to go for slightly larger concrete (1000 × 6.0) + (500 × 6.0)
=
sections to avoid the use of excessive shear reinforcement 4500
or large-diameter bars. Each condition will demand dif-
ferent sizes and therefore the engineer will need to deter- = 2.0 m
mine the initial size from a feel of engineering, which will Similarly, by symmetry, Y = 2.0 m.
develop with experience. The design may then be finalized
by trial and error. To achieve a balanced foundation, it is necessary to provide
a base whose centre of gravity coincides with the centroid
of the applied loads. The distance, in either direction, from
12.3.4 Design Example 2: Rectangular
the centroid of loads to the site boundary edge of the base
balanced foundation
is 6.5 − X = 4.5 m: therefore if the opposite edge is like-
A five-storey concrete-framed office building has columns wise located 4.5 m from the centroid of loads, the two will
located on a regular 6 m × 6 m grid. The soil is a sandy clay coincide. Thus a 9 m × 9 m base will provide a balanced
with a net allowable bearing pressure, na = 150 kN/m2. foundation in this situation.
The base will only remain exactly balanced if all four
Loadings
columns have the same level of imposed loading. From a
The column loads are as follows: foundation point of view this is unlikely to be critical unless
extreme variations in the distribution of imposed loads
Internal column: 2000 kN
occur. Where such variations are expected, these should be
Perimeter column: 1000 kN
designed for as a separate load case.
Corner column: 500 kN

The imposed load may be taken to be 55% of the total load Bearing pressure
for all columns. Thus, from Fig. 10.20, the combined partial The actual bearing pressure will be equal to
load factor γP = 1.51.
superstructure total load
p=
Size of isolated pad bases area of base

Normal internal column foundations have been chosen to ∑P

=
be isolated pad foundations, with an area given by A

superstructure load 4500

A= =
net allowable bearing pressure 9.0 × 9.0

P = 56 kN/m2
=
na The value of p (= 56 kN/m2) indicates that, although the
2000 balanced foundation would limit differential settlement
= between the four columns sharing the base, it would not,
150
for this particular building example, reduce differential
= 13.33 m2 settlements between columns on this base and those on
SFDC12 1/8/06 11:18 AM Page 233

Tied and Balanced Foundations 233

1 2
0.5 m 6.0 m ?

0.5 m
site boundary

A
500 kN 1000 kN

centroid of
loads
6.0 m

Y = 2.0 m
B
1000 kN 2000 kN

?
X = 2.0 m
site boundary

Fig. 12.9 Rectangular balanced foundation design example.

adjacent bases. Adjacent bases would be sized to give bear- 12.3.5 Design Example 3: Cantilever
ing pressures close to the allowable value of na = 150 kN/m2. balanced foundation
The superstructure would therefore be required to accom- An existing live service run requiring a 1.5 m wide zone is
modate the differential settlement between the combined required to pass along one edge of the combined base in the
corner base and the adjacent isolated bases. If it is unable previous example, as indicated in Fig. 12.10. The design is
to accommodate these differential settlements, the bearing required to be adjusted accordingly.
pressure on the balanced foundation could be increased,
within limits, by turning the foundation into a holed balanced Before redesigning the foundation, the designer should
foundation. In this particular example this would involve explore the possibilities, and relative costs, of either per-
cutting a hole out of the centre of the base, thus reducing the suading the services engineer to relocate these services,
area of the base. Provided the centre of gravity of the base or setting back the two columns on grid line 1, and can-
remains in line with the centroid of applied loads, the bear- tilevering the building out to the site boundary at each floor
ing pressure would remain uniform, but its magnitude level. Either solution may well prove more economic than
would increase. This is illustrated further in design ex- changing the foundation.
ample 5 in section 12.3.7. If these options fail to bear fruit, the designer will need to
design the combined base to cantilever over the service
Ultimate design pressure zone without loading it. As in the previous example, the
The ultimate design pressure for reinforcement design base will be designed as a balanced foundation.
is given by pu = γPp, where γP is the combined dead and
imposed partial load factor. Size of base

pu = γPp The column loads and positions are unchanged, and there-
= 1.51 × 56 fore the centroid of the superstructure loads remains in
= 85 kN/m2 the same place as in the last example. Again a balanced
SFDC12 1/8/06 11:18 AM Page 234

234 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

1 2
6.0 m ?
0.5 m

1.5 m 5.0 m

0.5 m

A
500 kN 1000 kN

0.75 m 5.75 m

centroid of
6.0 m loads

324 kN

Y = 2.0 m

B
1000 kN 2000 kN
2.5 m
A A
X=?

plan

existing service zone

centroid of loads

degradable compressive
material (clayboard or similar)
1.0 m

p = 84 kN/m2

1.5 m = =

section A–A

Fig. 12.10 Cantilever balanced foundation design example.

foundation will be achieved by making the centre of gravity The weight of the cantilever section of the slab acts as a
of the effective base (i.e. the centroid of the uniform stress net applied load in this direction and must be taken into
block below the base) coincide with that of the applied loads. account in calculating the centroid of all applied loads.
It will therefore be included as part of the superstructure
The service zone does not affect the centre of gravity of the
load, P.
base in the Y direction, and the overall dimension in this
direction for a balanced foundation therefore remains at The weight of this strip of foundation is
9 m. In the x direction, the 1.5 m width of the service zone is
discounted in considering the effective base area. 24 kN/m3 × 1.5 m × 9.0 m × 1.0 m = 324 kN
SFDC12 1/8/06 11:18 AM Page 235

Tied and Balanced Foundations 235

Superstructure total load, Σ P = (total column loads) B1

+ (cantilever self-weight) 0.5 m
= 4500 + 324 site boundary
= 4824 kN
A
Taking moments about grid line 2, the distance to the
1000 kN
centroid is given by
∑ Px
X=
∑P centroid of
6.0 m loads
(1000 × 6.0) + (500 × 6.0) + (324 × 5.75)
= L
4824

= 2.25 m

With reference to Fig. 12.10, the distance from the centroid 2.0 m
to the effective left-hand edge of the base is 5.0 − 2.25 = 2.75 m. Y
B
Thus, in order to align the centre of gravity with the
2000 kN
centroid of applied loads, the right-hand edge of the 1.825 m
base must also be located at 2.75 m from the centroid of
x x
the applied loads. This gives an effective horizontal base
width of 2 × 2.75 m = 5.5 m, and a total horizontal base
width of 5.5 + 1.5 = 7.0 m. The effective area of the base is B2
given by

Ab = 5.5 × 9.0 Fig. 12.11 Trapezoidal balanced foundation design

= 49.5 m2 example.

Bearing pressure

The actual bearing pressure will be

∑P not suitable, and that the foundations of the perimeter

p=
Ab columns must be combined with those of the adjacent
internal columns.
4824
= Since the ratio of internal to perimeter loads is 2 : 1, i.e. the
49.5
same as in Design Example 2 (section 12.3.4), the centroid
= 97 kN/m2 of loads will again be 2.0 m from grid line B. A 9.0 m long
base, as in Design Example 2, would therefore again be
Ultimate design pressure required to achieve a balanced rectangular foundation.
This relatively long base would however be associated with
From design example 2, the imposed load Q is 55% of the
comparatively large bending moments and reinforcement
4500 kN column loads, i.e.
areas. A more economic foundation is likely to be achieved
Q = 0.55 × 4500 = 2475 kN using a shorter trapezoidal balanced foundation.

Q as a percentage of superstructure load ∑ P is given by

Condition for a balanced trapezoidal foundation
100Q/∑ P = (100 × 2475)/4824 = 51%.
Again the condition for a balanced foundation is for the
From Fig. 10.20, the combined partial factor for net loads is
centre of gravity of the base to coincide with the centroid of
γP = 1.5.
the applied loads.
pu = γPp Total load, ∑ P = 2000 + 1000
= 1.5 × 97 = 3000 kN
= 146 kN/m2
(B1 + B2)L
Area of base, A =
12.3.6 Design Example 4: Trapezoidal 2
balanced foundation Therefore
This example deals with the same building considered in
2A
the previous two examples, and designs the foundations B1 + B2 =
L
for the perimeter columns where these occur along a site
boundary, as shown in Fig. 12.11. As in the previous ex- With reference to Fig. 12.11, and taking moments of area
amples, the close proximity of the perimeter columns to the about x–x, the location of the centre of gravity of the base of
site boundary means that isolated pad foundations are area A is given by
SFDC12 1/8/06 11:18 AM Page 236

236 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

⎛ L⎞ ⎛ L ⎞ L(B2 − B1 ) 4 × 20 6 × 3.825 × 20
YA = ⎜ ⎟ LB1 + ⎜ ⎟ = −
⎝ 2⎠ ⎝ 3⎠ 2 8.325 (8.325)2

⎛B B − B1 ⎞
2
= 3.0 m
= L2 ⎜ 1 + 2 ⎟
⎝ 2 6 ⎠ These values will give a balanced trapezoidal foundation,
L2 with a bearing pressure of p = 150 kN/m2.
= (2B1 + B2)
6
Ultimate design pressure
This equation may be rewritten to give an expression for
B1 as follows: The combined dead and imposed partial load factor is
γP = 1.51, as in the previous examples. The ultimate design
L2 pressure for reinforcement design, pu, is given by
YA = (2B1 + B2)
6
pu = γPp
6YA = 1.51 × 150
= B1 + (B1 + B2)
L2 = 227 kN/m2

6YA
B1 = − (B1 + B2) 12.3.7 Design Example 5: Holed balanced
L2 foundation
Substituting for B1 + B2 gives This example again makes use of the same building as
6YA 2A in the previous examples, and the same pair of columns in
B1 = 2 − the trapezoidal balanced foundation in section 12.3.6. The
L L
trapezoidal shape will be squared off to give a 3.0 m × 8.325
In a similar manner, m rectangular outline, as shown in Fig. 12.12.
4A 6YA To minimize differential settlements – both within the base
B2 = − 2
L L and between adjacent bases – the combined base will be
designed as a balanced foundation, with a bearing pressure
Area of base equal to the allowable bearing pressure na = 150 kN/m2.

The values of B1 and B2 would normally be chosen to minim- A balanced holed foundation will be investigated for this
ize the size of the base. This would result in a bearing example. By inserting a hole off-centre to the centroid of
pressure equal to the allowable bearing pressure, na, giving the 3 m × 8.325 m base, it is possible to cause the centre
a base area of gravity of the base to shift until it coincides with that of
∑P the applied loads.
A=
na
3000
=
150 0.5 m
site boundary
= 20 m2
A
Dimensions of base 1000 kN
centroid of L
The end of the base furthest from the site boundary will, ‘unholed’ 2
in this instance, be chosen to extend beyond grid line B base
by the same amount as a standard 3.65 m × 3.65 m internal 6.0 m Y = 0.34 m
pad foundation (see section 12.3.4), i.e. extending by 3.65/2
= 1.825 m. x x

Thus, from Fig. 12.11,

L = 6.5 + 1.825 = 8.325 m 2.0 m

Y = 2.0 + 1.825 = 3.825 m centroid L
B of loads 2
6YA 2A
B1 = − 1.825 m
2000 kN
L2 L
X X
6 × 3.825 × 20 2 × 20
= −
(8.325)2 8.325
3.0 m
= 1.8 m

4A 6YA Fig. 12.12 Holed balanced foundation design

B2 = − 2
L L example – loads.
SFDC12 1/8/06 11:18 AM Page 237

Tied and Balanced Foundations 237

The superstructure total load coming onto the base is Thus the required area of the hole is
given by
Ah = Au − A
∑ P = 2000 + 1000 = 25.0 − 20.0
= 3000 kN = 5.0 m2

Area of hole Condition for a balanced holed foundation

The area of the holed base is given by For a balanced foundation, the centre of gravity of the holed
base is required to coincide with the centroid of applied
A = (area of unholed base) − (area of hole)
loads. Let Y be the distance from the centre of the unholed
= Au − Ah
base to the centroid of applied loads, and Yh the distance to
From Fig. 12.12, the area of the unholed base is given by the centre of the hole.

Au = 3.0 × 8.325 From Figs 12.12 and 12.13, taking moments of area about
= 24.5 m2 x–x, Y is given by

The size of the hole would optimally be chosen to give a YA = 0(Au) + Yh(Ah)
bearing pressure equal to the allowable bearing pressure, i.e.
Thus
∑P
A= YA
na Yh =
Ah
3000
= This is the condition for a balanced foundation.
150
From Fig. 12.12, Y = 0.34 m. Thus
= 20.0 m2
YA
Yh =
Ah
1.6 m
0.34 × 20.0
=
0.5 m 5.0
site boundary
= 1.36 m
A
1000 kN Dimensions of base
L
2 To achieve a balanced foundation, the centre of the hole
must be at a distance of Yh = 1.36 m from the centre of the
hole
6.0 m CL unholed base. Provided this condition is met, the actual
shape of the hole, e.g. square or rectangular, is not critical.
x x
The area of the hole was calculated earlier in this example
Yh = 1.36 m as Ah = 5.0 m2. A rectangular hole will be adopted in this
L instance, having dimensions of 1.6 m × 3.125 m = 5.0 m2 (see
2 Fig. 12.13).
B
2000 kN Ultimate design pressure
1.825 m
The holed base has been sized to give a bearing pressure at
X X
working loads of 150 kN/m2. The ultimate design pressure
for reinforcement design, pu, is calculated as follows, with
3.0 m γP = 1.51 as in the previous example,

pu = γPp
Fig. 12.13 Holed balanced foundation design = 1.51 × 150
example – hole size. = 227 kN/m2
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14 Piles

14.1 Introduction domestic housing. The increased cost of the piles was
more than compensated for by the low cost of the site.
Piling is one of the oldest foundation techniques known
(3) Where surface foundation would impose unaccept-
to mankind. The authors’ practice has uncovered timber
able increase in bearing pressure, or surcharge, on
piles used by the Romans, and, in its structural survey of
existing foundations (see Fig. 14.3).
the Albert Docks, Liverpool, found extensive use of piling
(4) Where the foundation is subject to lateral loads which
made by Victorian engineers. Piles are used to transfer the
can be more economically resisted by raking piles (see
applied loads from the structure through the upper level
Fig. 14.4).
strata to the soils at depth. The purpose of this transfer varies
(5) Where variations in the compressibility of the soil
from site to site as is shown in the following applications.
would lead to excessive differential settlement of

14.2 Applications
Typical applications of piling are: retaining or
basement wall
(1) Where soil of low bearing capacity of significant depth new
is underlain by strong strata. structure
Piling which transfers the foundation load to the
strong strata is frequently a more economic solution
than alternative foundations (see Fig. 14.1).
(2) Where the surface strata is susceptible to unaccept-
able settlement, and is underlain by stiff material (see
Fig. 14.2).
On a low-cost site the authors’ practice has installed
18 m long in situ concrete piles to support two-storey

weak strata

pressure bulb below

stiff strata zone of influence
of existing wall
Fig. 14.1 Stiff strata at depth.
Fig. 14.3 Load transfer below existing foundation.

highly compressible
lateral
peat
load

structure
good strata

good strata
lateral
resistance
stiff strata

Fig. 14.2 Compressible strata. Fig. 14.4 Lateral resistance.

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278 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

resort but can be considered as an economic altern-

ative in foundation design.
compressible strata of
varying thickness and Piles should be used with caution, if at all, where the
thus settlement ground is subject to significant lateral movement, e.g. in
areas affected by mining, as such movements can shear off
the piles leaving the structure unsupported (see Chapter 6).

Fig. 14.5 Variable compressibility. 14.3 Types of piles

There is a wide variety of pile types, materials, methods of
placing, etc., which are summarised in Fig. 14.8 and out-
lined below. The criteria for choice of pile is discussed in
section 14.5.

14.3.1 Load-bearing characteristics

There are two broad classifications of piles, as follows:

(1) End bearing. The pile is driven through weak soil to rock,
possible slip dense gravel or similar material and the load-bearing
circle capacity of the pile is derived from the assistance of the
stratum at the toe of the pile (see Fig. 14.9 (a)).
Fig. 14.6 Load transfer below critical slip circle. (2) Skin friction. Skin friction develops between the surface
area of the pile and the surrounding soil (similar
to driving a nail into timber). The frictional resistance
surface foundations (see Fig. 14.5). The leaning tower developed must provide an adequate factor of safety
of Pisa is a classic example of differential settlement. for the pile load (see Fig. 14.9 (b)).
(6) Where excavation to firm strata would prove ex-
It is not uncommon for piles to rely on both types of load-
pensive and difficult, e.g. soft waterlogged alluvial
bearing capacity. For example, if the ‘stiff stratum’ shown
deposits. On one important contract, near the coast in
in Fig. 14.2 is compact gravel and the ‘good stratum’ above
North Wales, it was found that the proposed structure
is a firm sand, then a pile driven into the gravel could rely
was sited over a glaciated channel filled to a depth
both on end bearing from the gravel and skin friction from
of 15 m with a soft, highly saturated silt which was
the sand.
impossible to dewater. Excavation and foundation
construction would have been difficult and expensive.
14.3.2 Materials
(7) Where, on sloping sites, it is necessary to transfer the
additional load to a level below the possible slip circle Both classes of piles can be made of various materials.
(see Fig. 14.6).
(8) Where anchoring of a flotation foundation by tying (1) Timber piles
down or tension pile is necessary (see Fig. 14.7). The oldest material used for piles is timber and it is still
(9) Where heave and swelling of clay could exert excessive in use, particularly in developing countries, today. It has
forces and movements on surface spread foundations. proved surprisingly durable and provided care is given to
(10) Whenever piling is a more economic solution. In the the detail and treatment of the toe and head of the pile and
past few decades there have been advances in piling the durability conditions it should still be used where it is
manufacture and construction which have consider- economical. The toe can be subject to splintering during
ably reduced the cost of piling. Piling is no longer a last driving and should be tapered to a blunted point and,
if necessary, encased in steel. The head of the pile during
driving may also need protection from splintering and this
is usually provided by placing a driving cap or helmet over
the head of the pile.

water–table Where the top of the pile is below the lowest water level
and is in permanently wet conditions, experience shows
that there are few durability problems. However, when the
upward water level of the top of the pile or any part of it is in the area of a
pressure resisted fluctuating water-table and is therefore subjected to altern-
by anchor piles anchor
ate wetting and drying, this section of the pile should be
piles
treated with preservatives and water repellents and even
then may still have a limited life.
skin friction
If the length of the pile is found on site to be too long there is
Fig. 14.7 Anchorage against flotation. little problem in cutting off the excess length but there is a
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Piles 279

Types of pile

Large displacement Small displacement Replacement

Preformed: solid or hollow Cast in place: formed in situ A void is formed by boring
closed at the bottom end, by driving a closed tubular or excavation; the void is
driven into the ground section to form a void, and filled with concrete. The
and left in position then filling the void with sides of the void are:
concrete whilst withdrawing
the section

Various systems

Solid Hollow (closed at bottom Supported Unsupported

end and filled or unfilled
after driving)

Precast Timber Permanently Temporarily

concrete (by casing)

Steel tubes Concrete

or box piles tubes

Formed to Formed as units Steel sections, Screw piles By casing By drilling By soil on a
required with mechanical includes H-piles, mud continuous
length joints and special open-ended tubes flight auger
driving shoes and box piles (unless a
plug forms during driving)

Fig. 14.8 Types of pile (BS 8004: 1986: Code of practice for foundations, Fig. 14(1)).

problem if the pile is found to be too short. Extending the

pile involves splicing on an added length and any metal
connections must be corrosion-resistant.

The choice of timber is not restricted to dense timbers such

as greenheart or oak, except in conditions where the pile is
subject to alternate wetting and drying such as in piles
supporting jetties in tidal conditions. In numerous struc- rock
tural surveys of Victorian buildings the authors’ practice has
end bearing skin friction
discovered, in good condition below the water-table level,
timbers such as birch, larch, pine, etc. (a) (b)

Fig. 14.9 Pile resistance.

(2) Concrete piles

Concrete piles are the most widely used in the developed

countries and may be cast in situ, precast, reinforced and
(iii) Where there are large voids in sections of the soil
prestressed. The choice of type is discussed more fully in
which would possibly have to be filled with an excess-
section 14.5.
ive amount of in situ concrete or could cause loss of
support for wet concrete prior to setting.
(a) Precast
(iv) For structures such as piers and jetties above water
This type is commonly used where: level on coastal, estuary and river sites.

(i) The length required can be realistically predicted. Though precast piles can be manufactured on site it is
(ii) Lateral pressure from a stratum within the soil profile more common to have them designed, manufactured and
is sufficient to squeeze (neck) a cast-in-situ pile. installed by specialist subcontractors.
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280 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

There are disadvantages in the use of precast concrete piles (vi) Soil taken from boring can be inspected and compared
as follows: with the anticipated conditions.

(i) It is not easy to extend their length. The disadvantages of cast in situ piles are:
(ii) They are liable to fracture when driven into such
(i) It can be difficult to place and ensure positioning of
obstacles as large boulders in boulder clay and the
any necessary reinforcement.
damage can remain out of sight.
(ii) Concrete quality control is more difficult.
(iii) Obstructions can cause the pile to deflect from the
(iii) There is a danger of necking from lateral earth pressure.
true vertical line.
(iv) Young concrete is susceptible to attack from some soil
(iv) There is an economic limit, restricted by buckling, of
chemicals before it has set and hardened.
the unrestrained length of the pile.
(v) Noise and vibration caused by driving can cause
(c) Prestressed
nuisance and damage.
(vi) There can be large wastage and health and safety Prestressed concrete in superstructure design is made of
risks to the workforce caused by noise and vibration higher strength concrete, requires smaller cross-sectional
due to the need to cut off the projecting length after area and can be made impact-resistant. The same results
driving. apply to prestressed piles relative to comparison with pre-
(vii) The accuracy of the estimated length is only proved cast reinforced piles. Their advantages compared to precast
on site when short piles can be difficult to extend and reinforced are:
long piles can prove to be expensive and wasteful.
(i) Handling stresses can be resisted by a smaller cross-
(viii) The relatively large rig required for driving often
section which can result in a more economical pile.
needs extensive hard-standings to provide a suitable
(ii) It is easier with the smaller section to achieve longer
surface for pile driving.
penetration into load-bearing gravels.
The advantages of precast concrete piles are: (iii) Tensile stresses that are generated up from the toe of
the pile after the hammer blow can be compensated for
(i) It is easier to supervise the initial quality of construction by prestress.
in precast than in situ. (iv) The reduction of tensile cracking of the concrete can
(ii) The pile is not driven until the concrete is matured. lead to greater durability.
(iii) Stresses due to driving are usually higher than those
due to foundation loading so that manufacturing The disadvantages of prestressed piles are:
faults are more easily discovered and, in effect, the (i) The smaller section provides less end bearing and total
pile is preload tested (provided the defects can be peripheral skin friction.
detected). (ii) Deeper penetration into end-bearing strata (gravel,
The reinforcement, while adding to the load-bearing capa- compact sand, etc.) may be necessary.
city, is mainly designed to cope with handling, transporting (iii) It is more difficult to extend the length of a precast
and driving stresses. driven pile.
(iv) As in prestressed concrete superstructure elements,
(b) Cast in situ stricter quality control in manufacture is necessary.

There is an ever increasing variety of cast in situ piles (3) Steel piles
offered by specialist piling subcontractors. The piles are
usually circular in cross-section and are regarded as small- Though most piling is carried out using some form of
diameter piles when their diameters are from 250–600 mm concrete there are situations where steel piles should be
and larger-diameter piles when their diameters exceed considered. There is considerable experience of the use
600 mm; large-diameter piles are now possible with dia- of sheet piling in civil engineering which can be applied
meters up to 3.0 m. to piles for structures. The piles are generally a standard
H section (see Table 14.1) or, for longer or more heavily
The advantages of cast in situ piles are: loaded sections, tubular box section piles are used (see
Table 14.2). In some cases they can form a structurally
(i) They can be constructed immediately, thus cutting out
efficient and cost-effective solution. The advantages of steel
the time required for casting, maturing and delivering
piles compared with concrete are:
of precast piles.
(ii) There is no need to cut off or extend excessive lengths (i) They have a lighter weight for a required load-bearing
of the piles as they can be cast in situ to the required capacity.
level. (ii) They can be used in longer lengths and extending
(iii) They can be cast to longer lengths than is practical with them by butt welding is relatively simple. Similarly
precast piles. excess length is easily cut off.
(iv) Most obstructions can be hammered and broken (iii) They are more resistant to handling and driving
through by the pile-driving techniques. stresses.
(v) The placing can cause less noise vibration and other (iv) They can have good resistance to lateral forces, bending
disturbance compared to driving precast piles. stresses and buckling.
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Piles 281

Table 14.1 Steel H piles – dimensions and properties (Corus Piling Handbook, Internet Edition, 2001(2))

B
Y
+ +
r

D d
X X
t

+ +
T Y

Serial Mass Area of Depth of Width of Thickness Root Radius of gyrationa Elastic modulusa
size (kg/m) section section, section, radius,
(mm) (cm2) D (mm) B (mm) Web, Flange, r (mm) Axis, xx Axis, yy Axis, xx Axis, yy
t (mm) T (mm) (cm) (cm) (cm3) (cm3)

356 × 406 340 433.0 406.4 403.0 26.6 42.9 15.2 16.8 10.4 6031 2325

356 × 406 287 366.0 393.6 399.0 22.6 36.5 15.2 16.5 10.3 5075 1939

356 × 406 235 299.0 381.0 394.8 18.4 30.2 15.2 16.3 10.2 4151 1570

356 × 368 202 257.0 374.6 374.7 16.5 27.0 15.2 16.1 9.6 3538 1264

356 × 368 174b 222.2 361.5 378.1 20.4 20.4 15.2 15.2 9.1 2829 976

356 × 368 152b 193.6 356.4 375.5 17.9 17.9 15.2 15.1 9.0 2464 841

356 × 368 133 b

169.0 351.9 373.3 15.6 15.6 15.2 15.0 9.0 2150 727

356 × 368 109 b

138.4 346.4 370.5 12.9 12.9 15.2 14.8 8.9 1762 588

305 × 305 283 360.4 365.3 322.2 26.8 44.1 15.2 14.8 8.3 4318 1529

305 × 305 240 305.6 352.5 318.4 23.0 37.7 15.2 14.5 8.1 3643 1276

305 × 305 223 b

285.0 338.0 325.4 30.5 30.5 15.2 13.6 7.8 3125 1080

305 × 305 198 252.3 339.9 314.5 19.1 31.4 15.2 14.2 8.0 2995 1037

305 × 305 186b 237.3 328.3 320.5 25.6 25.6 15.2 13.4 7.7 2597 881

305 × 305 158 201.2 327.1 311.2 15.8 25.0 15.2 13.9 7.9 2369 808

305 × 305 149 b

190.0 318.5 315.6 20.7 20.7 15.2 13.2 7.6 2075 689

305 × 305 137 174.6 320.5 309.2 13.8 21.7 15.2 13.7 7.8 2048 692

305 × 305 126 b

161.3 312.4 312.5 17.7 17.7 15.2 13.1 7.5 1760 576

305 × 305 110b 140.4 307.9 310.3 15.4 15.4 15.2 13.0 7.4 1532 496

305 × 305 95b

121.4 303.8 308.3 13.4 13.4 15.2 12.9 7.3 1324 424

305 × 305 88b

112.0 301.7 307.2 12.3 12.3 15.2 12.8 7.3 1220 388

305 × 305 79b

100.4 299.2 306.0 11.1 11.1 15.2 12.8 7.3 1096 346

254 × 254 167 212.4 289.1 265.2 19.2 31.7 12.7 11.9 6.8 2075 744

254 × 254 132 168.9 276.3 261.3 15.3 25.3 12.7 11.6 6.7 1631 576

254 × 254 107 136.6 266.7 258.8 12.8 20.5 12.7 11.3 6.6 1313 458

254 × 254 85b

108.1 254.3 259.7 14.3 14.3 12.7 10.7 6.2 965 323

254 × 254 71b 91.1 249.9 257.5 12.1 12.1 12.7 10.6 6.1 813 268

254 × 254 63b

79.7 246.9 256.0 10.6 10.6 12.7 10.5 6.1 711 232

203 × 203 54b

68.4 203.9 207.2 11.3 11.3 10.2 8.5 5.0 489 162

203 × 203 45b

57.0 200.2 205.4 9.5 9.5 10.2 8.5 4.9 408 133

a
These properties apply only in the case of structures such as jetties where part of the pile, projecting above bed level, acts as a column.
b Sections with equal flange and web thicknesses.
SFDC14 1/8/06 12:17 PM Page 282

282 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

Table 14.2 CAZ box piles – dimensions and properties (RPS Piling Handbook(3))

B
Y d

x x H
Weld

Section b h Perim Steel Total Mass Moment Elastic section Min Rad of Coating
Area Section of Inertia modulus gyration area
only Area
Y–Y Z–Z Y–Y Z–Z
mm mm cm cm2 cm2 kg/m cm4 cm4 cm3 cm3 cm m2/m

CAZ 12 1340 604 348 293 4166 230 125 610 369 510 4 135 5 295 20.7 3.29

CAZ 13 1340 606 349 320 4191 251 136 850 402 270 4 490 5 765 20.7 3.29

CAZ 14 1340 608 349 348 4217 273 148 770 436 260 4 865 6 255 20.7 3.29

CAZ 17 1260 758 360 305 4900 239 205 040 335 880 5 385 5 105 25.9 3.41

CAZ 18 1260 760 361 333 4925 261 222 930 365 500 5 840 5 560 25.9 3.41

CAZ 19 1260 762 361 362 4951 284 242 210 396 600 6 330 6 035 25.9 3.41

CAZ 25 1260 852 376 411 5540 323 343 000 450 240 8 020 6 925 28.9 3.57

CAZ 26 1260 854 377 440 5566 346 366 820 480 410 8 555 7 385 28.9 3.57

CAZ 28 1260 856 377 471 5592 370 392 170 513 050 9 125 7 820 28.9 3.57

CAZ 34 1260 918 392 516 5999 405 507 890 552 570 11 020 8 520 31.4 3.73

CAZ 36 1260 920 393 547 6026 430 537 860 585 200 11 645 9 030 31.4 3.73

CAZ 38 1260 922 393 579 6053 455 568 840 618 770 12 290 9 550 31.4 3.73

CAZ 36-700 1400 998 430 528 7209 414 627 090 701 250 12 520 10 015 34.4 4.10

CAZ 38-700 1400 1000 431 563 7239 442 667 260 747 360 13 295 10 675 34.4 4.10

CAZ 40-700 1400 1002 432 599 7269 470 707 630 793 470 14 070 11 335 34.4 4.10

CAZ 46 1160 962 401 595 5831 467 645 940 527 590 13 380 8 825 32.9 3.81

CAZ 48 1160 964 402 628 5858 493 681 190 556 070 14 080 9 300 32.9 3.81

CAZ 50 1160 966 402 661 5884 519 716 620 584 560 14 780 9 780 32.9 3.81

(v) They are particularly useful for marine structures (ii) The pile cost per metre run can be relatively high.
(piers, jetties, etc.) above water where the piles may be (iii) There are fewer piling sub-contractors competent to
subjected to impact forces, ships docking, etc. carry out the work.
(iv) There is a tendency for H sections to bend about the
The disadvantages of steel piles are:
weak axis when being driven – the resulting curved
(i) There is a need for corrosion-protection. pile has a lower bearing capacity.
SFDC14 1/8/06 12:17 PM Page 283

Piles 283

(4) Stone piles/vibro-stabilization pile or withdrawn for reuse as the cast concrete is placed.
The cast concrete is rammed into position by a hammer as
The use of stones or large gravel in piling is now a well-
the casing is withdrawn ensuring firm contact with the soil
developed technique. The authors have been involved
and compaction of the concrete. Care must be taken to see
in extensive use of this form of piling for many years.
that the cast concrete is not over-rammed or the casing
The method is used mainly as a geotechnical process to
withdrawn too quickly. There is a danger that as the liner
consolidate and compact soils and/or to improve their
tube is withdrawn it can lift up the upper portion of in situ
drainage. The technique is discussed in detail in Chapter 8
concrete leaving a void or necking in the upper portions of
and reference should be made to that chapter for further
the pile. This can be avoided by good quality control of the
information.
concrete and slow withdrawal of the casing.

14.4 Methods of piling Driven cast in situ piles can prove to be economic for sands,
loose gravels, soft silts and clays particularly when large
There is a wide variety of methods used for piling and
numbers of piles are required. For small numbers of piles
every piling contractor has a number of variations for
the on-site costs can however prove to be expensive.
their system – improvements in method and equipment
continues. The main classes only are discussed below.
14.4.3 Bored cast-in-place piles
14.4.1 Driven piles The hole for the pile shaft is formed by drilling or augering
and the toe of the hole can he enlarged by under-reaming in
This method is used for piles of timber, precast concrete,
stiff clays to provide greater end-bearing capacity for the
prestressed concrete and the various types of steel piles.
pile. The method tends to be restricted to clayey soils and,
The pile is hammered into the ground by pile-driving plant
as with the driven cast-in-place pile, care must be exercised
shown in outline in Fig. 14.10 (a). Methods of protecting the
to prevent necking of the cast concrete. If they are used in
head of the pile from shattering are shown in Fig. 14.10 (b).
loose sand or silt the inflow of soil into the bore must be
Driven piles are classified as displacement piles and, where prevented. They can be installed in very long lengths and
the soil can enter during driving, as small displacement piles be of large diameter.
(e.g. open ended tubular or other hollow sections often in
The relatively small on-site cost of bored piles means that
steel).
smaller sites can be more economically piled than they can
using a driven piling system. The bored pile is not usually
14.4.2 Driven cast-in-place piles
economic in granular soils where loosening and disturb-
A closed ended hollow steel or concrete casing is driven ance of surrounding ground can cause excessive removal of
into the ground and then filled with fresh concrete. The soil and induce settlement in the surrounding area. During
casing may be left in position to form part of the whole piling operations the hole can be lined with a casing which

leader to guide
timber or
hammer and pile
plastic dolly
hammer

B
timber steel helm
packing

pile

pile

winch track

piling frame detail at B

(a) (b)
Fig. 14.10 Driven piling.
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284 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

spoil reinforcing
cage

concrete

auger penetration depth reached concrete injection placing reinforcement

Fig. 14.11 Flight auger pile.

can be driven ahead of the bore to overcome difficulties 14.4.7 Mini or pin piles
caused by groundwater and soft sub-soil but sometimes
difficulties of withdrawing the casing after casting can There are a number of mini or pin piles on the market. The
prove expensive. systems range from water- or air-flushed rotary percussion
augers to small-diameter driven steel cased piles which are
14.4.4 Screw piles driven to a set.
The pile diameters generally vary between 90 mm and
Screw piles of steel or concrete cylinders with helical blades
220 mm and can be used in most soils and with restricted
attached are screwed into the ground by rotating the
access/limited headroom. Where necessary, noise and
blades. Their best application is in deep stratum of soft
vibration can be kept to a minimum and piles can be driven
alluvial soils underlain by firm strata. Due to the large
within a few hundred millimetres of adjacent properties.
diameter of the blades the piles have increased resistance
In underpinning they can be used to penetrate existing
to uplift forces. Screw piles can be removed after use in
concrete or masonry foundations, and can be bonded into
temporary works.
the existing elements or form part of a new support system
in conjunction with cast-in-situ ‘needle’ beams.
14.4.5 Jacked piles
Slenderness of such small-diameter piles must however be
Jacked piles are used where headroom for the pile and pile
taken into account and the need for good quality control par-
driver are limited as in underpinning within an existing
ticularly with regard to filling such small bores with concrete.
building. The pile is jacked in short sections using the exist-
ing superstructure as a reaction frame. The piles are not generally suitable in mining areas where
surface movements and lateral strains may be expected to
14.4.6 Continuous flight auger piles distort or shear the piles.

The flight auger pile system uses a hollow stem auger 14.5 Choice of pile
mounted on a mobile rig. The auger is drilled into the
ground with very little vibration and spoil removal. When Having found a satisfactory pile and a reliable and co-
the required depth has been reached (see Fig. 14.11), con- operative piling contractor for a particular site and con-
crete or grout is injected through the auger shaft. Usually ditions, there is a temptation for a busy designer, with
the concrete or grout mixing plant and the pumping equip- inadequate time to investigate the wide choice of piles and
ment are located nearby but can, if such areas are sensitive, systems, to use the same piling contractor for all future
be located well away from such positions. Pile lengths of up projects. This understandable reaction does not make for
to 25 m can generally be achieved with pile diameters from cost effectiveness nor structural efficiency. A guide to the
300 mm to 600 mm. Piles can be raked up to an angle of 1 in choices available is given below:
6 from vertical. The system is suitable for use in most virgin (1) The piling system must provide a safe foundation with
soils and fine granular fills and rigs can operate in areas an adequate factor of safety (see section 14.6.1) against
with restricted headroom. failure of the foundation on supporting soil.
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Piles 285

(2) The total settlement and differential settlement must be obtained of adequate insurance to indemnify building
limited to that which the structure can tolerate. owners for any claims or damage to adjoining buildings
(3) The pile should be the right type of pile for the ground or failure of piles due to design and construction faults.
conditions and structure (see section 14.5.1).
To the cost of the piles must be added the cost of excavation
(4) The driving of the piles and the load they impose on the
for constructing pile caps and any necessary tie beams. This
soil must not damage neighbouring structures.
increases the cost of construction supervision and design.
(5) The piles must be economic (see section 14.5.3) and
durable (see section 14.5.2), and where speed of con- Decisions must be taken early so that design, detailing, con-
struction is important, quick to place. struction and planning can be completed well in advance
of starting the contract. Too often the time is restricted by
14.5.1 Ground conditions and structure delays in site investigations, change of design brief, recent
(1) When invited to tender for the contract the piling con- changes in contractors’ prices, etc.
tractors should be provided with a soil report, the posi-
tion and magnitude of structural loads and the location 14.6 Design of piled foundations
of the structure together with information on adjoining The design of piles has become increasingly specialized
properties. They should also be asked to visit the site to and relies upon a detailed knowledge of ground condi-
inspect the access for piling plant movements. tions, properties of the types of pile, effects produced by
(2) Driven and cast-in-place piles, where the shell is left in, loading, possible imperfections in the pile and the effect on
are used on sites over water (jetties, piers, etc.), on sites the structure. The design is commonly the responsibility of
known to contain large voids, and on sites subject to the piling contractor but it is advisable that the structural
high water pressure. Driven piles should not be chosen designer appreciates the basic principles and checks the
where the ground is likely to contain large boulders but piling design.
they are one of the best piles for loose-to-compact wet
sands and gravels. As discussed in section 14.3.1 piles develop their load-
These types of piles are frequently the cheapest to use bearing capacity from skin friction and end bearing. Values
on building sites with light-to-moderate pile loadings of skin friction and end bearing can be estimated from soil
and where the charges for moving onto site are spread mechanics tests, past experience of similar conditions and
over a large number of piles. on-site driving resistance. Since none of these methods
(3) Bored piles are frequently the lowest cost piles when can be totally relied upon it is often advisable to carry out
piling into firm clays or sandstone and when vibration load tests on a sample of piles and apply a suitable factor of
and ground heave would cause problems to existing safety in the design.
adjacent buildings.
The ultimate bearing capacity equals the sum of the
(4) Jacked piles need something to jack against and tend
ultimate end-bearing capacity and ultimate skin-friction
to be expensive. Their main use is therefore in under-
capacity (see section 14.6.2).
pinning when they can prove to be cost-effective.
(5) Steel H piles are often chosen when long length
14.6.1 Factor of safety
piles with deep penetration into sands and gravels are
required. BS 8004(1) recommends a factor of safety of between 2 and 3
for a single pile. The factor of safety is not a fixed constant
14.5.2 Durability and depends on the allowable settlement of the pile which
is dependent on the pile’s surface and cross-sectional area,
The ground conditions can affect the choice and method of
the compressibility of the soil, and the reliability of the
protection of piling material. Sulfates and acids will attack
ground conditions. The factor should be increased when:
poor-quality concrete, some acids will cause problems with
steel piles and alternate wetting and drying can cause tim- (1) The soil is variable, little is known of its behaviour or its
bers to rot. resistance is likely to deteriorate with time.
(2) Small amounts of differential settlement are critical.
14.5.3 Cost (3) The piles are installed in groups.
Piles are, or should be, chosen as the economic and safe The factor may be decreased when:
alternative to strip and raft foundations but there is more to
cost analysis than comparing the cost per metre run of piles; (1) As a result of extensive loading tests, the resistance can
there are on-costs. In comparing piling contractors’ estim- be confidently predicted.
ates it can be unwise to accept the lowest cost per metre run. (2) As a result of extensive local experience, the soil pro-
Examination of extra over-costs for such items as extending perties are fully known.
lengths of piles, conducting check loading tests, etc. is
A common factor of safety taken in design is 2.5. A properly
prudent. The designer should examine the piling con-
designed single 500 mm diameter pile driven into non-
tractor’s resources available to complete the project on
cohesive soil is unlikely to settle more than about 15 mm.
time, the length of notice required to start work and the
contractor’s experience in piling on similar sites. The In a load test (see section 14.6.3) the settlement is noted for
contractor’s reputation should be investigated and proof increasing increments of load and a settlement/load graph
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286 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

ultimate load In cohesive soils, tsf is dependent on c (the cohesion), the

effect of remoulding of the soil during piling, the type of
pile surface and the period of time after driving the pile. In
driving the pile there is a remoulding effect on the soil – its
load

moisture content around the pile surface changes and takes

time to recover. The larger the surface area of the pile then
the higher the total skin friction.

working load The term tsf is commonly expressed as αcs, where cs is the
average cohesion over the pile length and α, the adhesion
factor, varies from 0.3–0.6, and is dependent on the factors
mentioned above. Advice on the value of α is better
obtained from piling contractors with knowledge of their
piles and the soil; for example, α is generally assumed at
settlement about 0.45–0.5 for bored piles in London clay.
Fig. 14.12 Load/settlement graph.
(b) In situ tests

In situ tests are generally used in non-cohesive soils. Loose

sands are compacted by driving (but not by boring) and
is plotted. The graph resembles that of the stress/strain
their skin friction is improved but little improvement is
graph for many structural materials (see Fig. 14.12). Up to
noted in dense compact sands. Piles in non-cohesive soils
working load there tends to be practically full recovery of
rely for bearing capacity more on end bearing than skin
settlement on removal of load but beyond that loading
friction. A common rule of thumb assessment of skin fric-
there is likely to be a permanent set (as in steel loaded
tion is given in Table 14.3.
beyond the elastic limit) and at ultimate load there is likely
to be no recovery at all. The end-bearing resistance can be determined from the
standard penetration test or static penetration test (Dutch
14.6.2 Determination of ultimate bearing penetration) where the force required to push the cone
capacity down is measured. The application of the test results to the
calculation of end bearing is both empirical and dependent
Soil tests on experience and any uncertainty should be decided by
pile loading tests.
The pile load and its own weight are supported by the
surface skin friction between the soil and the pile plus the
(c) Dynamic pile driving formulae
end-bearing resistance, i.e.:
Basically the harder it is to drive a pile then the greater is
Tf = tsf As + tbf Ab
its bearing capacity. The number of hammer blows to drive
where Tf = ultimate bearing capacity a pile, say 100 mm, into dense compact sand would be
tsf = average surface skin friction per unit area of the far more than driving it the same distance into soft clay.
surface So the resistance to the impact of the hammer when
As = surface area of the pile shaft driving the pile is related to the resistance of the pile to
tbf = ultimate value of resistance of the base per penetration under working load. The depth of penetra-
unit area tion of the pile per hammer blow is known as the set
Ab = plan area of base and generally the deeper the pile and the stronger the
ground then the less the set. This magnitude of the set, S, is
The ‘f’ subscript for Tf, tsf and tbf indicates that these values
affected by:
relate to ultimate bearing capacity not ultimate limit state.
• the resistance overcome in driving (tons), R
It will be noted that, for simplicity, the self-weight of the
• the weight of the ram (tons), W
pile has been omitted in the above formula since the base
• the free fall of the hammer (inches), h
area times the overburden pressure at the base are approxim-
• the final set of penetration of pile per blow (inches), S
ately equal to the self-weight.

For tubular box sections or other open ended piles, Ab

would normally be ignored. The values of tsf and tbf are
Table 14.3 Rule of thumb assessment of skin friction
usually assessed from laboratory tests or in situ tests.
Relative density Average unit skin friction (kN/m2)
(a) Laboratory tests on soil samples
up to 0.35 (loose) 10
Laboratory tests on non-cohesive soils (sands and gravels)
0.35–0.65 (medium) 10–25
can be unreliable due to the difficulty of taking truly un-
0.65–0.85 (dense) 25–70
disturbed samples. Determination of skin friction of non- 0.85+ (very dense) 70–100
cohesive soils is better assessed by in situ tests (see below).
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Piles 287

Table 14.4 Pile driving data – coefficient of restitution, e (Pile Driving by W.A. Dawson. ICE Works Construction
Guides(4))

The value of the coefficient of restitution e has been determined experimentally for different materials and conditions and is
approximately as follows:

Piles driven with double-acting hammer

Steel piles without driving cap 0.5
Reinforced concrete piles without helmet but with packing on top of pile 0.5
Reinforced concrete piles with short dolly in helmet and packing 0.4
Timber piles 0.4

Piles driven with single-acting and drop hammer

Reinforced concrete piles without helmet but with packing on top of piles 0.4
Steel piles or steel tube of cast-in-place piles fitted with driving cap and short dolly covered by steel plate 0.32
Reinforced concrete piles with helmet and packing, dolly in good condition 0.25
Timber piles in good condition 0.25
Timber piles in poor condition 0.0

The efficiency of the blow can be obtained from Table 14.5 for various combinations of e with the ratio P/W, provided that W is
greater than Pe and the piles are driven into penetrable ground.

Table 14.5 Pile driving data – efficiency of blow, η (Civil Probably the best known or most widely used formula
Engineering Code of Practice No. 4, Institution of Civil for determining the driving resistance, R, is the Hiley
Engineers, 1954) formula:

P/W e = 0.5 e = 0.4 e = 0.32 e = 0.25 e = 0.0 Wh ⋅ η

R=
C
S+
1
/2 0.75 0.72 0.70 0.69 0.67 2
1 0.63 0.58 0.55 0.53 0.50
(For this equation the symbols are those defined above and
11/2 0.55 0.50 0.46 0.44 0.40
2 0.50 0.44 0.40 0.37 0.33
not those indicated in the Notation list at the front of the
21/2 0.45 0.40 0.36 0.33 0.28 book.)
3 0.42 0.36 0.33 0.30 0.25 The Hiley formula is based on two assumptions which are
4 0.36 0.31 0.28 0.25 0.20
not fully applicable to soils and pile driving.
5 0.31 0.27 0.25 0.21 0.16
6 0.27 0.24 0.23 0.19 0.14 (1) The resistance to penetration of the pile can be deter-
mined by the kinetic energy of the hammer blow, and
(2) The resistance to driving equates to the ultimate bear-
• the sum of the temporary elastic compressions of the ing capacity, but kinetic energy is lost in elastic strains,
pile, dolly, packings and ground (inches), C (see vibration of the pile, its dolly and helmet and the
Table 14.6) soil. Further, the soil properties can change during and
• the efficiency of the blow, η (see Tables 14.4 and 14.5). after piling.

Table 14.6 Pile driving data – temporary compression, C (mm) (Pile Driving by W.A. Dawson, ICE Works Construction
Guides(4))

Form of compression Material Easy Medium Hard Very hard

driving driving driving driving

Pile head and cap: Cc Head of timber pile 1 2.5 4 5

Short dolly in helmet or driving capa 1 2.5 4 5
75 mm packing under helmet or driving capa 2 4 5.5 7.5
25 mm pad only on head of reinforced concrete pile 1 1 2 2.5

Pile length: Cp Timber pile. E: 10.5 × 103 N/mm2 0.33H 0.67H 1.00H 1.33H
Precast concrete pile. E: 14.0 × 103 N/mm2 0.25H 0.5H 0.75H 1.00H
Steel pile, steel tube or steel mandrel for
cast-in-place pile. E: 210 × 103 N/mm2 0.25H 0.5H 0.75H 1.00H

Quake: Cq Ground surrounding pile and under pile point 1 2.5 to 5 4 to 6 1 to 4

a
If these devices are used in combination, the compressions should be added together.
Pile length H measured in metres.
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288 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

These variants have produced a mash of empirical con- Dynamic testing involves attaching strain transducers and
stants and variation in formulae – and as in all structural accelerometers near the pile head and then striking the
design the more formulae then the less is known with pile with the pile driving hammer, or a drop weight. The
accuracy, so that the calculated results of the ultimate resulting data are captured and analysed by a wave equa-
bearing capacity lie in a range ±40%. Some experienced tion (CAPWAP) program which can be used to determine:
engineers are opposed to the use of driving formula but a
(1) Shaft friction and distribution.
simple formula backed by statistical data and checked by
(2) Pile toe capacity.
test loading is acceptable to many engineers.
(3) Load–settlement behaviour.
Piling has become a very specialized brand of engineering (4) Pile integrity.
and the designer is advised to consult a reputable piling (5) Pile driving stresses.
contractor for advice when difficult sites are encountered (6) Pile driving hammer energy.
and, before awarding a piling contract to a contractor,
should obtain from them indemnity and guarantees. The advantages of this method are that the equipment is
easily moved and allows many tests to be carried out in
one day.
14.6.3 Pile loading tests
Pile shaft structural integrity alone can also be tested by mea-
Load tests are carried out to:
suring, observing and interpreting the pile head response
(1) Obtain soil data that will enable other piles to be to a low strain shock wave, induced by a blow to the top
designed. of the pile from a hand-held hammer. This inexpensive pro-
(2) Confirm pile lengths and hence contract costs before cedure can verify pile lengths and estimate the magnitude
the client is committed to overall job costs. and location of any major pile shaft defects.
(3) Counter-check results from geotechnical design and
pile driving formulae. Over-enthusiasm for pile testing on a small site could cost
(4) Determine the load–settlement behaviour of a pile. more and take longer than the actual piling. In such cases it
(5) Verify the structural soundness. may be better to use a conservative factor of safety. As with
borehole information, pile test results relate to the isolated
Pile load tests can be static or dynamic. Static testing tends individual pile and the data must be applied with care and
to be very expensive, as large concrete blocks (kentledge) judgement to the total piled foundation.
are required to be brought to site, erected, left for the test
involving standing time for the piling plant, dismantled 14.6.4 Pile groups
and removed from site. The kentlege is used to load the test
pile in 25% increments or other agreed increases of the It is sometimes necessary to drive a group of piles to support
working load, and the rate and magnitude of the settle- heavy loadings and it is important to notice two effects:
ment noted. Alternatively, tension piles can be constructed (1) The pressure bulb of the group affects deeper layers of
adjacent to the test pile and be used to provide a reaction to soils than a single pile of the same depth (see Fig. 14.13)
a test load introduced by jacking. When the rate of settlement in a similar manner to a wide foundation.
has decreased to a negligible amount, the next increment (2) The load-bearing capacity of a group is not necessarily
of load is added. After working load is reached, the pile is the product of the capacity of the single pile times the
sometimes loaded to ultimate failure, in 10% increments of number of piles. There can be a pressure ‘overlap’ (see
working load. At shear failure of the soil, the pile penetrates Fig. 14.14) and the capacity of the group could decrease
relatively rapidly. A rough guide for the ultimate bearing as the difference between a pad and strip foundation.
capacity is the place on the load settlement curve where
there is a clear indication of rapidly increased settlement
(see Fig. 14.12) or where the load causes the pile to pene-
trate 10% of the pile diameter.
single pile pile group
The method of loading described above is known as the
maintained load method. Another common method, known
as the constant rate of penetration (CRP), is used where the
pile is continuously loaded by jacks to make it penetrate the
soil at constant speed. Failure is defined when either:

(1) The pile penetrates without increase in load, or

(2) The penetration equals 10% of the pile base diameter.

The CRP method is a rapid method useful for research

or preliminary testing in a series of other tests when the
factor of safety against ultimate failure is needed. But
the method does not give the elastic settlement under the
(a) (b)
working load and requires heavy kentledge and very
strong anchor piles. Fig. 14.13 Section through pile pressure bulbs.
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Piles 289

lightly stressed highly stressed (3) Screw piles – not less than 1.5 times the diameter of the
soil soil blades.
(4) Piles with enlarged bases – at least one pile diameter
between enlarged bases.

These values are affected by the soil conditions, the group

behaviour of the piles, the possible heave and compaction,
and the need to provide sufficient space to install the piles
single pile
to the designed penetration without damage to the pile or
group.

14.6.6 Ultimate bearing capacity of group

The group can be considered to act as a buried raft and
stress
will spread the load in varying conditions, as shown in
overlap
Fig. 14.15.

As in raft foundations, so with pile groups, it is limiting the

magnitude of settlement rather than applying a factor of
safety to the ultimate bearing capacity which is the major
design criterion. In Fig. 14.15 (a) and (b) the ultimate bear-
ing capacity is likely to equal the number of piles, n, times
the bearing capacity of an individual pile, Tf, i.e. n Tf. In Fig.
Fig. 14.14 Plan on pile pressure bulbs. 14.15 (c) the capacity can be around 25% less than n Tf.

A single pile, in driving, displaces soil which can result in 14.6.7 Negative friction
heave at ground level and a group can cause greater heave
Compressible fills and sensitive soft clays consolidating
and displacement; this fact should be checked and con-
under pressure will exert a downward drag on the surface
sidered. Driving a single pile, too, in loose sand and fills will
of the pile – negative skin friction. For example, if piling into
compact the soil around the pile to a diameter of approxim-
firm strata through decaying fill material, the settlement of
ately 5.5 times the pile diameter and make it denser. (This is
the decaying fill will apply downward friction forces onto
the principle of vibro-stabilization, see Chapter 8.) If a group
the outer surface of the pile and these forces need to be
of piles is driven it could create such a compact block of soil
taken into account as an additional load on the pile.
as to prevent driving of all the piles in the group. The central
piles should be driven first and then, working out to the peri-
14.7 Pile caps
meter of the group, the remaining piles should be driven.
14.7.1 Introduction
14.6.5 Spacing of piles within a group
The design of pile caps had at one time become a math-
Approximate values for centre-to-centre spacing are as
ematician’s delight – and a designer’s nightmare. Highly
follows:
complex formulae with numerous empirical variants could
(1) Friction piles – not less than the perimeter of the pile. result in expensive design and construction to save a couple
(2) End-bearing piles – not less than twice the diameter of of reinforcing bars. As in all design and construction the
the pile. aim must be ‘to keep it simple’.

piles slope 1 : 4

G.L. G.L. G.L.

2H
3
H
2H1
H1 3

rock

breadth B of B B
equivalent raft

(a) end bearing (b) end bearing in gravel (c) skin friction

Fig. 14.15 Pile groups.

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290 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

14.7.2 The need for pile caps – capping beams

It is frequently not possible to sit a superstructure column
column pile cap
direct on to a pile because:

(1) It is practically impossible to drive piles in the exact

position and truly vertical. Piles wander in driving and
deviate from their true position. A normal specification
tolerance for position is ±75 mm and for verticality not
45
more than 1 in 75 for a vertical pile or 1 in 25 for a
raking pile. A column sitting directly on a pile with pile
an eccentricity of 75 mm will exert bending as well as
direct stresses in the pile.
(2) A single, heavily loaded column supported by a pile
group will need a load spread (pile cap) to transmit the
load to all the piles.
(3) A line of piles supporting a load-bearing wall will need load transferred directly
by compression to piles
a capping beam to allow both for tolerance of pile posi-
over shaded area
tioning and load spreading of the piles’ concentrated
load to the wall.

14.7.3 Size and depth

Pile caps are usually of concrete but can be large slabs of
rock or mats of treated timber. This discussion is limited to
r.c.
the more common use of concrete. column
To allow for the pile deviation the pile cap should extend
100 –150 mm beyond the outer face of the piles. The pile
group centroid should ideally coincide with the column’s
position (see Fig. 14.16).

The depth must be adequate to resist the high shear force

and punching shear and to transmit the vertical load (see
Fig. 14.17). The shaded area of the pile cap plan in Fig. 14.17 Fig. 14.17 Load transfer from column to piles.
is the area where the column load is directly transferred to
the piles. For such a condition the shear stresses are gener-
ally small but bending moments need to be catered for.
load
Alternatively, peripheral steel as a ring tension around a
cone shaped compression block may be considered to be
a suitable equilibrium of forces (see Fig. 14.18), however, compression zone column
full tension laps must be provided for the peripheral steel.

column C L on centroid pile

of pile group
pile cap
ring tension
steel cross-section through
pile cap
pile cap

cone
compression

ring
tension
100 mm to 150 mm plan showing forces

Fig. 14.16 Plan on triple pile cap. Fig. 14.18 Ring tension pile cap.
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Piles 291

steel u.c.

reinforcement

plan
plan cap plate

50 mm cover top
100 mm cover bottom

pile
cap

100 mm

steel pile section

Fig. 14.20 Reinforced pile head.

section

Fig. 14.19 Pile cap, typical reinforcement.

staggered piles

Single column loads supported on larger pile groups can

create significant shear and bending in the cap which will
need top and bottom reinforcement as well as shear links
(see Fig. 14.19).

The heads of r.c. piles should be stripped and the exposed

reinforcement bonded into the pile cap for the necessary
bond length. Pile caps to steel piles can be reduced in depth
if punching shear is reduced by capping and/or reinforcing plan on capping beam
the head of the pile, as shown in Fig. 14.20.
Fig. 14.21 Continuous capping beam.
Piles for continuous capping beams supporting load-bearing
walls can be alternately staggered to compensate for the
eccentricity of loading due to the 75 mm out-of-line toler- Often the ground beam can be designed compositely with
ance (see Fig. 14.21). the walls above and by using composite beams a standard
nominal size ground beam, dictated mainly by the prac-
14.8 Design of foundations at pile head ticalities for construction, can be used. This has the
advantage of standardizing shuttering, reinforcement and
A general description of ground beams and pile caps is
excavation, making site construction simple, economic and
discussed in Chapter 9 (see section 9.5.8) and restraints and
quicker than the traditional solution. Many different beams
cap/beam details are briefly mentioned.
designed ignoring the benefit of the contribution from the
In addition to providing restraint, the ground beam is also structure above can severely complicate the foundations
used to transfer loads from the superstructure to the pile (see Fig. 14.23).
and can be used with or without pile caps. For example, two
When considering the use of composite action, considera-
alternative layouts are shown in Fig. 14.22 indicating a wide
tion must be given to services which may pass through
ground beam solution and a narrow beam using pile caps.
below ground level in these zones. It is often the case that in
Where the increased width of the beam needed to accom- adopting composite beams the resulting shallow beams can
modate the pile diameter, plus the total of all necessary be more easily made to pass over the services. The use of
tolerance, is only slight and where a reduction in beam composite action should however be used with caution if
depth helps to compensate for the additional concrete, a there is a requirement to maintain flexibility of future lay-
wider beam omitting the pile caps can be more economic. out. Any modifications involving the introduction of major
SFDC14 1/8/06 12:17 PM Page 292

292 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

ground ground
beam beam

cap

pile pile

section section

plan plan
wide ground beam pile cap and narrow
ground beam

Fig. 14.22 Alternative beam/cap layouts.

standard nominal ground beam different beam sizes due

for practical construction to varying load
composite beam design normal r.c. beam design

Fig. 14.23 Composite action versus normal design.

openings in the walls would invalidate the design assump-

load-bearing walls
tion that the wall and foundation act together.

A further help in standardizing a smaller and more

movement joints economic section is that composite action often makes it
movement
floating slab possible to precast the beams alongside the excavation and
joint
roll them into position, speeding up construction.

For building structures the basic alternative foundations

for support on piles generally adopted consists of one or a
ground beams combination of the following:

Type 1 Concrete ground beams with or without caps sup-

porting the main superstructure load but with a
piles floating ground floor slab between the main wall
(see Fig. 14.24).
typical section through piled
Type 2 Concrete ground beams and suspended in situ or
foundation with floating ground slab
precast concrete floor slabs (see Fig. 14.25).
Fig. 14.24 Piles and floating ground slab. Type 3 Flat slab construction (see Fig. 14.26).
SFDC14 1/8/06 12:17 PM Page 293

Piles 293

load-bearing
walls p.c. floor
p.c. floor slab 150 mm void

ground
beam
ground beams compressible
piles
filler board

Fig. 14.27 Piled suspended slab and beam

piled foundation and suspended construction.
p.c. floor slab

in situ ground Type 4 Suspended slab and beam foundations with voids
floor slab or void formers (see Fig. 14.27).

The economic viability of the pile solutions for the above

foundations will differ depending on many variables but,
by applying the following basic principles, realistic cost
comparisons can be made and piling options exploited:

in situ ground piles (1) Minimizing pile numbers relative to pile length/cost
beams and beam length/cost ratio.
(2) Maintaining axial loads on piles and ground beams
piled foundation and in situ wherever practical.
suspended floor slab
(3) Providing pile restraints from other necessary struc-
Fig. 14.25 Piles and suspended ground slab. tures wherever practical.
(4) Standardizing on the minimum beam size which can
accommodate pile driving tolerances, restraint stresses
and pile eccentricity while exploiting any possible com-
piles under pile cap/drop posite action.
(5) Minimizing the depth of excavations.
(6) Minimizing the required bending of reinforcement.
(7) Minimizing the shuttering costs by simple standard
beam profiles.
(8) Use of simply supported design and simple beam cages
wherever possible unless some small cantilever action
can greatly reduce the number of piles per unit.
(9) Minimizing the need for pile caps wherever practical by
the use of slightly wider beams.
flat
slab
14.9 Design Examples
A A
14.9.1 Design Example 1: Calculation of pile
safe working loads

plan
A site investigation indicates 5 m of variable fill overlying
4 m of medium dense gravel, overlying stiff silty clay (see
Fig. 14.28). The fill is unsuitable for treatment by the ground
in situ flat slab in situ pile cap/drop improvement methods discussed in Chapter 8.

Capacity of individual soil layers

The following parameters are assumed for the design of a

bored piled foundation, based upon the soils test results:

(1) Fill from 0 m to −5 m: The fill is considered to have

negligible contribution to the skin friction capacity of
the pile.
section A–A
(2) Sand and gravel from −5 m to −9 m: The SPT value is to be
Fig. 14.26 Piles and flat slab construction. taken as N = 25 (see Fig. 14.28). This corresponds to an
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294 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

SPT value (N)

0 10 20 30 40

variable fill-bricks,
wood, metal, plastic,
concrete
–5.0 –5.0
medium dense brown
fine to coarse N = 25
sand and gravel –9.0
(flood plain gravel) –10.0

130 kN/m2

–15.0

stiff to very stiff

grey-brown fissured
silty clay –20.0
(London clay)
275 kN/m2

–25.0

–30.0 –30.0
0 100 200 300 400 500
undrained cohesion (kN/m2)

Fig. 14.28 Borehole data for design examples.

angle of shearing resistance of φ = 35°. The skin friction where Nc = bearing capacity factor = 9, for circular piles
capacity at failure is normally taken to be cb = undisturbed shear strength at base
= 130 kN/m2, from the soils investigation
Tsf = (Ks′ tan δ)As (see Fig. 14.28)
where K = an earth pressure coefficient = 1.0, based on Ab = base area of pile
the soils investigation = πD2/4, for a circular pile of diameter D.
s′ = effective overburden pressure = γz Thus, Tbf = NccbAb
= 20 kN/m3 × 7 m average depth in this example = (9) × (130) × (πD2/4)
δ = angle of wall friction = 0.75 φ = 919D2 kN
As = perimeter area of pile = πD per metre depth,
for a circular pile of diameter D. (4) Clay from −15 m to −30 m: An average undrained shear
strength of cs = 275 kN/m2 is assumed for design pur-
Thus, Tsf = (Ks′ tan δ)As poses. As above, the skin friction capacity is given by
= (1.0) × (20 × 7) × [tan(0.75 × 35)] × (πD)
Tsf = (αcs)As
= 217D kN/m depth
= (0.45) × (275) × (πD)
(3) Clay from −9 m to −15 m: An average undrained shear = 389D kN/m depth
strength of cs = 130 kN/m2 is assumed for design pur- As above, if the pile is founded within this clay stratum,
poses. The skin friction capacity at failure is normally the end-bearing capacity at failure is normally given by
taken as
Tbf = NccbAb
Tsf = (αcs)As = (9) × (275) × (πD2/4)
where α = adhesion factor = 0.45, for London clay = 1944D2 kN

Thus, Tsf = (αcs)As Total capacity of piles between 9 m and 15 m in length

= (0.45) × (130) × (πD)
For a pile between 9 m and 15 m in length, of total length H,
= 184D kN/m depth
the total capacity is derived by summing the capacities from
If the pile is founded within this clay stratum, the the various soil strata as follows:
end-bearing capacity at failure is given by
Capacity due to sand/gravel Tsf = 217D × (9 m − 5 m)
Tbf = NccbAb = 868D kN
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Piles 295

Capacity due to clay Tsf = 184D × (H − 9 m) The shear stress at the face of the column is
Tbf = 919D2 kN Pu
vu =
Thus, adding these together gives ud

Tf = 868D + 184D(H − 9) + 919D2 BS 8110: Part 1: 3.11.4.5 requires this to be limited to

= [868 + 184(H − 9)]D + 919D2 0.8√fcu < 5 N/mm2.
For grade C35 concrete, 0.8√fcu = 4.73 N/mm2. This gives a
Applying a typical factor of safety of 2.5 gives the allowable
requirement that
load (safe working load) as
vu ≤ 4.73
Tf
Ta = Pu
2.5 ≤ 4.73
ud
= [347 + 74(H − 9)]D + 368D2
Pu
d≥
Ta is plotted in Fig. 14.29 for a range of pile diameters and 4.73u
depths.
6400 × 103
≥
4.73 × 1600
Total capacity of piles in excess of 15 m in length
d ≥ 846 mm
For a pile in excess of 15 m in length, of total length H, the
total capacity is derived as follows: Bending shear check
Capacity due to sand/gravel Tsf = 217D × (9 m − 5 m) In accordance with BS 8110: Part 1: 3.11.4.3, shear is checked
= 868D kN across a section 20% of the diameter of the pile (i.e. D/5)
Capacity, clay down to 15 m Tsf = 184D × (15 m − 9 m) inside the face of the pile. This is section A–A in Fig. 14.30.
= 1104D kN
Capacity, clay below 15 m Tsf = 389D × (H − 15 m) The shear force across this section – ignoring the self-weight
Tbf = 1944D2 kN of the pile cap, which is small in comparison – is given by

Adding these components together gives Pu

Vu =
2
Tf = 868D + 1104D + 389D(H − 15) + 1944D2
= [1972 + 389(H − 15)]D + 1944D2 6400
=
2
Again applying a typical factor of safety of 2.5 gives the
allowable load (safe working load) as: = 3200 kN
Tf The corresponding shear stress is given by vu = Vu/bv d,
Ta =
2.5 where bv is the breadth of section for reinforcement design.
In accordance with BS 8110: Part 1: 3.11.4.4,(5) this must not
= [789 + 156(H − 15)]D + 778D2
exceed (2d/av)vc where av is defined in Fig. 14.30 and vc
Ta is plotted in Fig. 14.29 for a range of pile diameters and is the design concrete shear stress from BS 8110: Part 1:
depths. Table 3.8.(5) Thus
Vu ⎛ 2d ⎞
14.9.2 Design Example 2: Pile cap design ≤ v
bv d ⎜⎝ av ⎟⎠ c
A pile cap is required to transfer the load from a 400 mm ×
avVu
400 mm column to four 600 mm diameter piles, as shown in d2 ≥
2b vvc
Fig. 14.30.

Pile caps can be designed either by the truss analogy or

by bending theory (see BS 8110: Part 1: 3.11.4.1(5)). In this
d≥

⎛ avVu ⎞
⎜ 2b v ⎟
⎝ v c⎠
example bending theory will be used.
For grade C35 concrete, from BS 8110: Part 1: Table 3.8,(5)
For a pile cap with closely spaced piles, in addition to bending assuming six T25 bars, the minimum value of vc is
and bond stress checks, a check should be made on the local 0.4 N/mm2, giving
shear stress at the face of the column, and a beam shear check
for shear across the width of the pile cap. For more widely
spaced piles (spacing > 3 × diameter), a punching shear
d≥

⎛ 370 × 3200 × 10 3 ⎞
⎜
⎝ 2 × 2300 × 0.4 ⎠
⎟
check should also be carried out.
d ≥ 802 mm
Local shear check Thus, provided the average effective depth exceeds d =
846 mm (the local shear check), minimum reinforcement
The ultimate column load is Pu = 6400 kN.
to satisfy bond and bending tension requirements will be
Length of column perimeter is u = 2(400 + 400) = 1600 mm. adequate in this instance.
SFDC14 1/8/06 12:17 PM Page 296

296 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

pile safe working load Ta (kN)

0 1000 2000 3000

–10.0

–15.0
depth of pile (m)

–20.0
D
=7
50

–25.0
D=
D=

600
450

–30.0
sand and gravel

–15 m to –30 m
– 9 m to –15 m

end bearing
clay

clay

clay

breakdown for 450 diameter pile

Fig. 14.29 Pile safe working loads for design examples.

The necessary depth for the pile cap is 14.9.3 Design Example 3: Piled ground beams
with floating slab
h = d + 25(diameter bar) + 75(cover)
= 846 + 100 A two-storey terrace of four office units is to be founded in
= 946 mm ⇒ use h = 950 mm the ground conditions described in Design Example 1 (see
section 14.9.1). Wall and ground beam line loads are shown
in Fig. 14.31.
SFDC14 1/8/06 12:17 PM Page 297

Piles 297

2300 Table 14.7 Pile lengths and diameter for Design

100

Example 3
A
Pile load (kN) Pile length (m)
0

450 mm diameter pile 600 mm diameter pile

60
600

D=

415 14.5 10.7

b = 2300
473 15.0 12.0
Pu = 6400 kN
583 16.0 14.5
765 18.6 15.1
400
900

400
For the purpose of this example, 450 mm diameter piles will
600

D = 120
be adopted.
5

Check on strength of pile cross-section

100

Piles usually only carry vertical loading. Concrete piles are

Pu = 6400 kN
plan typically only nominally reinforced, unless carrying lateral
loads or tension. A check does however need to be carried
out, to ensure the concrete is not overstressed.

From Fig. 14.31, the maximum pile working load is T =

765 kN (on grid lines 2, 3 and 4).
d = 850

h = 950

From Fig. 14.31, the imposed load Q as a percentage of T is

100Q/T = 100 × 80/(90 + 80) = 47%.

From Fig. 10.20, the combined partial safety factor for loads
is γT = 1.49.

The corresponding ultimate load is

a v = 370
Tu = γTT
A = 1.49 × 765
Vu = 3200 kN Vu = 3200 kN = 1140 kN
section
For a 450 mm diameter pile, assuming all the load is carried
Fig. 14.30 Pile cap design example. by the concrete, this gives an ultimate concrete stress of

Tu
fc =
A
Examination of the soil profiles indicates that, while ⎛ π450 2 ⎞
ground floor slab loads can be carried on the existing = (1140 × 103) ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 4 ⎠
ground as a floating slab, the main superstructure loads
need to be supported on piled foundations. The proposed = 7.2 N/mm2
pile and ground beam layout is shown in Fig. 14.31.
From BS 8110: Part 1: 3.8.4.4(5), the allowable concrete stress
is 0.35fcu.
Pile design

Pile loads have been calculated from the wall (and ground fc
⇒ fcu(req) =
beam) loads, and are shown in Fig. 14.31. For the purpose of 0.35
deriving pile loads, the ground beams have been assumed 7.2
to be simply supported. =
0.35
Based on the safe working loads calculated in Design = 20.5 N/mm2
Example 1 (see Fig. 14.29), the required pile lengths are
given in Table 14.7. The choice between 450 mm and 600 mm Therefore grade C35 concrete with nominal reinforcement
diameter piles would be based on economic considerations, is satisfactory, and for this example meets the durability
bearing in mind that the larger pile diameter will require requirements, i.e. no sulfates or other contamination in the
wider ground beams. groundwater – revealed by the soils investigation.
SFDC14 1/8/06 12:17 PM Page 298

298 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

1 2 3 4 5
8m 8m 8m 8m

G = 25 kN/m G = 90 kN/m
Q = 0 kN/m Q = 80 kN/m

A
4.5 m

B G = 65 kN/m
Q = 40 kN/m
4.5 m

b
sla

sla

sla

sla
ting

ting

ting

ting
C
floa

floa

floa

floa
4.5 m

D
4.5 m

plan on ground floor walls and slab

415 583 583 583 415

A

473 765 765 765 473

B

473 765 765 765 473

C

D 473 765 765 765 473

415 583 583 583 415

E

ground beam to provide

restraint to piles on
grid lines B, C & D
plan on piles and ground beams

Fig. 14.31 Piled ground beam and floating slab design example.

Ground beam bending moments and shear forces (2) Ground beam below front or rear wall (Grid lines A and E)
for reinforcement design From Fig. 14.31, the characteristic dead and imposed loads
are G = 25 kN/m and Q = 0 kN/m respectively. The
(1) Ground beam below internal load-bearing wall (Grid lines 2,
ultimate design load is given by
3, 4)
From Fig. 14.31, the characteristic dead and imposed loads Tu = 1.4G + 1.6Q
are G = 90 kN/m and Q = 80 kN/m respectively. The ultimate = (1.4 × 25) + (16 × 0)
design load is given by = 34 kN/m
Tu = 1.4G + 1.6Q
From BS 8110: Part 1: Table 3.5,(5)
= (1.4 × 90) + (1.6 × 80)
= 254 kN/m Mu(max) = 0.11TuL2 = 0.11 × 35 × 8.02 = 246 kNm
From BS 8110: Part 1: Table 3.5,(5) Vu(max) = 0.6TuL = 0.6 × 35 × 8.0 = 168 kN

Mu(max) = 0.11TuL2 = 0.11 × 254 × 4.52 = 566 kNm Thus the ground beams under the internal load-bearing
Vu(max) = 0.6TuL = 0.6 × 254 × 4.5 = 686 kN walls are the critical design case.
SFDC14 1/8/06 12:17 PM Page 299

Piles 299

Table 14.8 Estimation of effective depth for ground 100As 100 × 2945
=
beams using grade C35 concrete bd 600 × 560

Effective depth, Allowable bending moment = 0.88%

d (mm) per unit width, Mu /b(kNm/m)
This amount of reinforcement will be reduced for less
heavily loaded sections.
Reinforcement percentage, 100As /bd

0.5% 0.75% 1.0% Shear reinforcement

The maximum value of shear is Vu = 686 kN. This occurs

300 162 243 315
at sections where As = 0.88%bd, giving an allowable con-
400 288 432 560
crete shear stress of vc = 0.72 N/mm2 (BS 8110: Part 1:
500 450 675 875
600 648 972 1260
Table 3.8(5)).
700 882 1323 1715 Vu
800 1152 1728 2240 Shear stress, vu =
bv d
686 × 103
=
Sizing of ground beam 600 × 560

If, as in this case, there are no pile caps, then ground beams = 2.04 N/mm2
should be a minimum of 150 mm wider than the piles, to b v (vu − vc )103
allow for standard ±75 mm tolerances. In this example Asv(req) =
0.95fyv
therefore, a ground beam width of b = 450 + 150 = 600 mm
600 × (2.04 − 0.72) × 103
will be adopted. =
0.95 × 460
Having chosen a width, the designer needs a procedure
= 1812 mm2/m (high yield bars)
for calculating a suitable depth. In practice, the critical limit
state for most ground beams is the ultimate limit state of Provide 4 legs of T12 links @ 200 c/c = 2264 mm2/m.
bending. Typical reinforcement percentages for ground
beams are in the range 0.5%–1.5%. Assuming bending is 14.9.4 Design Example 4: Piled ground beams
the critical condition, the BS 8110 design equations for with suspended slab
grade C35 concrete give the following relationship between Design Example 3 is to be reworked on the assumption that
effective depth, reinforcement percentage, and allowable the building is now to be relocated in an area where the
bending moment (Table 14.8). 5 m depth of fill is of a much poorer quality, and is con-
The maximum ultimate bending moment is Mu = 566 kNm. sidered unsuitable for supporting a floating ground floor
This gives slab. The ground floor slab is therefore to be replaced by
wide plank precast concrete floors, spanning 8 m parallel to
M u 566
= grid lines A–E.
b 0.6
The additional loads due to this suspended floor are shown
= 943 kNm/m in Fig. 14.32, and the increased pile loads are indicated.
From Table 14.8, this indicates an effective depth in the The increased loads could be catered for by increasing the
range 525 mm to 725 mm, depending on the reinforcement number of piles along each load-bearing internal wall
percentage. For this particular example, the ground beam (parallel to grid lines 1–5). In this case however, it has
will be chosen to be 600 mm wide by 625 mm deep. This been decided to maintain the same pile and ground beam
gives an effective depth of layout as in Design Example 3.

d = 625(depth) − 40(cover) − 12(link) − 25/2(main bar) Pile capacities

= 560 mm
As previously, the pile capacities given in Table 14.9 are
derived from Design Example 1 (Fig. 14.29).
Bending reinforcement
The percentage of reinforcement could be estimated by Table 14.9 Pile lengths and diameters for Design
interpolation from Table 14.8. In this case, however, it Example 4
will be calculated more accurately, for the section with the
highest moment. Pile load (kN) Pile length (m)

Mu 566 × 106
2
= 450 mm diameter pile 600 mm diameter pile
bd 600 × 5602
496 15.0 12.5
= 3.01
635 16.7 15.0
As(req) = 0.88%bd [BS 8110: Part 3: Chart 2(6)] 745 18.3 15.0
1089 23.2 18.6
Provide 6T25 = 2945 mm2/m, giving
SFDC14 1/8/06 12:17 PM Page 300

300 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

1 2 3 4 5
8m 8m 8m 8m

G = 25 kN/m G = 90 kN/m
Q = 0 kN/m Q = 80 kN/m

A
4.5 m

B G = 65 kN/m
Q = 40 kN/m
4.5 m

p.c. floor p.c. floor p.c. floor p.c. floor

C
4.5 m

G = 4 kN/m2
Q = 5 kN/m2
D
4.5 m

plan on ground floor walls and slab

496 745 745 745 496

A

635 1089 1089 1089 635

B

635 1089 1089 1089 635

C

D 635 1089 1089 1089 635

496 745 745 745 496

E

ground beam to provide

restraint to piles on
grid lines B, C & D
plan on piles and ground beams

Fig. 14.32 Piled ground beam and suspended slab design example.

Piles of 450 mm diameter will again be used. Comparison The calculations will be found to indicate that the 600 mm ×
with Design Example 3 indicates increases in length of 625 mm deep ground beams in Design Example 3 will need
between 0.5 m and 4.6 m. to be deepened by approximately 200 mm to accommodate
this additional loading.
Check on strength of pile cross-section

A check on the stresses in the pile cross-section, carried out 14.9.5 Design Example 5: Piled foundation
in a similar manner to Design Example 3, indicates that with suspended flat slab
grade C35 concrete is required.
A five-storey office building is to be founded on the same
ground conditions as the previous design examples in this
Ground beam size
chapter. The building is steel framed, with columns on a
The ground beams are designed in a similar manner to 6 m × 6 m grid. To simplify the pile caps, it was decided to
Design Example 3, taking due account of the additional use one pile per column (see Fig. 14.33).
loading from the suspended ground floor.
SFDC14 1/8/06 12:17 PM Page 301

Piles 301

6m The foundation imposed load as a percentage of f is 100fQ/f

= 100 × 6.0/13.5 = 44%.

From Fig. 10.20, the combined partial load factor for founda-
tion loads is γf = 1.49.

columns The foundation load per pile is

G = 1000 kN
Q = 1100 kN F = fA
= 13.5 × 6.0 × 6.0
= 486 kN
slab: FG = 7.5 kN/m2
6m

FQ = 6.0 kN/m2 The total load per pile is

T = (superstructure load) + (foundation load)

=P+F
= 2100 + 486
A A
= 2586 kN

Total imposed load as a percentage of T is 100(Q + FQ)/T =

100 × (1100 + 216)/2586 = 51%.

From Fig. 10.20, the combined partial load factor for total
plan on foundations loads is γT = 1.50.

Ultimate loads
225

The foundation ultimate distributed load is

fu = γF f
= 1.49 × 13.5
= 20.1 kN/m2
600

The foundation ultimate load is

Fu = fu A
= 20.1 × 6.0 × 6.0
= 724 kN

The total ultimate pile load is

1000
Tu = γTT
section A–A = 1.50 × 2586
= 3879 kN
Fig. 14.33 Piled flat slab design example.
Pile design
The ground floor slab is to be designed as a two-way span- Since the ground conditions are the same as in previous
ning suspended flat slab. Separate pile caps are provided at examples, the pile may be designed from Fig. 14.29 in
the top of each pile, both to avoid the need for punching Design Example 1. This indicates that, for a pile working
shear reinforcement in the flat slab, and to enable steel load of T = 2586 kN, a 750 mm diameter pile, 28.5 m long, is
superstructure erection to commence prior to construction required.
of the flat slab.
Check on strength of pile cross-section
Working loads
The pile cross-section is checked, to ensure the concrete is
From Fig. 14.33, the superstructure dead and imposed not overstressed, in a similar manner to Design Example 3.
column loads per pile are The maximum pile ultimate load is Tu = 3879 kN.
P=G+Q For a 750 mm diameter pile, this gives an ultimate concrete
= 1000 + 1100 stress of
= 2100 kN
Tu
From Fig. 14.33, the foundation dead and imposed slab fc =
A
loads are given by
3879 × 103
f = fG + fQ =
(π 7502/4)
= 7.5 + 6.0
= 13.5 kN/m2 = 8.8 N/mm2
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302 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

From BS 8110: Part 1: 3.8.4.4,(5) based on the concrete section Mu 51 × 106

2
=
alone, the allowable concrete stress is 0.35fcu. bd 1000 × 1692
fc = 1.79
⇒ fcu(req) =
0.35
The required area of tension reinforcement is
8.8
= As = 0.48%bd [BS 8110: Part 3: Chart 2(6)]
0.35
0.48
= 25.1 N/mm2 = × 1000 × 169
100
Therefore grade C35 concrete (with nominal reinforce-
= 811 mm2/m
ment) will be used.
Provide T16 @ 200 mm c/c = 1010 mm2/m.
Flat slab design
100As 100 × 1010
A ground floor slab thickness of 225 mm, together with pile =
bd 1000 × 169
caps 1000 mm × 1000 mm × 600 mm deep, are to be initially
assumed for design purposes. = 0.60%

Bending design and reinforcement Punching shear design

The flat slab will be designed in accordance with BS 8110: The intention is for the area of the pile cap to be sufficiently
Part 1: Tables 3.12 and 3.18,(5) assuming grade C35 concrete. large to avoid the need for shear reinforcement around the
Since the size of the drop heads (i.e. the pile caps) are less pile supports.
than one-third of the bay size, they enhance the punching From BS 8110: Part 1: 3.7.7.6,(5) the critical location for
shear but not the bending capacity (see BS 8110: Part 1:
punching shear for a square load is a square perimeter a
3.7.1.5(5)).
distance 1.5d = 1.5 × 169 = 254 mm from the face of the load
The foundation ultimate load on a 6 m × 6 m bay was (i.e. from the face of the 1000 mm × 1000 mm pile cap in this
calculated earlier as Fu = 724 kN. instance).

From BS 8110, the flat slab panel bending moments are: The length of one side of this perimeter is

Centre of interior span: bperim = 1000 + 2(1.5d)

= 1000 + 2(254)
Msagging = +0.071FuL = 0.063 × 724 × 6.0 = 274 kNm
= 1508 mm
Interior support:
The area within the shear perimeter is
Mhogging = −0.063FuL = −0.063 × 724 × 6.0 = −274 kNm
Ap = b2perim
The moments in the individual strips are given by: = 15082
Mid-span – column strip: = 2.27 m2

The ultimate support reaction due to slab loads is Fu = 724 kN.

0.55Msagging 0.55 × 274
Mu = = = 51 kNm/m
3 3 Shear force along perimeter, Vu = Fu − (load within
shear perimeter)
Mid-span – middle strip:
= Fu − fuAp
0.45Msagging 0.45 × 274 = 724 − (20.1 × 2.27)
Mu = = = 41 kNm/m
3 3 = 678 kN
Support – column strip: Length of shear perimeter, u = 4bperim
= 4 × 1508
0.75Mhogging 0.75 × (−274)
Mu = = = −51 kNm/m = 6032 mm
3 3
vu
Support – middle strip: Shear stress, vu =
ud
0.25Mhogging 0.25 × (−274)
Mu = = = −41 kNm/m 679 × 103
3 3 =
6032 × 169
The average effective depth in the two directions is
= 0.67 N/mm2
d = 225(slab) − 40(cover) − 16(bar diameter)
For a reinforcement percentage of 0.60%, in grade C35 con-
= 169 mm
crete, the design concrete shear stress is vc = 0.74 N/mm2
The reinforcement will be calculated for a unit width of b = (BS 8110: Part 1: Table 3.8(5)). This is greater than the actual
1000 mm. For the purpose of this example, this will only be shear stress, vu = 0.67 N/mm2, therefore the adopted pile
done for the worst case bending moment of Mu = 51 kNm. cap size is sufficient to avoid the need for shear links.
SFDC14 1/8/06 12:17 PM Page 303

Piles 303

14.10 References 4. Dawson, W.A. (1989) Pile Driving. ICE Works Construction
Guides. Thomas Telford, London.
1. British Standards Institution (1986) BS 8004, Code of practice for 5. British Standards Institution (1997) BS 8110-1, Structural Use of
foundations. BSI, London. Concrete, Part 1: Code of Practice for Design and Construction. BSI,
2. Corus (2001) Corus Piling Handbook, Structural Sections to BS 4: London.
Part 1: 1993 and BS EN 10056: 1999. Internet Edition. Corus, 6. British Standards Institution (1985) BS 8110-3, Structural Use of
Scunthorpe. Concrete, Part 3: Design Charts for Singly Reinforced Beams, Doubly
3. Arcelor RPS. RPS Piling Handbook, 8th edn. Arcelor, Scunthorpe. Reinforced Beams and Rectangular Columns. BSI, London.
SFDC15 1/8/06 11:22 AM Page 304

15 Retaining Walls, Basement Walls,

Slip Circles and Underpinning

15.1 Introduction Basements are relatively expensive to construct (the cost

per square metre is higher than for normal floor construc-
The subject matter of this chapter is peripheral to the main
tion) so the client should be advised to carry out a cost
work of the structural foundation designer, but nonetheless
evaluation of, say, adding a further storey to the structure
demands consideration on certain sites.
and eliminating the basement. However, basements can
The topics covered were touched upon in Chapter 4, where be made cost-effective when they are used as cellular
topography was related to proposed site development. buoyancy rafts or where increased height is restricted by
They will be expanded further here, but not at great length, planning.
since they are covered in detail by many excellent text
The walls are basically vertical cantilevers, either free or
books where they are of primary rather than secondary
propped (at the top by a floor slab). Where the ground floor
concern.
slab can be made continuous with the top of the wall (and
not merely be propped) the basement can be designed as a
15.2 Retaining walls and basements
continuous box. The walls can be constructed with either a
In commercial developments occupying congested city base slab extending under the retained earth (see Fig. 15.1
centre sites it has become common to utilize deep base- (a)), which is generally the more economical form for
ments to provide accommodation for plant room, car park- cuttings, or projecting forward (see Fig. 15.1 (b)), the more
ing and other areas. The depth of these basements requires economical form for basements.
careful consideration of the aspects of design and con-
While propped cantilevers (e.g. basement wall propped by
struction in order to achieve a satisfactory engineering
ground floor slab) have a maximum bending moment (for a
solution. For the engineer requiring a full explanation of
udl) of pH 2/8, compared to that of a free cantilever of
the approach to design and the methods of construction
pH 2/2, they are not frequently used in building structures.
of deep basements, reference should be made to the IStructE
This is because the wall must either be temporarily
publication(1) where this topic is dealt with in comprehens-
propped, or not backfilled, until the ground floor can act as
ive detail.
the prop.
Retaining walls and peripheral walls to basements are sub-
However, in the authors’ experience it can be worth con-
ject to lateral (i.e. horizontal) pressure from retained earth,
sidering the use of the more economical propped cantilever,
liquids or a combination of soil and water. They are norm-
especially for design-and-build contracts, where a close
ally made, in structural work, of concrete or brick (plain,
relationship is developed with the contractor from an early
reinforced or prestressed).

soffit of
floor over

retained retained
earth basement earth

toe heel wall face earth face

nib if
required
base slab
(a) (b)

Fig. 15.1 Typical retaining walls.

SFDC15 1/8/06 11:22 AM Page 305

Retaining Walls, Basement Walls, Slip Circles and Underpinning 305

H
z

Kγ z K γz 3/6 K γz 3/15 K γz 3/20

pressure free propped cellular
diagram cantilever cantilever (fixed)

Fig. 15.2 Bending moment diagrams for retaining walls.

stage, and construction methods can be programmed into Walls to swimming pools are a special case since they can
the design. It is important to provide a clear route for be subject to reversal of stress. With the pool empty, the
the propping force through the substructure and to take wall is subject to earth/water pressure on its earth face and
account of any out-of-balance lateral forces, such as those with the pool full and earth pressure absent (either due
resulting from sloping backfill on one side of the structure. to shrinkage of backfill or water testing for leaks, before
backfilling), the wall is subject to water pressure alone on
The bending moment diagrams for triangular pressure (i.e.
its water face (see Fig. 15.3).
no surcharge) for the three cases: free cantilever, propped
cantilever and cellular (fixed), are shown in Fig. 15.2. Walls to culverts can similarly be subject to reversal of
stress under the two conditions of earth pressure acting
As derived in section 15.6.4, it can be seen that partially
alone or when the water pressure is acting alone. Service
filling a basement with water can equalize the external
ducts, boiler houses, inspection chambers and similar excav-
earth pressure on the basement wall. The authors’ practice
ated substructures can unwittingly be subject to internal
has used this method of temporary propping,(2) raising the
water pressure acting alone, which needs to be designed
water level as backfill is placed. Where the basement is con-
for. This has happened when heavy rainfall during con-
structed in waterlogged ground, filling the basement in this
struction has flooded and filled the substructures with
way can also be utilized to avoid flotation before the weight
water before the backfill has been placed.
of the rest of the building is added.

15.3 Stability
Retaining walls are subject to forces other than earth or
water pressure, as shown in Fig. 15.4.

water
pressure weight of wall
plus superstructure
surcharge

friction – resisting
passive sliding
empty pool resistance
earth
pressure

soil reaction

Fig. 15.3 Pressures acting on swimming pool walls. Fig. 15.4 Additional forces on retaining walls.
SFDC15 1/8/06 11:22 AM Page 306

306 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

tension crack

skin friction plus

own weight of structure
rotated wall
(less than upward pressure)

soil heave

water pressure

Fig. 15.7 Uplift water pressure (flotation) on tank

structure.

slip circle

Fig. 15.5 Slip circle failure of retaining wall.

alternatively – extend
impermeable base to utilize weight
floor paving of earth above

basement rubble drainage

layer 500 mm rod
bore
wide or
proprietary
filter drain

drain to mains
in situ cement mortar
Fig. 15.6 Drainage behind basement retaining wall. or chemical grouting

Fig. 15.8 Measures to counteract flotation.

Even when the wall is designed to withstand the pressures

without being overstressed, a check must be taken to deter-
mine its resistance to rotation with a possible slip circle (see
15.5 Buoyancy
Fig. 15.5 and section 15.7).
A ship floating in the sea displaces a weight of water equal
The pressure of the retained earth can be considerably
to its own weight and contents. If the ship’s contents are
increased if water pressure is allowed to build up. Where
increased in weight then the ship displaces more water and
suitable drainage can be provided to prevent this increase
sinks a little. (If the contents are too heavy the ship will be
of pressure, it is advisable to drain the earth face as shown
sunk since it cannot displace more than its volume.)
in Fig. 15.6, although in many cases the water-table cannot
be easily drained. This problem is causing increasing con- weight of ship
Factor of safety = = 1.0
cern in London, Birmingham and other cities as the water- weight of water displaced
table rises, this being mainly due to the cessation of artesian
Exactly the same basic principle (with, of course, a higher
well extraction.
factor of safety than 1.0) applies to cellular basements. A
floor load (dead + imposed) is commonly about 10 kN/m2
15.4 Flotation
and a roof load is generally about 6 kN/m2, so a five-storey
Swimming pools, large tanks, basements, pits and similar building over a basement exerts a pressure of 56 kN/m2.
structures can be subject to upward vertical pressure in Soil of density 16 kN/m3 exerts a vertical pressure of
waterlogged ground (see Fig. 15.7). To prevent flotation it 56 kN/m2 at a depth of 3.5 m. The five-storey building with
is necessary to anchor down the structure with ground a 3.5 m deep basement would float without exerting further
anchors, or to extend the base (Fig. 15.8). pressure on the soil.
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Retaining Walls, Basement Walls, Slip Circles and Underpinning 307

15.6 Pressures The depth below ground level is z, and the soil unit weight
is γ. Therefore
The earth pressure can, to a limited extent, be determined
by soil mechanics. There is need for caution, for despite the γ z γ z2
total load = z× =
valuable advances in the last half century, soil mechanics 3 2 6
(like much structural and civil engineering) is not an exact
z2 z γ z3
science. It has been reported that world experts in soil moment of load = γ × =
mechanics, given the same detailed site investigation 6 3 18
reports, predicted the limiting heights of an earth embank-
ment on a soft clay ranging from 2.8 m to 9.2 m. The 15.6.3 Surcharge
embankment actually failed at a height of 5.2 m. If a uniform surcharge load, w, per unit area is applied over
the whole of the ground surface adjacent to the retaining
15.6.1 Liquid pressure wall, then the vertical stress is increased by the amount of
(While it may be simplistic to discuss liquid pressure before the surcharge.
soil pressure it can be helpful in the application of the
Lateral pressure on the wall = wKa
principles.)
Total lateral load on wall = wKaz
z
The pressure at any point in a liquid (water, beer, oil, etc.) Total moment of load = wKaz ×
2
is the same in all directions – horizontal, vertical, diagonal.
The lateral pressure on a vertical surface retaining the wKaz2
=
liquid is equal to γw zw, where γw = unit weight of the 2
liquid and zw = depth of liquid above the point considered
(see Fig. 15.9). 15.7 Slip circle example
The total pressure per unit length of the wall equals the area Slip circles have been mentioned in Chapter 4 and the
of the pressure diagram following example, showing the calculation process for
z γ z2 deriving the factor of safety for a single slip circle with
= γw zw × w = w w
2 2 an arbitrarily selected radius, is included here for com-
This acts at the centroid of the diagram, zw/3 above the base pleteness. In order to find the most critical condition,
γ z2 z i.e. the minimum factor of safety, a number of slip circle
and moment of the pressure about the base = w w × w calculations should be carried out using different radii. The
2 3
engineer experienced in this field is able to identify the
γw zw
3
most likely mode of failure based on a knowledge of soil
=
6 parameters and boundary conditions and hence reduce the
15.6.2 Earth pressure computational effort required. This iterative calculation
process is time-consuming and can be more cost-effectively
As stated above, the pressure in a liquid is isotropic. carried out by one of the commercial software packages for
However, the pressure in retained earth is anisotropic, slip circle analysis that are available.
and should be adjusted by the coefficient for earth pressure
(Ka), commonly quoted for a typical soil as 0.33 = –13 . The A detached house, 9 m × 9 m on plan, is to be constructed on
coefficient can be calculated more accurately from the a sloping site; a section through the proposal is as shown
expression in Fig. 15.10.
1 − sin φ Assuming an average value of cu = 50 kN/m2, consider
Ka =
1 + sin φ a one metre wide strip for the case where φu = 0, i.e. the
undrained condition immediately following construction.

cular
Factor of safety =
F1d1 + Pd2 − F3d3
where cu = undrained cohesion
la = arc length
r = arc radius
F1 = weight of ground causing slip
zw d1, d2, d3 = lever arms
zw
γw z w × P = weight of house
zw 2
F3 = weight of ground resisting slip.
3
Next set up a circular arc using compasses, to pass through
the edge of the excavation for the basement of slab/footing
γw z w and close to the bottom of the new embankment. Measure
the radius, and compute the arc length, r = 12.5 m. The angle
Fig. 15.9 Lateral pressure from retained liquid. subtended by the arc = α = 90°. Therefore
SFDC15 1/8/06 11:22 AM Page 308

308 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

radius point

line of original
ground approximates
to arc chord

rad
ius
12.
5m
4m
P

1.7 m F3

3.2 m

face of excavation
cut in benches
F1
slip circle

Fig. 15.10 Slip circle design example.

2πrα By simple geometry, the centroids of the areas are located,

la =
360° and scaling their lever arms
90° F1d1 = 720 × 3.2 = 2304 kNm
la = 2π12.5 × = 19.6 m
360° Pd2 = 170 × 4 = 680 kNm
F3d3 = 114 × 1.7 = 194 kNm
Deduct a length (arbitrary) disturbed by excavation and
subsequent filling, i.e. 19.6 − 3.6 = 16 m. Combining these gives
Weight of ground is F1, assuming the small area of fill above 2304 + 680 − 194 = 2790 kNm
the chord line equals the area omitted within the house.
r 2πα r 2 sin α Therefore
Area of segment = −
2 × 180° 2 50 × 16 × 12.5
factor of safety = = 3.6
12.5 π 90° 12.5
2 2 2790
= −
360° 2 Since 3.6 is greater than 2, the factor of safety commonly
= 122.7 − 78.1 adopted for slope failures involving buildings, then there
= 45 m2 is an adequate factor of safety against slip circle failure.
However, as mentioned above, other circles should be
Using 16 kN/m3 for existing ground and compacted fill
checked in order to find the critical case.
weight, F1 = 45 × 16 = 720 kN/m
The weight of a detached house of two storeys, including 15.8 Continuous underpinning
external and internal load-bearing walls, when averaged In this chapter the authors have considered only under-
per metre run, equates to 170 kN/m. Therefore pinning of existing buildings adjacent to new developments
P = 170 kN/m and not underpinning required due to structural settlement
weight, F3 = 16 × Area of fill F3 or subsidence, which is a separate subject beyond the scope
9.5 of this book.
F3 = 16 × × 1.5
2 All foundation types may require underpinning when
= 114 kN/m development takes place alongside or under an existing
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Retaining Walls, Basement Walls, Slip Circles and Underpinning 309

existing proposed development

building site requiring
reduced ground
4 1 5 2 5 3 1 4 level

2
stiff
5 clay
excavated and cast
3 as numbered sequence mass concrete

plan section

Fig. 15.11 Typical continuous underpinning.

structure. The possible combinations of ground conditions, of this undermining is dependent upon the structure’s
foundation details and levels is endless and complex. The capability of spanning over the undermined section and the
basic methods and principles are quite simple. Where a stability of the short section of unrestrained earth. In some
new foundation or structure is to be constructed with cases beam underpinning may be provided to help the
its foundation soffit below that of an adjoining foundation, structure to span over greater distances. Typical under-
underpinning is usually necessary. The exception to this is pinning is shown in Fig. 15.11.
where the adjoining building is built upon a substantial
The simplest and most common form of underpinning is
ground strata such as hard rock.
to remove a series of short lengths of sub-soils from below
The ‘traditional’ method of underpinning described below the adjoining building in a sequenced operation. As each
has been used extensively and effectively in the past and section is excavated it is replaced immediately with mass
is included here for completeness. However, the risks to concrete, which is allowed adequate time for curing prior
site personnel involved in working beneath a temporarily to the construction of the adjoining section. The top of the
supported section of superstructure of sometimes dubious concrete is either cast with a pressure head so that it rises
integrity must be weighed against other underpinning to the underside of the foundation, or is cast low to allow
options such as the use of mini-piles and needle beams wedging with dry pack or slate. Figure 15.12 gives a typical
(see Fig. 15.15), which are now easily available and equally example of mass concrete underpinning.
effective.
In the authors’ opinion the preferred method of construction
Traditional underpinning is generally carried out in is to cast whenever possible with a pressure head. Concrete
sequenced construction and in short lengths (commonly shrinks, and so theoretically this method encourages some
1.0 to 1.2 m). The sequence is arranged to allow limited slight settlement as the building above follows this shrink-
undermining of the structure at any one time. The limit age downwards. However, in the authors’ experience such

existing wall wet concrete

and foundation discharged and
vibrated to top
of box shutter

dry pack

letterbox to
provide head mass concrete
pressure under underpin
footing – cut off
after construction

shutter
pressure head system alternative dry pack system

Fig. 15.12 Construction methods for mass concrete underpinning.

SFDC15 1/8/06 11:22 AM Page 310

310 Foundation Types: Selection and Design

r.c. footing

mass concrete
underpinning

Fig. 15.13 Typical discontinuous underpinning.

settlement is usually negligible and is offset by the follow- r.c. beam cast existing structure
ing advantages of the pressure head method: in sections over

(1) The underpinning is completed in one operation, rather

than waiting up to seven days before dry packing. Also
since concrete continues to shrink for weeks, even
months, the logic of dry packing is inconsistent.
(2) The workmanship of the dry packing process is often of
poor quality due to the difficulty of the technique. This
requires increased supervision, and slows the whole undisturbed
ground
sequence down even further.

It is rarely necessary to mechanically key mass concrete

underpinning across the joints and the majority of mass
concrete underpinning will perform successfully without
a key. The need for keying depends upon the requirement
for vertical shear and/or tensile strength across the face,
brick or mass
neither of which is usually necessary.
concrete piers

15.9 Discontinuous underpinning Fig. 15.14 Typical pier and beam underpinning.
Where the existing foundation has reasonable spanning
capability it is sometimes possible to excavate and install beams inserted through the existing structure to bear onto
piers in mass concrete or concrete and brick at a spacing the piles. This is particularly useful where a basement
to suit the spanning capability of the original foundation. extension is to be added to an existing building; the piles
The area of the base of this underpinning needs to be form the basement columns and the beams the framework
capable of distributing the ground pressure from vertical for the ground floor structure. Typical pile beam under-
and horizontal loading into the sub-strata without allowable pinning is shown in Fig. 15.15.
limits being exceeded (see Fig. 15.13 for typical details).
Temporary lowering of the water-table by sump-pumping
In other situations where good ground exists but the founda- for underpinning operations requires careful consideration
tion is not capable of spanning, a pier and underpinned relative to the effect on new and existing foundations. As
beam can be used, the beam being inserted in sections in a previously discussed, there is a danger that soils such as fine
similar manner to that of the mass concrete underpinning. sands may suffer from loss of fines and may cause settle-
This operation tends to be more tedious and more time ment of adjoining structures. There is also the possibility
consuming, but where excavations are deep it can prove that in certain soils when the dewatering process stops,
economic (see Fig. 15.14). As with continuous underpin- running sand or clay softening may occur. It is therefore
ning, the engineer must carefully consider the risk to site important under these circumstances that the effects of
personnel before specifying these techniques. the temporary works and methods of construction are con-
sidered at design stage.
It is particularly useful for foundation jacking where sub-
sidence or settlement requires re-levelling, the jacks being There are numerous ingenious piling systems available
inserted between the soffit of the beam and the top of the which minimize disruption of the existing structure, while
piers. In some cases, particularly where the building to be maximizing economy and practicality of construction and a
underpinned forms part of the new construction, piles can reputable specialist contractor should be approached at an
be inserted on either side of the structure to support needle early stage where appropriate.
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Retaining Walls, Basement Walls, Slip Circles and Underpinning 311

underpin piles wall over

underpin ground pile/new basement

beams column

Fig. 15.15 Typical pile and beam underpinning.

15.10 Spread underpinning through the holes, and cast the whole of the cellar floor area
as a reinforced concrete raft slab. This proved a very cost-
Occasionally, due to site constraints, underpinning is effective and practical way of enhancing the load-bearing
achieved by spreading the foundation load over a greater capacity of the premises and providing a basement slab at
area of ground, rather than transferring to a bearing strata the same time.
at a lower level.

An example undertaken by the authors’ practice was in the 15.11 References

restricted cellars of a series of large Victorian properties
being redeveloped as office accommodation. The load- 1. Institution of Structural Engineers (2004) Design and
bearing walls sat on stepped brick footings, just beneath a Construction of Deep Basements. ISE.
cellar floor of compacted earth. In this case it was possible 2. Adams, S. (1989) Practical Buildability. CIRIA, Building design
to cut pockets out of these footings, run reinforcement report, Butterworths, London.
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 313

Appendices

Introduction to appendices Appendix C: Map Showing Areas of Coal and

Some Other Mineral Extractions 318
Appendices are an important and useful part of any practical
Appendix D: Foundation Selection Tables 319
design manual provided that they are related to the main
Appendix E: Guide to Use of Ground
text and that their use is clearly defined and understood.
Improvement 322
These appendices have largely been gathered from the Appendix F: Tables Relating to Contaminated
many tables, graphs and charts developed in the main text Sites/Soils 325
in its presentation of practical design examples. They have Appendix G: Factors of Safety 341
then been added to and tabulated into a quick reference Appendix H: Design Charts for Pad and
form for easy access by the knowledgeable reader. Strip Foundations 343
Appendix J: Table of Ground Beam Trial Sizes 348
The authors therefore hope that all readers will progress via
Appendix K: Design Graphs and Charts for
the main text to familiarity with the appendices and use
Raft Foundations Spanning
them in their pursuit of the practical design of economical
Local Depressions 349
foundations.
Appendix L: Table of Material Frictional
Appendix A: Properties and Presumed Bearing Resistances 357
Pressures of Some Well Known Appendix M: Cost Indices for Foundation Types 358
Engineering Soils and Rocks 314 Appendix N: Allowable Bearing Pressure
Appendix B: Map Showing Areas of Shrinkable for Foundations on
Clays In Britain 317 Non-Cohesive Soil 359
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 314

A Properties and Presumed Bearing

Pressures of Some Well Known
Engineering Soils and Rocks

There is a tendency on the part of more experienced engin- certain parts of the country. (Presumed bearing pressures
eers, particularly those who have become well acquainted quoted for clays assume a 1 metre to 2 metre wide footing.)
over the years with a variety of soil mechanics problems Further information is given in Fig. A.1 and Table A.1.
on a wide variety of sites, to assume a working knowledge
of certain commonly encountered engineering soils, while Kimmeridge Clay
less experienced engineers, or those who have worked for Kimmeridge Clay, like London and Oxford Clays, can
most of their lives in only one area of the country, are less contain naturally occurring sulfates. These clays are stiff
well versed in this area than their colleagues assume. fissured heavy clays which swell with moisture increase
With this in mind, the following is a brief list of the pro- and shrink with moisture decrease.
perties of well known engineering soils/rocks common in Presumed bearing pressure (stiff) = 150 to 300 kN/m2

Table A.1 Presumed allowable bearing values (BS 8004, Table 1)

NOTE. These values are for preliminary design purposes only, and may need alteration upwards or downwards. No addition has
been made for the depth of embedment of the foundation (see 2.1.2.3.2 and 2.1.2.3.3).

Category Types of rocks and soils Presumed allowable bearing value Remarks

kN/m2 kgf/cm2*
tonf/ft2

Rocks Strong igneous and gneissic rocks in These values are based on
sound condition 10 000 100 the assumption that the
Strong limestones and strong foundations are taken down to
sandstones 4 000 40 unweathered rock. For weak,
Schists and slates 3 000 30 weathered and broken rock,
Strong shales, strong mudstones and see 2.2.2.3.1.12
strong siltstones 2 000 20

Non-cohesive Dense gravel, or dense sand and gravel >600 >6 Width of foundation not less
soils Medium dense gravel, or medium than 1 m. Groundwater level
dense sand and gravel <200 to 600 <2 to 6 assumed to be a depth not
Loose gravel, or loose sand and gravel <200 <2 less than below the base of
Compact sand >300 >3 the foundation. For effect
Medium dense sand 100 to 300 1 to 30 of relative density and
Loose sand <100 <1 groundwater level, see
Value depending on degree of 2.2.2.3.2
looseness

Cohesive soils Very stiff boulder clays and hard clays 300 to 600 3 to 6 Group 3 is susceptible to long-
Stiff clays 150 to 300 1.5 to 3 term consolidation settlement
Firm clays 75 to 150 0.75 to 1.5 (see 2.1.2.3.3).
Soft clays and silts <75 <0.75 For consistencies of clays, see
table 5
Very soft clays and silts Not applicable

Peat and organic soils Not applicable See 2.2.2.3.4

Made ground or fill Not applicable See 2.2.2.3.5

* 107.25 kN/m2 = 1.094 kgf/cm2 = 1 tonf/ft2.

All references within this table refer to the original document.
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 315

Appendices 315

Key

Keuper Marl

London Clay

Kimmeridge Clay

Oxford Clay

Wealden Clay

Fig. A.1 Distribution of specific engineering soils.

SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 316

316 Appendices

London Clay with sandstone, which can be highly fissured – this encour-
ages water percolation which leads to softening. It outcrops
London Clay is an overconsolidated clay with either a red, on either side of the Pennines and extends as a single band
brown or greenish-blue colour due to the presence of iron down through the Midlands to the Bristol area. It reaches its
oxide. The estimated consolidation load in the central London greatest thicknesses (1200 m to 1500 m) in the Cheshire/
area was about 3500 kN/m2 in previous geological ages. Shropshire basin.
The depths of the clay beds vary, but, including the under- Although a stable mudstone at depth, when disturbed in
lying sands, gravels and boulder clay, are typically 50 metres shallow foundations, Keuper Marl behaves as a clay suscept-
thick over the underlying chalk. ible to swelling and softening by the action of groundwater.
London Clay can have a high plasticity index and is often BS 8004(1) provides recommended ranges of bearing pres-
highly shrinkable. sure of between 125 and 1000 kN/m2 (see Table A.1),
Presumed bearing pressure depending upon the degree of weathering, as classified in
= 200 to 400 kN/m2 CIRIA report CS70.(2)
(stiff blue clay)

Presumed bearing pressure Greywacke

= 100 to 200 kN/m2
(firm brown clay)
Greywacke consists of badly sorted muddy sedimentary
Oxford Clay rocks with much coarse material compressed in deep
troughs, sometimes thousands of metres in depth.
As its name suggests, Oxford Clay is found in thick beds
between Oxford and Cirencester, and is extensively worked Presumed bearing pressure = 550 to 1200 kN/m2
for brick production.
Bunter sandstone
Presumed bearing pressure (stiff) = 150 to 300 kN/m2
Bunter sandstone is a softish rock consisting of cemented
Wealden Clay particles of sand with 10% to 20% passing the 75 micron sieve.
As its name suggests, Wealden Clay is found in The Weald, Presumed bearing pressure = 450 to 900 kN/m2
between the North and South Downs, in a crescent running
west from Eastbourne to Horsham and Haslemere, and Chalk
then east as far as Hythe on the south coast.
Chalk is a sound, soft white limestone, but is susceptible to
Presumed bearing pressure (stiff) = 150 to 300 kN/m2 softening when subject to percolating water. As covered in
the text, in extreme cases this can result in the formation of
As discussed in Chapter 2, many structures are founded on
swallow-holes.
engineering soils classed as drift on the geological maps,
varying in depth from 2 to 200 metres and sometimes Presumed bearing pressure = 125 to 1200 kN/m2
more. But larger structures are often founded on rock, and
certain rock types, termed solid on the geological maps, are References
mentioned below.
1. British Standards Institution (1986) BS 8004, Code of Practice for
Foundations. BSI, London.
Keuper Marl (a red-brown Mercia mudstone)
2. Chandler, R.J. & Forster, A. (2001) Engineering in Mercia Mudstone.
Keuper Marl is an argillaceous rock, often interbedded Report C570, CIRIA, London.
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 317

B Map Showing Areas of Shrinkable

Clays In Britain

Key
Glacial clays
Eocene
L = London
Cretaceous
G = Gault
W = Weald
Jurassic
O = Oxford
K = Kimmeridge
Li = Lias

O
K

Li

G L

Fig. B.1 Areas of firm shrinkable clays.

SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 318

C Map Showing Areas of Coal and

Some Other Mineral Extractions
Key
Iron ore

Kaolin (China Clay)

Salt

Tin

Coal Mining Areas

Fig. C.1 Areas of coal and mineral mining.

SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 319

D Foundation Selection Tables

Tables 10.3, 10.1 and 10.2 from the main text are reproduced Each of the tables gives details of suitable foundations to
here as Tables D.1, D.2 and D.3 respectively for ease of suit varying site and sub-soil conditions with guidance notes
reference in the foundation selection process. for factors to be considered during the selection process.

Table D.1 Foundation selection – bearing strata strength and depth

Sub-soil conditions Suitable foundation

Condition 1 Strips
Suitable bearing strata within Pads
1.5 m of ground surface Rafts
When loading on pads is relatively large and pad sizes tend to join up or the foundation
needs to be balanced or connected then continuous beam foundations are appropriate.

Strip foundations are usually considered the norm for these conditions but rafts can prove
more economical in some cases.

Condition 2 Strips 5
Suitable bearing strata at 1.25 m Pads 6 on improved ground using vibro or dynamic consolidation techniques
and greater below ground surface Rafts 7

Condition 3 As Condition 2 plus the following

Suitable bearing strata at 1.5 m Piles and ground beams
and greater below ground surface Pier and ground beams
Piles and raft

Condition 4 As Condition 2 plus the following

Low bearing pressure for Buoyant rafts
considerable depth

Condition 5 As Condition 2 plus the following

Low bearing pressure near surface Rafts
Ground improvement using preloading to support reinforced strips on rafts
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 320

Table D.2 Foundation selection – sub-soil type

Sub-soil type Suitable foundation Factors to be considered

Group 1
Rock; hard sound Strips/Pads/Rafts (1) Minimum depth to formation for protection against frost heave
chalk; sand and 450 mm for frost susceptible soils.
gravel, sand and (2) Weathered rock must be assessed on inspection.
gravel with little (3) Beware of swallow-holes in chalk.
clay content, dense (4) Keep base of strip or trench above groundwater level where
silty sand possible.
(5) Sand slopes may be eroded by surface water – protect
foundation by perimeter drainage.
(6) Beware of running sand conditions.

Group 2
Uniform firm and Strips/Pads/Rafts (1) Trench fill likely to be economic in this category.
stiff clays (2) Minimum depth to underside of foundation 900 mm.
(a) where existing (3) When strip foundations are cast in desiccated clay in dry
nearby vegetation weather, they must be loaded with the structure before
is insignificant heavy rains return.
(b) where trees, Concrete piles supporting (1) Clay type and shrinkage potential, distance of trees from
hedges or shrubs reinforced ground beams and foundation and spread of roots dictate necessity or otherwise
exist close to the precast concrete floor units of piling.
foundation position OR (2) Type and dimensions of pile depend on economic factors.
or are to be planted Concrete piles supporting a (3) Where a suspended in situ concrete ground slab is used a void
near the building at suspended reinforced in situ must be formed under it if laid in very dry weather over clay
a later date concrete slab which is desiccated.
OR (4) Where existing mature trees grow very close (e.g. within quarter
Specially designed trench fill of mature tree height) to the position in which piles will be
(possibly reinforced) in certain installed. It might be prudent to design for sub-soil group 2(c).
clay soils depending on position (5) Where trees have been or will be planted at a distance of at
of foundation relative to trees least one to two times the mature tree height from the
OR foundation, a strip foundation may be suitable.
Rafts (6) In marginal cases, i.e. with clay of low to medium shrinkage
potential and in the perimeter zone of the tree root system,
reinforced trench fill can be used.
(c) Where trees and Reinforced concrete piles (in (1) Piles must be tied adequately into ground beams or the
hedges are cut previous tree root zone) suspended reinforced concrete slab. An adequate length of pile
down from area OR must be provided to resist clay heave force, and the top section
of foundations Strip foundations as in groups 2(a) of the pile possibly sleeved to reduce friction and uplift.
shortly before and 2(b) (outside previous root (2) Special pile design may be required for clay slopes greater than
construction zone) 1 in 10 where soil creep may occur and it is necessary to design
OR for lateral thrust and cantilever effects.
Rafts (3) In marginal cases, i.e. with clay of low to medium shrinkage
potential and in the perimeter zone of the tree root system,
reinforced trench fill can be used.

Group 3
Soft clay, soft silty clay, Wide strip footing if bearing (1) Strip footings should be reinforced depending on thickness and
soft sandy clay, capacity is sufficient and projection beyond wall face.
soft silty sand predicted settlement allowable (2) Service entries to building should be flexible.
OR
Raft
OR
Piles to firmer strata below – for
small projects consider pier and
beam foundations to firm strata

Group 4
Peat Concrete piles taken to firm strata (1) Pile types used are bored cast in place with temporary casing;
below. For small projects, consider driven cast in place; and driven precast concrete.
pad and beam foundations taken (2) Allow for peat consolidation drag on piles.
to firm strata below. Where no (3) Where peat layer is at surface and shallow over firm strata, dig
firm strata exist at a reasonable out and replace with compacted fill. Then use raft or reinforced
depth below ground level but wide-strip foundations depending on expected settlement.
there is a thick (3–4 m) hard (4) Where raft is used, service entries should be flexible. Special
surface crust of suitable bearing high-grade concrete and protection may be necessary in some
capacity, consider raft. aggressive peat soils.

Ground improvements of sub-soil Groups 3 and 4 by vibro treatments can often be achieved and can be an effective and
economical solution when used in conjunction with raft or strip foundations
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 321

Appendices 321

Table D.3 Foundation selection – varying site conditions

Site condition Suitable foundation Factors to be considered

Filled site Concrete piles taken to firm (1) Allow for fill consolidation drag on piles, piers or deep trench fill taken
strata below. For small projects down to firm strata below.
consider beam and pier (2) Proprietary deep vibro and dynamic compaction techniques can with
foundations taken to firm strata advantage improve poor fill before construction of surface or shallow
below. If specially selected and foundations.
well compacted fill has been (3) If depth of poorly compacted and aggressive fill is small remove and
used consider replace with inert compacted fill, then use reinforced strip or raft
(1) Raft or foundations.
(2) Reinforced wide-strip (4) Deep trench fill taken down to a firm stratum may be economic if
footings ground will stand with minimum support until concrete is placed.
(3) Strip/pad/raft on ground (5) Allow flexible service entries to building.
improved using vibro or (6) Avoid building a unit partly on fill and partly on natural ground.
dynamic consolidation (7) Take precautionary measures against
depending on fill type (a) combustion on exposure to atmosphere,
(b) possible toxic wastes,
(c) production of methane gas.

Mining Slip-plane raft (1) Where a subsidence wave is expected, building should be carried on
and other individual small rafts. Avoid long terrace blocks and L-shaped buildings.
subsidence (2) In older mining areas, locate buildings to avoid old mining shafts and
areas bell-pits.
(3) In coal mining areas, consult The Coal Authority in all cases.
(4) Avoid piled foundations.

Sloping site Foundations to suit normal (1) Strip foundations act as retaining walls at steps. With clay creep
factors and soil conditions, but downhill, design and reinforce for horizontal forces on foundations.
designed for special effect of Provide good drainage behind retaining wall steps.
slope (2) Foundations are deeper than normal, so keep load-bearing walls to a
minimum. Keep long direction of building parallel to contours.
(3) In addition to local effects of slope on foundations, consider total
ground movement of slopes including stability of cohesionless soils,
slip and sliding of cohesive soils.
(4) Make full examination of all sloping sites inclined more than 1 in 10.
(5) The presence of water can increase instability of slope.
(6) Special pile design may be required for clay soil slopes greater than 1 in
10 where soil creep may occur and it is necessary to design for lateral
thrust and cantilever effects.

Site containing Normal range of foundations. It (1) Notes relating to ‘filled site’ apply.
old building is possible to use strips, piling, (2) Where possible, dig out badly placed or chemically aggressive fill and
foundations and pads but beware of varying replace with inert compacted material.
depths of fill in old basements, (3) Remove old walls in filled basements, or use piers or piles carrying
causing differential settlement, ground beams to span such projections.
and old walls projecting into fill (4) Deep trench fill down to firm strata at original basement level may be
over which slabs may break their economic.
backs. (5) Trench fill depths may vary greatly as old basement depth varies. Some
formwork may be required in loose fill areas.
(6) Remove old timber in demolition material – a source of dry rot infection.

Site with Normal range of foundation (1) In sand and gravel soil, keep foundation above groundwater level
groundwater types can be used. Consider where possible.
problems piling through very loose (2) Avoid forming steep cuttings in wet sand or silty soil.
saturated sand to denser stratum (3) Consider use of sub-surface shelter drains connected to surface water
to provide support for raft or drains, and allow for resulting consolidation or loss of ground support.
strip foundation at high level (4) Take precautions against lowering of groundwater level which may
above groundwater. Consider affect stability of existing structures.
use of proprietary vibro-
replacement ground techniques
to provide support for raft or
strip foundation at high level
above groundwater.
SFDD01 7/8/06 5:49 PM Page 322

E Guide to Use of Ground Improvement

Surface rolling of imported granular materials and vibro- The soils most suited to improvement by vibro compaction
stabilization are probably the most commonly used forms range from medium-to-fine gravel to fine uniform sand
of ground improvement. Table 8.1 and Figs 8.7 and 8.10 as shown in Fig. E.1 (Fig. 8.7). Cohesive soils require fur-
from the main text are repeated here as Table E.1 and ther considerations to achieve improvements from vibro
Figs E.1 and E.2 respectively for ease of reference when methods. Figure E.2 (Fig. 8.10) shows some typical examples
considering these options. of vibro treatments in a range of soils to support various
types of developments.
Table E.1 (Table 8.1) gives details of grading and compac-
tion of hardcore when considering surface rolling.

Table E.1 Hardcore grading and compaction

Hardcore material should be composed of granular material Hardcore material should be placed and spread evenly.
and shall be free from clay, silt, soil, timber, vegetable matter Spreading should be concurrent with placing and
and any other deleterious material and shall not deteriorate compaction carried out using a vibrating roller as
in the presence of water. The material shall be well graded noted below:
and lie within the grading envelope below:
Category of roller Number of passes for
(mass per metre width layers not exceeding
BS sieve size Percentage by weight passing of vibrating roller) 150 mm thick

75.0 mm 90–100 Below 1300 kg not suitable

37.5 mm 80–90 Over 1300 kg up to 1800 kg 16
10.0 mm 40–70 Over 1800 kg up to 2300 kg 6
5.0 mm 25–45 Over 2300 kg up to 2900 kg 5
600 µm 10–20 Over 2900 kg up to 3600 kg 5
Over 3600 kg up to 4300 kg 4
Over 4300 kg up to 5000 kg 4
Over 5000 kg 3

Compaction should be completed as soon as possible after

material has been spread
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 323

Appendices 323

100

90

80

70

60
% passing

50

40

30

20

10

0
0.0006 0.002 0.006 0.02 0.05 0.2 0.5 2.0 6 20 60 200
sieve mm

clay silt sand gravel boulders

fraction fraction fraction fraction

Fig. E.1 Soil grading for vibro treatment.

SFDD01 3/8/06 10:38 AM Page 324

324 Appendices

GROUND CONDITIONS DEVELOPMENT FOUNDATION VIBRO TREATMENT

SOLUTION

1.75 m Two- and three-storey Traditional strip footings on Dry process adopted
Demolition fill housing of traditional vibro-improved ground Probes at 1.5 m centres on centreline of
1.75–2.35 m construction load-bearing walls
Compact fill Vibro treatment on Probes carried through fill to sand layer
(Mainly sub-soil) load-bearing wall lines Depth of treatment 2.5 m
Allowable bearing pressure
2.35–3.2 m
150 kN/m2
Compact red sand
3.2–3.6 m
Hard red sandstone
(trial pit dry)

0–0.1 m Topsoil Five-storey residential Traditional strip footings on Dry process adopted
0.1–2.4 m Fill building vibro-improved ground Two lines of probes at 0.95 to 1.5 m
Soft to firm brown and staggered centres on centreline of
grey sandy silty clay with Load-bearing masonry Vibro treatment on load-bearing walls
ash and bricks construction with load-bearing wall lines Probes carried through fill to clay
suspended concrete floor Depth of treatment 3 m
2.4–6.0 m
slab (including ground Footings 0.7 to 1.20 m wide Allowable bearing pressure
Firm to stiff dark brown
floor) reinforced with two layers of 150 kN/m2
slightly sandy to sandy
B785 mesh
silty clay
Becoming stiffer with
depth (borehole dry)

0–1.0 m Tall single-storey factory/ Pad bases beneath columns, Dry (bottom-feed) process adopted
Sandy clay probable fill warehouse with masonry walls on strip Probes on 1.5 m grid under pad bases
1.0–2.2 m footings between bases (2.8 m square pad on nine probes)
Firm, sandy, silty clay Steel portal frame with steel Probes at 1.6 m centres on centreline of
2.2–3.8 m sheeting and dado masonry Vibro-improved ground footings
Soft very sandy silty clay beneath foundations and Probes at 2.0 m grid beneath slab area
ground slab Depth of treatment 4 m
3.8–6.0 m Allowable bearing pressure:
Stiff boulder clay 100 kN/m2 to pads/strips;
25 kN/m2 to slabs

0–0.15 m Topsoil Two-storey institutional Pad bases to columns, strip Wet process adopted
0.15–2.4 m Loose building, part load- bearing footing to load- bearing walls Probes on 1.5 m grid under pad
saturated silty sand masonry part r.c. frame bases (2.0 m square base on four probes)
Vibro-improved ground Probes at 1.5 m centres on centreline of
2.4–6.0 m
beneath foundations and footings
Firm to stiff boulder clay
ground slab Depth of treatment 2.5 m
Allowable bearing pressure; 150 kN/m2
to pads/strips; 25 kN/m2 to slabs

0–0.3 m Topsoil and sub-soil Tall single-storey load- Wide strip footings on Dry (bottom-feed) process adopted two
0.3–2.7 m bearing masonry sports hall vibro-improved ground lines of probes at 1.25 m staggered
Soft to very soft bands of centres on centreline of load-bearing walls
clay and silts saturated 1.5 m wide footing Probes at 1.8 m staggered centres under slab
2.7–6.0 m reinforced with C785 mesh Depth of treatment 2.8 m
Firm to stiff boulder clay Allowable bearing pressure:
150 kN/m2 to footings; 25 kN/m2 to slab
Note Following testing programme the
treatment centres reduced to 0.75 m in
localized area of very soft ground to achieve
settlement test criteria

0–0.2 m Topsoil Two-storey teaching block, Crust raft on vibro-improved Wet process adopted a
0.2–1.8 m Loose brown load-bearing masonry ground Probes on 1.7 m centres on centreline of raft
fine silty sand construction edge and internal thickenings
Raft slab incorporated Probes at 2.5 m grid under floor areas
1.8–2.2 Loose moist
internal thickening under Depth of treatment 4.8 m
dark brown peaty sand
load-bearing wall lines Allowable bearing pressure
2.2–9.5 Greyish brown 110 kN/m2
fine silty sand
a
This project was undertaken in late 1970s
before bottom-feed dry vibro-treatment was
available (it is considered that the dry
bottom-feed method would have proved
effective in this case)

Fig. E.2 Examples of vibro-stabilization solutions.

SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 325

F Tables Relating to Contaminated

Sites/Soils

These tables are included for use when considering the

implications of the development of contaminated land.
Detailed discussion on the contents of each table is given in
Chapter 5. Appendix F.9 provides an example of a site
investigation into a conversion of land use.

Table F.1 Categories of significant harm (reproduced with permission from DETR Circular 2/2000, Annexe 3,
Chapter A, Part 3)

Category Type of receptor Description of harm to that type of receptor that is to be

regarded as significant harm

1 Human beings Death, disease, serious injury, genetic mutation, birth defects or
the impairment of reproductive functions.

For these purposes, disease is to be taken to mean an unhealthy

condition of the body or a part of it and can include, for
example, cancer, liver dysfunction or extensive skin ailments.
Mental dysfunction is included only insofar as it is attributable
to the effects of a pollutant on the body of the person
concerned.

In this Chapter, this description of significant harm is referred to

as a ‘human health effect’.

2 Any ecological system, or living organism forming For any protected location:
part of such a system, within a location which is:
• harm which results in an irreversible adverse change, or in
• an area notified as an area of special scientific some other substantial adverse change, in the functioning
interest under section 28 of the Wildlife and of the ecological system within any substantial part of that
Countryside Act 1981; location; or
• any land declared a national nature reserve • harm which affects any species of special interest within that
under section 35 of that Act; location and which endangers the long-term maintenance of
• any area designated as a marine nature reserve the population of that species at that location.
under section 36 of that Act;
In addition, in the case of a protected location which is a
• an area of special protection for birds,
European Site (or a candidate Special Area of Conservation or a
established under section 3 of that Act;
potential Special Protection Area), harm which is incompatible
• any European Site within the meaning of
with the favourable conservation status of natural habitats at
regulation 10 of the Conservation (Natural
that location or species typically found there.
Habitats etc) Regulations 1994 (i.e. Special Areas
of Conservation and Special Protection Areas); In determining what constitutes such harm, the local authority
• any candidate Special Areas of Conservation should have regard to the advice of English Nature and to the
or potential Special Protection Areas given requirements of the Conservation (Natural Habitats etc)
equivalent protection; Regulations 1994.
• any habitat or site afforded policy protection
In this Chapter, this description of significant harm is referred to
under paragraph 13 of Planning Policy Guidance
as an ‘ecological system effect’.
Note 9 (PPG9) on nature conservation (i.e.
candidate Special Areas of Conservation,
potential Special Protection Areas and listed
Ramsar sites); or
• any nature reserve established under section 21
of the National Parks and Access to the
Countryside Act 1949.
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 326

326 Appendices

Table F.1 (cont’d )

Category Type of receptor Description of harm to that type of receptor that is to be

regarded as significant harm

3 Property in the form of: For crops, a substantial diminution in yield or other substantial
loss in their value resulting from death, disease or other physical
• crops, including timber;
damage. For domestic pets, death, serious disease or serious
• produce grown domestically, or on allotments,
physical damage. For other property in this category, a
for consumption;
substantial loss in its value resulting from death, disease or
• livestock;
other serious physical damage.
• other owned or domesticated animals;
• wild animals which are the subject of shooting The local authority should regard a substantial loss in value as
or fishing rights. occurring only when a substantial proportion of the animals
or crops are dead or otherwise no longer fit for their intended
purpose. Food should be regarded as being no longer fit for
purpose when it fails to comply with the provisions of the Food
Safety Act 1990. Where a diminution in yield or loss in value is
caused by a pollutant linkage, a 20% diminution or loss should
be regarded as a benchmark for what constitutes a substantial
diminution or loss.

In this Chapter, this description of significant harm is referred to

as an ‘animal or crop effect’.

4 Property in the form of buildings. Structural failure, substantial damage or substantial

interference with any right of occupation.
For this purpose, ‘building’ means any structure or
erection, and any part of a building including any For this purpose, the local authority should regard substantial
part below ground level, but does not include damage or substantial interference as occurring when any part
plant or machinery comprised in a building. of the building ceases to be capable of being used for the
purpose for which it is or was intended.

Additionally, in the case of a scheduled Ancient Monument,

substantial damage should be regarded as occurring when
the damage significantly impairs the historic, architectural,
traditional, artistic or archaeological interest by reason of
which the monument was scheduled.

In this Chapter, this description of significant harm is referred to

as a ‘building effect’.
SFDD01 7/8/06 5:50 PM Page 327

Appendices 327

Table F.2 Soil Guideline Values (extracted from Environment Agency Publication R&D Reports – see Appendix F,
Table F.8).

Standard land use

Soil Guideline
Value (mg/kg dry Residential Residential Allotments Commercial/
weight soil)a with plant without plant industrial
uptake uptake

Arsenic 20 20 20 500

Cadmium
pH 6 1 30 1 1 400
pH 7 2 30 2 1 400
pH 8 8 30 8 1 400

Chromium 130 200 130 5 000

Ethylbenzene
1% SOM 9 16 18 48 000
2.5% SOM 21 41 43 48 000
5% SOM 41 80 85 48 000

Lead 450 450 450 750

Inorganic
Mercury 8 15 8 480

Nickel 50 75 50 5000

Phenol
1% SOM 78 21 900 80 21 900
2.5% SOM 150 34 400 155 43 000
5% SOM 280 37 300 280 78 100

Selenium 35 260 35 8 000

Toluene
1% SOM 3 3 31 150
2.5% SOM 7 8 73 350
5% SOM 14 15 140 630

a
These values are given here for information only and should not be used without specific reference to the notes and guidance
within the individual reports for the contaminants concerned.
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 328

328 Appendices

Table F.3 Potential inorganic contaminants for the assessment of industrial land and their receptors

Receptors

Contaminantsa
Humans Water Vegetation and Construction
the ecosystem materials

Metals

Barium 3

Beryllium 3 3 3

Cadmium 3 3 3

Chromium 3 3

Copper 3 3

Lead 3 3 3

Mercury 3 3 3

Nickel 3 3 3

Vanadium 3 3

Zinc 3 3

Semi-metals and non-metals

Arsenic 3 3

Boron 3 3

Selenium 3 3 3

Sulfur 3 3 3

Inorganic chemicals

Cyanide (complex) 3 3 3 3

Nitrate 3

Sulfate 3 3 3

Sulfide 3 3 3

Other

Asbestos 3

pH (acidity/alkalinity) 3 3 3 3

Note:
a
The list should not be regarded as a comprehensive list that should be taken into account in any particular site investigation.
Some contaminants will be of no importance on certain types of site, while some sites may be contaminated by elevated
concentrations of particular substances, which may not be selected because of their infrequent occurrence generally.
SFDD01 3/8/06 10:39 AM Page 329

Appendices 329

Table F.4 Potential organic contaminants for the assessment of industrial land and their receptors

Receptors
Contaminantsa
Humans Water Vegetation and Construction
the ecosystem materials

Acetone 3 3
Oil/fuel hydrocarbons 3 3 3 3
Aromatic hydrocarbons
Benzene 3 3 3 3
Chlorophenols 3 3 3 3
Ethylbenzene 3 3 3 3
Phenol 3 3 3 3
Toluene 3 3 3 3
o-xylene 3 3 3 3
m,p-xylene 3 3 3 3
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 3 3
Chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbons
Chloroform 3 3 3
Carbon tetrachloride 3 3 3 3
Vinyl chloride 3 3
1,2-dichloroethane 3 3 3 3
1,1,1-trichloroethane 3 3 3 3
Trichloroethene 3 3 3 3
Tetrachloroethene 3 3 3 3
Hexachlorobuta-1,3-diene 3 3 3
Hexachlorocyclohexanes 3 3 3
Dieldrin 3 3 3
Chlorinated aromatic hydrocarbons
Chlorobenzenes 3 3 3
Chlorotoluenes 3 3 3
Pentachlorophenol 3 3 3
Polychlorinated biphenyls 3 3 3
Dioxins and furans 3 3 3
Organometallics
Organolead compounds 3 3
Organotin compounds 3 3

Note:
a
The list should not be regarded as a comprehensive list that should be taken into account in any particular site investigation.
Some contaminants will be of no importance on certain types of site, while some sites may be contaminated by elevated
concentrations of particular substances, which may not be selected because of their infrequent occurrence generally.

Key contaminants associated with industrial

selected on the basis of frequency of occurrence, existence
uses of land (Tables F.5, F.6)
of hazard information and availability of analytical method
Comprehensive lists of contaminants associated with are listed in Table F.5 (metals, semi-metals and inorganic
industrial uses of land appear in each of 47 industry profiles chemicals) and Table F.6 (organic chemicals). Tables F.5
which are available to download from the Environment and F.6 are reproduced from the Environment Agency/
Agency website (www.environment_agency.gov.uk). The NHBC report on contaminants for the assessment of land.
number of contaminants associated with industrial uses Guidance for the Safe Development of Housing on Land Affected
varies, with some profiles listing over 100 substances. The by Contamination, R&D Publications 66, The Stationery
most significant contaminants associated with each, Office, London.
Table F.5 Metals, semi-metals and inorganic chemicals associated with industrial uses of land

Industry Key contaminants

Metals and semi-metals Inorganic chemicals
− −
As Ba Be Cd Cr Cu Pb Hg Ni Se V Zn CN CN NO3– SO 42– S2– Asbestos B pH So
free complex
330 Appendices

Airports 3 3 3 3 3
Animal and animal products processing works 3 3 3 3 3
Asbestos manufacturing works 3 3
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 330

Ceramics, cement and asphalt manufacturing works 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

Charcoal works 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Chemical works: coatings and printing inks manufacturing works 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Chemical works: cosmetics and toiletries manufacturing works 3 3 3 3 3
Chemical works: disinfectants manufacturing works 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Chemical works: explosives, propellants and pyrotechnics 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
manufacturing works
Chemical works: fertiliser manufacturing works 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Chemical works: fine chemicals manufacturing works 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Chemical works: inorganic chemicals manufacturing works 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Chemical works: linoleum vinyl and bitumen-based floor 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
covering manufacturing works
Chemical works: mastics, sealants, adhesives and roofing felt 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
manufacturing works
Chemical works: organic chemicals manufacturing works 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Chemical works: pesticides manufacturing works 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Chemical works: pharmaceuticals manufacturing works 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Chemical works: rubber processing works (including works 3 3 3
manufacturing tyres and other rubber products)
Chemical works: soap and detergent manufacturing works 3
Dockyards and dockland 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Dry cleaners 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Engineering works: aircraft manufacturing works 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Engineering works: electrical and electronic equipment 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
manufacturing works (including works manufacturing
equipment containing PCBs)
Engineering works: mechanical engineering and ordnance works 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Engineering works: railway engineering works 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Engineering works: shipbuilding repair and shipbreaking 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
(including naval shipyards)
Table F.5 (cont’d )

Industry Key contaminants

Metals and semi-metals Inorganic chemicals
− −
As Ba Be Cd Cr Cu Pb Hg Ni Se V Zn CN CN NO3– SO 42– S2– Asbestos B pH So
free complex
Engineering works: vehicle manufacturing works 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Fibreglass and fibreglass resin manufacturing works 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 331

Gasworks, coke works and other coal carbonisation plants

Glass manufacturing works 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Metal manufacturing, refining and finishing works: 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
electroplating and other metal finishing work
Metal manufacturing, refining and finishing works: iron and 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
steel works
Metal manufacturing, refining and finishing works: lead works 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Metal manufacturing, refining and finishing works: non-ferrous 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
metals (excluding lead works)
Metal manufacturing, refining and finishing works: precious 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
metal recovery works
Oil refineries and bulk storage of crude oil and petroleum products 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Photographic processing industry 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Power stations (excluding nuclear power stations) 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Printing and bookbinding works 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Pulp and paper manufacturing works 3 3 3 3 3 3
Railway land 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Road vehicle servicing and repair: garages and filling stations 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Road vehicle servicing and repair: transport and haulage centres 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Sewage works and sewage farms 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Textile works and dye works 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Timber products manufacturing works 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Timber treatment works 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Waste recycling, treatment and disposal sites: drum and tank 3 3
cleaning and recycling plants
Waste recycling, treatment and disposal sites: hazardous waste 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
treatment plants
Waste recycling, treatment and disposal sites: landfills and 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
other waste treatment or waste disposal sites
Waste recycling, treatment and disposal sites: solvent 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
recovery works
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Appendices 331

Waste recycling, treatment and disposal sites: metal recycling sites

Table F.6 Organic chemicals associated with industrial uses of land
Industry Key contaminants
Phenol Propanone Chlorophenols Oil/fuel Aromatic PAHs Chlorinated α, β & γ Dieldrin Chlorinated PCBs Dioxins & Organolead Organotin
hydrocarbons hydrocarbons aliphatic hexachloro- aromatic furans compounds compounds
hydrocarbons cyclohexane hydrocarbons
Airports 3 3 3 3 3
332 Appendices

Animal and animal products 3 3 3 3 3

processing works
Asbestos manufacturing works 3 3 3 3
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 332

Ceramics, cement and asphalt 3 3 3 3

manufacturing works
Charcoal works 3 3 3 3
Chemical works: coatings and 3 3 3 3 3
printing inks manufacturing works
Chemical works: cosmetics and 3 3 3 3
toiletries manufacturing works
Chemical works: disinfectants 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
manufacturing works
Chemical works: explosives, 3 3 3 3 3 3
propellants and pyrotechnics
manufacturing works
Chemical works: fertiliser 3 3 3
manufacturing works
Chemical works: fine chemicals 3 3 3 3 3 3
manufacturing works
Chemical works: inorganic chemicals 3
manufacturing works
Chemical works: linoleum vinyl and 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
bitumen-based floor covering
manufacturing works
Chemical works: mastics, sealants, 3 3 3 3 3
adhesives and roofing felt
manufacturing works
Chemical works: organic chemicals 3 3 3 3
manufacturing works
Chemicals works: pesticides 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
manufacturing works
Chemical works: pharmaceuticals 3 3 3 3 3 3
manufacturing works
Chemical works: rubber processing 3 3 3 3
works (including works
manufacturing tyres and
other rubber products)
Table F.6 (cont’d )
Industry Key contaminants
Phenol Propanone Chlorophenols Oil/fuel Aromatic PAHs Chlorinated α, β & γ Dieldrin Chlorinated PCBs Dioxins & Organolead Organotin
hydrocarbons hydrocarbons aliphatic hexachloro- aromatic furans compounds compounds
hydrocarbons cyclohexane hydrocarbons
Chemical works: soap and detergent 3 3 3 3
manufacturing works
Dockyards and dockland 3 3 3 3 3 3
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 333

Dry cleaners 3 3 3
Engineering works: aircraft 3 3 3
manufacturing works
Engineering works: electrical and 3 3 3
electronic equipment manufacturing
works (including works
manufacturing equipment
containing PCBs)
Engineering works: mechanical 3 3 3 3 3 3
engineering and ordnance works
Engineering works: railway 3 3 3 3
engineering works
Engineering works: shipbuilding 3 3 3 3 3
repair and shipbreaking
(including naval shipyards)
Engineering works: vehicle 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
manufacturing works
Fibreglass and fibreglass resin 3 3 3 3 3
manufacturing works
Gasworks, coke works and other 3 3 3
coal carbonisation plants
Glass manufacturing works 3 3 3 3
Metal manufacturing, refining and 3 3 3
finishing works: electroplating and
other metal finishing works
Metal manufacturing, refining and 3 3 3 3 3
finishing works: iron and steel works
Metal manufacturing, refining and 3 3 3
finishing works: lead works
Metal manufacturing, refining and 3 3 3 3
finishing works: non-ferrous metals
(excluding lead works)
Metal manufacturing, refining and 3 3 3
finishing works: precious metal
recovery works
Appendices 333
Table F.6 (cont’d )
Industry Key contaminants
Phenol Propanone Chlorophenols Oil/fuel Aromatic PAHs Chlorinated α, β & γ Dieldrin Chlorinated PCBs Dioxins & Organolead Organotin
334 Appendices

hydrocarbons hydrocarbons aliphatic hexachloro- aromatic furans compounds compounds

hydrocarbons cyclohexane hydrocarbons
Oil refineries and bulk storage of 3 3 3 3 3 3
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 334

crude oil and petroleum products

Photographic processing industry 3 3 3 3
Power stations (excluding nuclear 3 3 3 3
power stations)
Printing and bookbinding works 3 3 3 3
Pulp and paper manufacturing works 3 3 3 3 3 3
Railway land 3 3 3
Road vehicle servicing and repair: 3 3 3 3 3 3
garages and filling stations
Road vehicle servicing and repair: 3 3 3 3 3 3
transport and haulage centres
Sewage works and sewage farms 3 3 3 3
Textile works and dye works 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Timber products manufacturing 3 3 3 3
works
Timber treatment works 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Waste recycling, treatment and 3 3 3
disposal sites: drum and tank
cleaning and recycling plants
Waste recycling, treatment and 3 3 3 3 3 3
disposal sites: hazardous waste
treatment plants
Waste recycling, treatment and 3 3 3 3 3 3
disposal sites: landfills and other
waste treatment or waste disposal
sites
Waste recycling, treatment and 3 3
disposal sites: solvent recovery works
Waste recycling, treatment and 3 3 3
disposal sites: metal recycling sites
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 335

Appendices 335

Table F.7 Characteristics and effects of hazardous gases (Leach, B.A. & Goodger, H.K.: Building on Derelict Land,
CIRIA SP78 (1991))

Gas Characteristics Effect Special features

Methane colourless asphyxiant flammable limits 5–15% in air

odourless can explode in confined spaces
lighter than air toxic to vegetation due to deoxygenation
of root zone

Carbon dioxide colourless toxic can build up in pits and excavations

odourless asphyxiant corrosive in solution to metals and concrete
denser than air comparatively readily soluble

Hydrogen sulfide colourless highly toxic flammable

‘rotten egg’ smell explosive limits 4.3–4.5% in air
denser than air causes olfactory fatigue (loss of smell) at 20 p.p.m.
toxic limits reached without odour warning
soluble in water and solvents
toxic to plants

Hydrogen colourless non-toxic highly flammable

odourless asphyxiant explosive limits 4–7.5% in air
lighter than air

Carbon monoxide colourless highly toxic flammable limits 12–75% in air

odourless product of incomplete combustion

Sulfur dioxide colourless respiratory irritation corrosive in solution

pungent smell toxic

Hydrogen cyanide colourless highly toxic flammable

faint ‘almond’ smell explosive

Fuel gases colourless non-toxic but narcotic flammable/explosive

‘petrol’ smell may cause anoxaemia at concentrations
above 30% in air

Organic vapours colourless carcinogenic flammable/explosive

(e.g. benzene) ‘paint’ smell toxic can cause dizziness after short exposure
narcotic have high vapour pressure
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336 Appendices

Table F.8 Summary of Contaminated Land Exposure Assessment (CLEA) R&D publications

These publications can be downloaded from the Environment Agency website (www.environment-agency.gov.uk).

CLR7
Assessment of risks to human health from land contamination: an overview of the development of guideline values and related
research. Published March 2002.

CLR8
Priority contaminants report. Published March 2002.

CLR9
Contaminants in soil: collation of toxicological data and intake values for humans. Published March 2002.

CLR10 and CLEA UK Software

The contaminated land exposure assessment model (CLEA): technical basis and algorithms. Published March 2002.

CLR 11
Model Procedures for the Management of Land Contamination.

SGV1 Arsenic
Soil Guideline Values for arsenic contamination. Published March 2002.

SGV3 Cadmium
Soil Guideline Values for cadmium contamination. Published March 2002.

SVG4 Chromium
Soil Guideline Values for chromium contamination. Published March 2002.

SGV5 Inorganic Mercury

Soil Guideline Values for compounds of inorganic mercury contamination. Published March 2002.

SGV7 Nickel
Soil Guideline Values for nickel contamination. Published March 2002.

SGV8 Phenol
Soil Guideline Values for phenol contamination. Published October 2005.

SGV9 Selenium
Soil Guideline Values for selenium contamination. Published March 2002.

SGV10 Lead
Soil Guideline Values for lead contamination. Published March 2002.

SGV 15 Toluene
Soil Guideline Values for toluene contamination. Published December 2004.

SGV 16 Ethylbenzene
Soil Guideline Values for ethylbenzene contamination. Republished April 2005.

Appendix F.9: Example of a site investigation Former industrial site

of a former industrial site for development as
a supermarket or housing with gardens Objectives

Reproduced with permission from BS 10175, 2001, Investiga- A former industrial site is to be redeveloped. The site is
tion of potentially contaminated sites – code of practice. BSI, roughly rectangular in shape with dimensions of 150 m ×
London. 300 m (4.5 hectares). A plan of the site is given in Fig. F.1.

The following example is intended to illustrate typical site The objective of the investigation is to assess the nature and
investigation scenarios and demonstrate how the guidance extent of contamination of the soil and groundwater, in
in this standard can be applied. It is not intended to be sufficient detail to design remediation works to be under-
prescriptive. Particularly in the case of a main investigation, taken as part of the site’s redevelopment.
the spacing of sample locations and the number of samples
Two different redevelopment options are being considered:
analysed should be determined by the objectives of the
investigation, the risk assessment requirements and the Option 1: supermarket
agreed confidence level with which the contamination Option 2: private housing with gardens
needs to be characterized.
Strategy for the investigation

The investigation will be undertaken in phases. The first

phase will be the preliminary investigation, comprising desk
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 337

Appendices 337

FOUL
WATER

OFFICES EFFLUENT FILL

TREATMENT FINISH
PLANT CHEMICALS
PACKING
STORE

FINISH
PAINTING
OFFICES

RAW FORMING FUEL T.C.E. DEGREASING PLATING

FUEL
DIESEL
? FUEL BUND

SURFACE N
WATER

Fig. F.1 Site plan.

study, site reconnaissance, and formulation of the initial The requirements for the contamination investigations
conceptual model and risk assessment. The reconnaissance will be integrated with geotechnical investigations of the
visit will be undertaken following the collection and review site (although these geotechnical investigations are not
of readily available information, and following initial discussed below).
enquiries to parties with site-specific information. During
the site reconnaissance visit, the reconnaissance team will Preliminary investigation
be equipped to take surface samples of discoloured ground
A preliminary investigation has been carried out and has
and of any piles of waste for laboratory testing, and also to
revealed the following historical information and initial
take water samples from ponds and adjacent streams.
conceptual model.

It is very unlikely that the preliminary investigation will The site was progressively developed over a period of
be sufficient to meet the investigation objectives, and an 60 years. Buildings now cover half of the site area and
exploratory investigation will be undertaken. The scope and hardstandings and internal roadways cover much of the
methods of the exploratory investigation will be established remainder. Some drawings of the plant layout at different
by the preliminary investigation. It will include soil and times exist, and this information has been supplemented
groundwater sampling and laboratory testing. Demolition with collection and interpretation of a sequence of histori-
of existing buildings on the site will not have taken place by cal aerial photographs.
the time the exploratory investigation is undertaken. The raw and process materials used at the site have encom-
passed a wide range of hazardous substances, many in liquid
The exploratory investigation may (or may not) be sufficient form. Of special note, either in relation to the quantities used,
to meet the objectives for redevelopment of the site as a or the degree of hazard, are trichlorethylene (TCE) and
supermarket. However, the results are very unlikely to be other solvents, electroplating chemicals and heating oils.
sufficient to design the remediation for housing redevelop-
The site has a complex system of chemical drains and
ment on the site. If further investigation is deemed neces-
sumps, as well as foul and surface water drainage systems
sary, a main investigation will be undertaken to collect all
(including an effluent treatment plant). An area of former
the outstanding information. The scope and method of
waste disposal or dumping has been identified in one
this main investigation will be assessed and defined at the
corner of the site.
conclusion of the exploratory investigation. The main investiga-
tion will be undertaken after the existing buildings are Previous geotechnical investigations have revealed the
demolished to slab level. following sequence of strata at the site.
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338 Appendices

Depth Comments There will be a direct pollutant linkage between ground

0.0 m to 1.5 m Fill, including demolition waste. contamination and the groundwater in the alluvial sands.
1.5 m to 3.0 m Alluvial silty sands with varying propor- However, the stiff clay layer is expected to provide a barrier
tions of gravel and clay in different areas to downward migration of contaminants, although path-
of the site. ways to the sandstone could exist due to sandy lenses in
3.0 m to 6.0 m Glacial till, generally comprising stiff the glacial till and deep foundations. There is therefore the
clay but with occasional sandy lenses. possibility of the deeper aquifer having been affected by the
6.0 m to >20 m Sandstone. migration of contamination.

Groundwater occurs within the overlying alluvial sandy The proposal for redevelopment requires consideration of
layer at a depth of 2.0 m to 2.5 m, and also within the the potential for new migration routes to be formed. The
underlying sandstone bedrock at a piezometric head equal removal of the existing hard landscape could result in
to 14 m below ground level. The sandstone is classified as a exposure of workers during redevelopment, future users
major aquifer and several industrial abstraction licences and occupiers and new buildings and structures. These
are extant within 1 km of the site. The groundwater in the possibilities will need to be addressed in the ensuing site
overlying alluvial sandy layer is classified as a minor aquifer investigation.
with limited exploitation potential. The site and adjacent
areas are essentially flat and groundwater level measure- Design and planning of field investigations
ments made during the geotechnical investigations reveal a
negligible groundwater gradient (and therefore flow) later- General
ally across the site in the overlying alluvial layer.
For a complex site of this size and nature, and with such a
The initial conceptual model indicates the existence of the high potential level of contamination, a phased investiga-
following potential sources of contamination: tion approach is essential. The number of phases and their
• The storage areas for fuel, TCE and chemicals scope is likely to depend on a combination of technical and
• The process areas where degreasing and plating have operational issues (such as access, planning permission,
been carried out ownership, financing, etc.).
• The waste disposal area and the wastewater drains
• The effluent treatment plant Option 1: supermarket

Contamination in these areas can also be expected due to The first phase of intrusive investigation (the exploratory
local spillage and indiscriminate discharges. The initial con- investigation) is expected to be sufficient to test the con-
ceptual model therefore defines discrete areas of local impact ceptual model of contamination and to provide enough
of the fill and alluvial sands by the identified contaminants. information to assess the general suitability of the site for
The shallow groundwater is also expected to be affected, the proposed hard form of development (including indica-
particularly locally to the sumps and drains and the process tive costs of remediation).
area. There could be areas of floating product as well as a The conceptual model indicates the possibility of contamina-
variable vertical profile of contamination in the shallow tion associated with several identified localized sources
groundwater, due to the relative densities and solubilities including electroplating chemicals (copper, nickel, zinc,
of the different potential contaminants on the site. There cadmium, cyanide, chromic acid, acids and alkalis, etc.),
could also be volatile organic compounds (VOCs), methane solvent (TCE), fuel oil (diesel and heavy heating oil) and
and carbon dioxide in the fill and sand above the ground- deposited waste. The contamination is assessed as likely to
water level. have impacted on the fill and alluvium, and the superficial
The water receptors identified in the initial conceptual model groundwater above the glacial till. Due to the uncertainty of
for the existing (derelict) site condition, and for the redevel- the permeability of the alluvium and the glacial till, deeper
oped site, are the shallow groundwater in the alluvial sands penetration (of the TCE in particular), could be present.
and the major aquifer in the sandstone. However, the possibility of migration of cyanides and
metals also needs to be considered.
There are no streams crossing or adjacent to the site, and
the site is currently enclosed by secure fencing. Present In terms of the proposed development with hard landscape,
adjacent land uses are commercial (warehousing), a major the areas of potential risk that require assessment are:
road and gardens of private houses on one side. Therefore
• The possibility of VOCs (solvents and ground gases)
human receptors in the initial conceptual model for the
affecting the development after construction
existing condition are limited to persons off-site, notably
• The possibility of chemicals (cyanides, chromates, met-
residents of the adjacent houses, pedestrians on the road
als, acids and alkalis), oil and solvents affecting workers
pavement, and employees at the commercial premises. The
during construction
initial conceptual model for the redeveloped site additionally
• The possibility of acids affecting the concrete
has either employees, customers and maintenance workers
• The potential for contamination of the underlying
at the supermarket, or residents and visitors to the private
aquifer
housing, as human receptors. During the construction phase,
both construction workers (in particular ground workers) The exploratory and subsequent main investigation are
and site neighbours will be the human receptor groups. consequently designed to produce information on these
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 339

Appendices 339

identified hazards so that the actual risk can be assessed samples will be collected at 1 m depth intervals. The on-site
and the need for remediation determined. environmental scientist is given instructions to take addi-
tional samples as necessary on the basis of any on-site
The proposed development envisages demolition and
observations.
removal of buildings, hardstandings and foundations.
There is a proposal to crush all demolition material and use During borehole formation, atmospheres are monitored
this as hardcore for the new development. However, this at 1.0 m intervals for methane, carbon dioxide and oxygen
creates several additional potential risks. If brickwork and deficiency and also with a PID monitor with an 11.7 EV
concrete in the processing area have been penetrated by the lamp (chosen to include sensitivity to chlorinated solvents).
various chemicals, hazards could be presented during the Pre-weighed sample containers (including some with sol-
crushing process and also during the subsequent re-use vent specifically for TCE collection) are used. Sampling and
of the crushed material. This aspect will also need to be analysis of at least five solid samples at each location plus
addressed as a part of the investigation process but is out- analysis of groundwater will provide data on the antici-
side the scope of this illustration. pated localized sources of contamination and also on the
general nature of contamination across the site.
Since particular sources of potential contamination have
been identified by the preliminary investigation, the exploratory On this spacing, significant areas of contamination (up to
investigation will comprise targeted sampling of the overly- 2500 m2) could be missed. However, this is considered
ing fill, alluvial soils, shallow groundwater and underlying acceptable within the remit of the exploratory investigation.
groundwater at locations of potential contamination. The information from this exploratory investigation is
Boreholes are selected as the appropriate method of sample used to:
collection, taking into account: (a) substantiate the conceptual model of contaminant dis-
(a) the presence of existing buildings; tribution formulated after the preliminary investigation
(b) the presence of extensive hard landscape; (desk study);
(c) the need for collection of perched water samples; (b) assess the viability of the proposed development;
(d) the need for collection of samples of groundwater from (c) identify areas of the site that require more detailed
the underlying aquifer; investigation:
(e) the desirability of checking the ground for the presence (i) for delineation of areas of high or specific
of methane, carbon dioxide and VOCs; contamination;
(f) the nature and geology of the ground to be (ii) for provision of information for a risk assessment;
investigated. (iii) for the formulation of a suitable remediation
strategy.
Initial borehole locations are selected on a targeted basis.
These are designed to investigate the areas of oil storage The results from the exploratory investigation show there is
(three boreholes), TCE storage (two boreholes), TCE usage significant localized contamination of the overlying ground
(only one borehole is possible due to access restrictions), and the shallow groundwater aquifer, in particular around
the effluent treatment area (two boreholes) and the area of the fuel storage tanks, in the area of TCE usage and in
waste deposit (two boreholes). the electroplating area. The exploratory investigation did
not, however, detect contamination of the deeper aquifer,
Where the boreholes penetrate the glacial till they are nor was any contamination of the shallow groundwater
formed with a bentonite plug at the base of the alluvium. detected at the area of TCE storage. Elsewhere across the
Drilling is continued with a smaller diameter hole inside site there were locally elevated levels of heavy metals and
the original casing in order to minimize the possibility of hydrocarbons in soils, but not generally significantly above
forming contaminant migration routes. generic screening levels for hard forms of development.
Additional non-targeted boreholes are considered neces- On the basis of the findings of the exploratory investigation it
sary to obtain a more general assessment of the site and to is determined that a further main investigation is required to
ascertain how the actual contamination correlates with the provide more detailed information on the site for the risk
conceptual model. A further 18 boreholes are postulated on assessment and remediation works, including delineation
the basis of a 50 m centre grid. However, some of these loca- of contamination hotspots and plumes.
tions are not accessible due to existing buildings and poten-
The main investigation is carried out when the whole site
tially live services. Some of the inaccessible locations can
becomes available, after demolition of the buildings but
be accommodated by relocation by a few metres (from the
before removal of the hard landscape.
original point), providing effective sampling in relation to
the grid. As a consequence of the postulated 18 boreholes, The main investigation involves:
only 14 are actually installed.
• An additional 16 sample locations (boreholes) radiating
Thus the exploratory investigation comprises 10 boreholes, from the fuel storage tanks (with provision for four fur-
located for targeted judgmental sampling, and a further 14, ther sampling locations if a plume of contamination is
located on an approximate 50 m centre grid. Samples are indicated);
collected at 0.5 m depth intervals between 0.5 m below • An additional 16 sample locations (boreholes) around
existing ground and 1 m into the glacial till. It is anti- the area of TCE usage with provision for four further
cipated that from that point to the base of the boreholes, sample locations if a plume is indicated.
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340 Appendices

[The exploratory investigation did not detect groundwater The potential for VOCs to have an impact on a housing
contamination in the deeper aquifer and so at each of these development through ingress into the buildings will be
locations, the four outermost boreholes (of the 16) are regarded as of greater significance and therefore lower
formed into the underlying aquifer to confirm absence of acceptable concentration thresholds will be applied. Also,
contamination.] the potential for chemicals to be present in garden areas
requires thorough investigation and assessment. With a
The electroplating area is subject to more specific examina- housing development, there will also be a greater impact
tion and the drains running to the effluent treatment plant due to increased infiltration of rainwater. This could
are also targeted. adversely affect contamination migration, particularly on
the shallow aquifer. Commercial and public perception
At the location of the TCE storage there was no indication
issues may also affect the intensity of investigation and
of ground or groundwater contamination and so only an
remediation undertaken on housing redevelopment sites.
additional two boreholes are considered necessary to
confirm the absence of TCE contamination at this location. For the exploratory investigation similar procedures to those
used for Option 1 are followed. However, because there is
Taking into account the 14 sample locations already a need to define the contamination status with a greater
installed on the 50 m grid, the main investigation entails a degree of confidence at an earlier stage, a greater intensity
further 50 sample locations providing a 25 m grid. These of sampling and testing is carried out.
can all now be accurately located on the 25 m grid pattern
The targeted sampling is not greatly increased. However,
by breaking through the concrete hardstanding. In addition
the non-targeted sampling is carried out on the basis of a
a further nine trial pits are undertaken to provide a more
grid at 25 m centres (rather than 50 m for Option 1), with the
detailed investigation of the electroplating area and the
proviso that within building footprints this either will not
waste deposit area.
be practicable, or will involve the use of specialist equip-
It is possible to carry out the targeted sampling of the drain ment for sampling (for example, low headroom boreholing
runs using locations that coincide with the 25 m grid. equipment, or sampling with portable equipment through
However, at grid points around the three locations where pre-cored holes).
contamination of shallow groundwater was identified by Because of the increased number of sample locations and
the exploratory investigation, monitoring wells are formed the associated cost and the relative importance of the over-
within boreholes. Boreholes are also positioned upstream lying layer to future human receptors, a greater proportion
of, and at the downstream boundaries adjacent to, these of the sampling points are trial pits, in place of some of the
locations so that a model of the groundwater contamina- boreholes. However, the siting of the trial pits has to con-
tion can be formulated. sider the costs of breaking out concrete hardstanding and
reinstatement of trial pit locations to ensure that the loca-
With the exceptions of the locations indicated, sampling is
tions are satisfactorily sealed to prevent the formation of
carried out by use of trial pits. Where contaminated shallow
migration routes (due to rainwater infiltration). It is also
groundwater was identified, additional trial pits are
necessary to reinstate the area to enable large articulated
formed 15 m from the original sampling location, to help
wagons to drive over the locations if parts of the site are still
locate the source of the contamination. Provision is also
in use.
made, during backfilling, to prevent excessive rainwater
penetration of the hardstanding. This minimizes con- For the main investigation the targeted examination in the
tamination migration before remediation begins. ‘hot spot’ areas is carried out as already described, though
additional non-targeted sampling points are required due
Samples are collected at the same depths, and follow the to the need for greater confidence in the risk assessment
strategy used in the exploratory investigation. As with the findings.
exploratory investigation, at least five solid samples plus
samples of groundwater are analysed for each location. Assuming a proposed development layout has been drawn
This analytical requirement is necessary to obtain sufficient up, the main investigation includes sampling at a maximum
data to be able to carry out the risk assessment with a of 10 m centres in the garden areas, particularly in the
satisfactory degree of confidence. suspect areas of TCE storage, chemical storage, electroplat-
ing and waste disposal. Locations that could not be pre-
viously investigated due to the standing buildings, are now
Option 2: housing with gardens included. This greater number of sample locations are
investigated either by trial pits or window sampling.
Investigation requirements for a housing redevelopment
Samples are collected down to the top of the glacial till,
are more extensive than for a hard form of commercial
unless there are indications of deeper contamination.
development because of the higher potential health risks to
human receptors on the redeveloped site. These higher risks If the layout of the proposed development is not known,
arise from more direct contaminant-pathway-receptor link- sampling and investigation of garden areas could be
ages in garden areas, greater exposure times, and more carried out as a supplementary investigation when a plan
sensitive receptor groups (e.g. children). becomes available.
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 341

G Factors of Safety

In Chapter 1, section 1.5.1, it is stated that ‘the designer Figure 10.20 is also repeated here as Fig. G.1. It shows the
should exercise his or her judgement in choice of safety fac- relationship between the ratio of dead or imposed load
tor’. Since judgement is built up by experience over many to total load and the combined partial load factors γP (for
years, Table G.1 is included here as a guide to younger superstructure loads only), γF (for foundation loads only)
engineers. and γT (for total loads). Figure G.1 is only suitable for use
with the dead plus superimposed loading condition.

Table G.1 Typical safety factors

Material × Load = Overall

(Beneficial) Adverse Adverse

(1) Engineering soils

(a) Safe bearing pressure — — 2.5 to 3
(b) Piles — — 3
(c) Retaining wall (i) sliding — — 2 to 3
(ii) overturning — — 1.5 to 2
(d) Stability of slopes — — 1.5 to 2

(2) Structural materials

Designed for dead and imposed loading

(a) Structural steel (BS 5950) 1.0 (1.0) 1.4 to 1.6 1.4 to 1.6
(b) Concrete (BS 8110) 1.5 (1.0) 1.4 to 1.6 2.1 to 2.4
(c) Reinforcement (BS 8110) 1.05 1.4 to 1.6 1.6 to 1.8
(d) Masonry (BS 5628 – part 1) 2.5 to 3.5 (0.9) 1.4 to 1.6 3.5 to 2.9

Designed for dead and wind loading

(a) Structural steel (BS 5950) 1.0 (1.0) 1.4 1.4
(e) Concrete (BS 8110) 1.5 (1.0) 1.4 2.1
(f) Reinforcement (BS 8110) 1.05 1.4 1.5
(g) Masonry (BS 5628 – part 1) 2.5 to 3.5 (0.9) 1.4 3.5 to 4.9

Designed for dead, imposed and wind loading

(a) Structural steel (BS 5950) 1.0 1.2 1.2
(b) Concrete (BS 8110) 1.5 1.2 1.8
(c) Masonry (BS 5628 – part 1) 2.5 to 3.5 1.2 3.0 to 4.2

Designed for accidental loads

(a) Structural steel (BS 5950) 1.0 1.05 1.05
(b) Concrete (BS 8110) 1.3 1.05 1.37
(c) Reinforcement (BS 8110) 1.0 1.05 1.05
(d) Masonry (BS 5628 – part 1) 1.2 to 1.75 1.00 1.25 to 1.75
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342 Appendices

100 0

dead + imposed

dead + imposed
75 25

imposed

dead
50 50
% of

% of
25 75

0 100
1.4 1.45 1.5 1.55 1.6
combined partial load factors γP, γF, γT

Fig. G.1 Combined partial load factors.

SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 343

H Design Charts for Pad and

Strip Foundations

Figure H.1 – sizing of pad and strip bases requirement of 0.13 to a moderate value of 1.0 (values
greater than 1.0 can be used in the design of reinforced
This design chart gives a quick analysis of the relationship
concrete elements but are outside the scope of these charts).
between axial loading and bending moments to find the
The charts are based on a uniform bearing pressure and
required size of base. The chart works equally for total
the requirements of BS 8110 and incorporate an average
loads with total allowable bearing pressures and for sup-
partial safety factor γp = 1.5 (the superstructure loads used
erstructure loads with net allowable bearing pressures
in the charts do not therefore need to be factored).
(providing the weight of foundation and backfill is approx-
imately equal to the weight of soil removed and that the Note that these charts are intended to enable the effective
resultant eccentricity is less than L/6 if superstructure loads depth to be estimated and are not for direct calculations of
only are considered). 100(As/bd); this should be derived by calculation of the
design moments and shears and the use of BS 8110.
The chart is used by first calculating the value of T/ta (total
load/total allowable bearing pressure) or P/pa (superstruc-
Figure H.2 – bending
ture load/net allowable bearing pressure) and the corre-
sponding eccentricity eT or eP. The length of base has to be The value of PL/B (superstructure load × length/breadth)
assumed and the value e/L calculated. The value of T/ta or is calculated and read on the y-axis. A line is then taken
P/pa is read on the y-axis and a line is taken horizontally to horizontally to meet the curve for the required value of
meet the appropriate e/L line from where a vertical line 100(As/bd) and a vertical line taken from this point to read
is dropped and the value of area required is read from the the required effective depth on the x-axis.
x-axis.
Figure H.3 – beam shear
Note that the dotted line area indicates where there is
partial zero pressure under the base and that no values are The value of P is read on the y-axis and a line taken horizont-
given for bases where e/L > –13 , as overturning of the base is ally to meet the required 100(As/bd) curve applicable to the
likely to become critical in this area. base length L, then a vertical line is dropped from this point
to read the required value of effective depth from the x-axis.
Examples of the use of the chart in Fig. H.1 are given in
Design Examples 5 and 6 in Chapter 11.
Figure H.4 – punching shear
Figures H.2, H.3 and H.4 – preliminary The chart in this figure is used in the same manner as the
estimation of effective depth required for chart in Fig. H.3.
reinforced pad bases in bending
Choice of effective depth
These design charts give a preliminary estimate of the
effective depth required of a pad foundation in bending, The highest value of effective depth from Figs H.2 to H.4
beam shear and punching shear respectively, given the should then be used in the design of the pad foundation.
superstructure load and the desired 100(As /bd). Values
An example of the use of the charts in Figs H.2 to H.4 is
of 100(As/bd) range from the minimum reinforcement
given in Design Example 4 in Chapter 11.
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 344

344 Appendices

0.025
e /L = 0.00 0.05 0.075 0.1
5 1/6

4.5 0.2
0 < e /L < 1/6:
fully in compression
4

0.25

3.5
LOAD/BEARING PRESSURE (m2)

3 0.3
= T/t (all eccentricities) or

2.5 1/3
= P/p (e/L < 1/6)

1.5

1/6 < e/L:

partial zero pressure
1

0.5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
AREA OF BASE A = BL (m2 )

Fig. H.1 Sizing of pad and strip bases.

 5000
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 345

4500

.0
=1
.75
4000

/bd
=0

S
0A
.5

10
=0
4
3500

0.
=
3
0.
3000 =

2
0.
2500 =

.13
2000 =0

1500

SUPERSTRUCTURE LOAD × (L/B)

= PL/B (kNm/m)
1000

500

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
EFFECTIVE DEPTH d (mm) CONCRETE GRADE 35
REINFORCEMENT GRADE 460

Fig. H.2 Estimation of effective depth – reinforced pad base in bending.

Appendices 345
 AREA A = 1.0 m2 A = 4.0 m2 A = 16.0 m2
346 Appendices

5000
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 346

4500

4000

1.0
3500

= 0.13
.5

1.0

= 0.5
.25
.13

= 0.1
=0

d=

/bd =
=0

s
=0

s /b
A
3000

00

100A

100As /bd = 1.0

1
2500

2000

SUPERSTRUCTURE LOAD
= P (kN)
1500

1000

500

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

EFFECTIVE DEPTH d (mm) CONCRETE GRADE 35

REINFORCEMENT GRADE 460
Fig. H.3 Estimation of effective depth – reinforced pad base in beam shear.
 AREA A = 1.0 m2 A = 4.0 m2 A = 16.0 m2
5000
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 347

4500

4000

1.0
3500

= 0.13
.5

1.0

= 0.5
.25
.13

= 0.1
=0

d=

/bd =
=0

s
=0

s /b
A
3000

00

100A

100As /bd = 1.0

1
2500

2000

SUPERSTRUCTURE LOAD
= P (kN)
1500

1000

500

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

EFFECTIVE DEPTH d (mm) CONCRETE GRADE 35

REINFORCEMENT GRADE 460

Fig. H.4 Estimation of effective depth – reinforced pad base in punching shear.
Appendices 347
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 348

J Table of Ground Beam Trial Sizes

Table J.1 quotes bending moments (for factored loads) Table J.1 Ground beam bending moment capacities
which produce a balanced design (i.e. no compression (in kNm) – balanced design
reinforcement) based on Clause 3.4.4.4 of BS 8110, using the
formula: Effective Width of proposed beam (mm)
depth, d (mm)
Mu = 0.156 × bd 2 × fcu 300 600 900

where fcu = 30 kN/mm2.

200 56 112 168
Having selected a trial section, the tension reinforcement 300 126 253 379
can be calculated using As = Mu/(0.95fy z). 400 225 449 674
500 351 702 1053
600 505 1011 1516
700 688 1376 2064
800 898 1797 2696
900 1137 2274 3411
1000 1404 2808 4212
1100 1699 3398 5097
1200 2022 4044 6066

Characteristic (unfactored) loads can be factored for use in

calculating bending moments for this table by using the
combined partial safety factor derived from the graph shown
in Fig. G.1 in Appendix G.
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 349

K Design Graphs and Charts for Raft

Foundations Spanning Local Depressions

The reader is advised to read the text in Chapter 13 before Table K.2 and multiply each by the appropriate moment
using these charts. The charts and figures are repeated here factor Km which is also obtained from Table K.2.
for quick reference and the following is an aide-mémoire for (4) Sum the results from (3) above to give ∑(TuKm) and
the experienced user of the procedure. use Fig. K.2 for slabs with top reinforcement only and
Fig. K.3 for slabs with top and bottom reinforcement to
(1) Select the required design span of the depression determine the area of reinforcement required for the
based on the engineer’s experience and using Table K.1 selected effective depth. Note that the area of reinforce-
and/or Fig. K.1 as a guide. ment is required in both directions (i.e. a square mesh is
(2) If there is no bottom reinforcement in the slab, use the needed).
chart on the right of Fig. K.1 to select the minimum (5) If heavy point or line loads are present, a shear capacity
effective depth required. check should also be undertaken.
(3) For each loading type on the area under consideration, (6) A similar design process is adopted for designing raft
calculate the total factored load on the design span from beams, using Table K.3 and Figs K.4 and K.5.
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 350

350 Appendices

slabs with top

reinforcement only
minimum allowable
effective depth (mm)
4.0 4.0

225
assumed diameter of depression (m)

200

design span of depression L (m)

3.0 3.0

soil c 175
lassi
ficat
ion
D 150

2.0 2.0
125
C
100
B
75
1.0 1.0
A

0 0
0 0.5 1.0
depth of hardcore/compacted material h fill (m)

Fig. K.1 Design span for local depression. For soil classifications see below.

Table K.1 Design diameter for local depression

Soil classification Soil type Assumed diameter

of depression (m)

A One only of: clay, 1.0–1.5

Consistent firm sand, gravel, sandy
sub-soil clay, clayey sand

B One only of: clay, 1.5–2.0

Consistent soil sand, gravel, sandy
type but variable clay, clayey sand
density, i.e. loose
to firm

C Two or more of: clay, 2.0–2.5

Variable soil type sand, gravel, sandy
but firm clay, clayey sand

D Two or more of: clay, 2.5–3.5

Variable soil sand, gravel, sandy
type and variable clay, clayey sand
density
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 351

Appendices 351

Table K.2 Load types and moment factors for raft slabs spanning over a depression of diameter L

Top reinforcement only Top and bottom

Km
reinforcement

T1 TB1

Uniformly
distributed load 1.0
fS (kN/m2)

FS = fS(πL2/4) FS = fS(πL2/4)

T2 TB2

Parallel line
1.5
load P (kN/m)

∑ P = PL ∑ P = PL

T3 TB3

Lateral line
1.5
load P (kN/m)

∑ P = PL ∑ P = PL

T4 TB4

2 way line
1.5
load P (kN/m)

∑ P = 2PL ∑ P = 2PL

T5 TB5

Point load P (kN) 2.0

∑P=P ∑P=P
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 352

352 Appendices

d = 225
500
d = 200

450

d = 175

400

d = 150
350

d = 125
300
∑ (KmTu)

250
d = 100

200

d = 75
150

100

50

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

AREA OF REINFORCEMENT EACH WAY = AS (mm /m)

2

CONCRETE GRADE 35
REINFORCEMENT GRADE 460

Fig. K.2 Design chart for slabs with top reinforcement only.
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 353

Appendices 353

d = 225
1000
d = 200

900

d = 175

800

d = 150
700

600 d = 125
∑ (KmTu)

500
d = 100

400
d = 75

300

200

100

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
AREA OF REINFORCEMENT EACH WAY PER FACE = AS (mm2/m)

CONCRETE GRADE 35
REINFORCEMENT GRADE 460

Fig. K.3 Design chart for slabs with top and bottom reinforcement.
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 354

354 Appendices

Table K.3 Load types and moment factors for raft beams

Internal beam Edge beam Corner beam Km

I1 E1 C1

Uniformly L
distributed load 2 0.5
fS (kN/m2)

FS = fS(πL2/4) FS = fS(πL2/8) FS = fS(0.64L2)

I2 E2 C2

Parallel line
1.0
load P (kN/m)

∑ P = PL ∑ P = PL ∑ P = PL / 2

I3 E3 C3

Lateral line
1.0
load P (kN/m)

∑ P = PL ∑ P = PL /2 ∑ P = PL / 2

I4 E4 C4

L
2 – way line 2 1.0
load P (kN/m)

∑ P = 2PL ∑ P = 3PL /2 ∑ P = 2PL / 2

I5 E5 C5

Point load P (kN) 2.0

∑P=P ∑P=P ∑P=P

SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 355

Appendices 355

5000

4500

4000
d = 550
3500
d = 500

d = 450
∑ (K mTu) L /b (kN)

3000

d = 400
2500
d = 350
2000 d = 300

1500

1000

500

0
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
AREA OF REINFORCEMENT PER FACE/m WIDTH = A s/b (mm /m)
2

CONCRETE GRADE 35
REINFORCEMENT GRADE 460

Fig. K.4 Design chart for internal and edge beams.

SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 356

356 Appendices

2500
d = 550
2250
d = 500
2000
d = 450

1750
d = 400
∑ (K mTu)L /b (kN)

1500 d = 350

1250 d = 300

1000

750

500

250

0
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000
AREA OF REINFORCEMENT IN TOP FACE/m WIDTH = A s/b (mm /m)
2

CONCRETE GRADE 35
REINFORCEMENT GRADE 460

Fig. K.5 Design chart for corner beams.

SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 357

L Table of Material Frictional Resistances

Frictional resistances are used in calculations within the

text. These are repeated here, in Table L.1, together with
resistances for other structural materials, for comparison
and completeness.

Table L.1 Typical frictional resistances

Materials Frictional
resistance, µ

In situ concrete base on sand 0.6

a
In situ concrete base on clay
Precast concrete on steel 0.3
Timber on timber, fibres parallel to the motion 0.4
Timber on timber, fibres at 90° to the motion 0.5
Metal on timber 0.2
Metal on metal 0.15 to 0.2
Timber on stone 0.4
Metal on masonry 0.3 to 0.5
Masonry on masonry (hard) 0.2 to 0.3
Masonry on masonry (soft) 0.4 to 0.6
Well lubricated hard smooth surfaces (bearings) 0.05

a
Frictional resistance unreliable therefore use cohesion only.
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 358

M Cost Indices for Foundation Types

Throughout the text, reference is made in differing contexts Table M.1 Foundation cost indices
to the relative costs of various foundation types. Every con-
struction site is different, and is often affected by local fac- Foundation type Indexa
tors which are not relevant generally. Every contractor is
A Index expressed per metre run of typical footing
different, and what suits one method of working will not
(1) Unreinforced strip footing (underside of
necessarily be as economic with another method. Prices
footing at 600 mm deep) 1
vary throughout the country and often depend upon site (2) Reinforced strip footing 1.1
accessibility. (3) Unreinforced strip footing (underside of
Despite these reservations, the many qualitative statements footing at 900 mm deep) 1.3
(4) Trench fill footing
made in discussing relative foundation costs demand a
1000 mm deep 1.2
quantitative treatment. Thus the following table of cost
1500 mm deep 1.4
indices (Table M.1) has been produced to give a feel, in gen- 2000 mm deep 1.7
eral terms, for cost differentials. 2500 mm deep 2.0
A number of the types are not comparable directly, and it is (5) Semi-raft downturn on edge of light raft 1.2 to 1.4
(6) Reinforced pad base, and ground beam 1.9 to 2.1
not the authors’ intention to give any more than general
(7) Mass concrete pad base, and ground beam 1.7 to 1.9
guidance within the context of the discussion chapters of
(8) Reinforced concrete piles and ground beams
this book (for example, item A6 should not be compared used in domestic type applications (typically
directly with item A9, and the conclusion reached that piles 150/300 mm diameter piles, 3 m to 8 m deep) 1.7 to 3.0
are only marginally more expensive than pad bases; item (9) Vibro treatment and r.c. footings at 600 mm
A6 is derived from three-storey and higher, framed build- depth used in domestic type applications
ings for comparison with item A8, whereas A9 is derived (typically 500 mm diameter stone columns
from a domestic scale of construction for comparison with at 2 m centres, and 3 m deep) 1.4 to 1.7
item A4).
B Underpinning expressed per metre run of footing
For specific project cost considerations the engineer should (1) Conventional mass concrete 1 m deep 3
always instigate cost comparisons made on the criteria of (2) Conventional mass concrete 2 m deep 5
the particular site, utilizing the services of contractors (3) Small-diameter piles at regular close centres
and/or quantity surveyors as necessary, and should not (3 m to 6 m deep) utilizing existing footings 4
place any reliance upon the very general information incor- (4) Small-diameter piles (3 m to 6 m deep)
porated in Table M.1. utilizing new r.c. ground beams 7

Items B(1) and B(2) are included for completeness, but tra- C Index expressed per individual foundation
ditional deep underpinning by digging out beneath an (i.e. at one column position)
existing foundation would now be replaced by mini-piling (1) Mass concrete pad base from 2 m × 2 m to
and needle beams on the grounds of health and safety risk 2.5 m × 2.5 m on plan (excluding side shutters) 4.0
to site personnel, as discussed in section 15.8 of Chapter 15. (2) Reinforced concrete base from 2 m × 2 m to
2.5 m × 2.5 m on plan with a base thickness
of 0.75 m at a formation level of 1.8 m
(including side shutters and working space) 6.8
(3) In situ concrete pile cap and twin 600 mm
diameter piles, 10 m to 15 m long 10.8

a Values taken for the index will depend upon the engineer’s
experience and also upon the area of the country and
accessibility of the site
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 359

N Allowable Bearing Pressure for

Foundations on Non-Cohesive Soil

The general route for establishing the allowable bearing pres- of topsoil and silty clay overlying a considerable depth of
sure is as follows. medium dense sand. Average SPT values for the top metre
of sand are in the range N = 22 − 41; a conservative average
(1) Divide the ultimate bearing capacity by a factor of safety
value of N = 25 will be assumed for determining the allow-
(typically 3.0), to obtain the safe bearing capacity.
able bearing pressure.
(2) By looking at predicted values for settlement, deter-
mine the bearing pressure which corresponds to an A square base of 2 m × 2 m is initially assumed. From
acceptable level of settlement. Fig. N.1, the allowable bearing pressure is na = 280 kN.
(3) The allowable bearing pressure is the lower of the two This gives a capacity of
values obtained from (1) and (2).
Pa = na BL
In section 2.3.5 Safe bearing capacity – cohesionless soils, it = 280 × 2.0 × 2.0
states that: = 1120 kN <P = 1500 kN ⇒ Not enough
‘foundation design on non-cohesive soil is usually gov- At this allowable bearing pressure, the required area of a
erned by acceptable settlement, and this restriction on square base would be
bearing pressure is usually much lower than the ultim-
A = P/na
ate bearing capacity divided by the factor of safety of 3.
= 1500/280
Generally only in the case of narrow strip foundations
= 5.36 m2
on loose submerged sands it is vital to determine the
= 2.31 m × 2.31 m
ultimate bearing capacity, since this may be more critical
than settlement’. However examination of Fig. N.1 indicates that a larger
width of base will result in a lower allowable bearing
This indicates that a settlement rather than a bearing capacity
pressure. A 2.4 m × 2.4 m base will therefore be assumed;
calculation would be the normal route for establishing the
from Fig. N.1 this gives an allowable bearing pressure of
allowable bearing pressure for sands and gravels. Because
na = 270 kN. The actual bearing pressure is
of the uncertainties and assumptions involved in detailed
settlement calculations, this approach is normally short- n = P/A
circuited by use of the Terzaghi and Peck allowable = 1500/(2.4 × 2.4)
bearing pressure chart in Fig. N.1. = 260 kN/m2 <na = 270 kN ⇒ OK

The allowable bearing pressures in the chart assume a max- and the area of the base is
imum settlement of 25 mm, which experience has shown A = BL
is a satisfactory value for maintaining total and differential = 2.4 × 2.4
settlements within acceptable limits. They also assume = 5.76 m2
the water-table is at least a depth of B below foundation
level; if the water table is at or close to the foundation level Worked Example 2: Rectangular pad base
then the allowable bearing pressures indicated should be
halved. The previous example will be reworked for a rectangular
base, whose width is limited by site constraints to B = 2.0 m.
To use the chart, an SPT value is obtained from the soils A base size of 2.0 m × 2.5 m is initially assumed. From
investigation report. The proposed width of base, together Fig. N.1, the allowable bearing pressure is na = 270 kN. This
with the SPT value, are used to read off an allowable gives a capacity of
bearing pressure. This is then checked to ensure it exceeds
the applied bearing pressure; if not the base length and/or Pa = na BL
width is increased, and the process repeated until a satis- = 270 × 2.0 × 2.5
factory base size is obtained. = 1350 kN <P = 1500 kN ⇒ Not enough
Increase length of base by the ratio P/Pa
This process is illustrated in the following worked examples.
L = 2.5 × (1500/1350)
Worked Example 1: Square pad base = 2.8 m
A pad foundation is required to support a superstructure This results in a bearing pressure of n = na = 270 kN/m2, and
load of P = 1500 kN. The soils investigation indicates 0.9 m a base area of
SFDD01 1/8/06 11:23 AM Page 360

360 Appendices

700

max. settlement 25 mm

600

N = 50
500
Allowable bearing pressure (kN/m2)

standard penetration resistance

N = 40
400

N = 30
300

N = 20
200

N = 10
100

N=5

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Width of footing: B (m)

Fig. N.1 Allowable bearing pressure on sands (Reproduced from Terzaghi, K. & Peck, R.B. (1996) Soil Mechanics in
Engineering Practice, 3rd edn, by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.).

A = BL is critical – see sections 2.3.2 and 2.3.4.) Nevertheless a

= 2.0 × 2.8 = 5.6 m2 square column base should be preferred to a rectangular
one; mass concrete square bases will require a lesser thick-
It will be noted that the rectangular base results in a slightly ness for load dispersion, while reinforced square bases
lower area than the square base. (The opposite is true for will have lower bending moments and thus require less
cohesive soils where bearing capacity rather than settlement reinforcement.
SFDD02 1/8/06 11:24 AM Page 361

Index

abnormal foundations, 186 bearing capacity, 3, 9, 15, 17, 19, 29, 33, 37, 44, 53, 62, 75, 77,
abrasion during pile driving, 156 101, 113, 124, 127, 130, 133, 137, 150
accelerated settlements, 134 net ultimate, 21
accommodating movements, 169 safe, 14, 21, 26, 195, 359
adjacent structures, 12, 14, 47, 63, 131 ultimate, 4, 7, 20
aggressive chemicals, 45, 63 bearing pressure
allowable bearing pressure, 5, 7, 8, 13, 20, 26, 130, 132, 173, allowable, 5, 7, 8, 13, 20, 26, 130, 132, 173, 180, 189, 193,
180, 189, 193, 195, 201, 203, 206, 209, 212, 217, 229, 232, 195, 201, 203, 206, 209, 212, 217, 229, 232, 236, 239, 249,
236, 239, 249, 252, 254, 259, 266, 268, 272, 275, 343, 360 252, 254, 259, 266, 268, 272, 275, 343, 360
alluvium, 31, 39, 338, 339 definition, 20, 173
anchor blocks, 156 net, 4, 20
anchor piles, 156, 278, 288 net allowable, 20, 173, 190, 195, 203, 206, 210, 213, 217,
anchorage, 133, 156, 228, 278 229, 232, 249, 252, 266, 268, 272, 275, 343
angle of draw, 96 total, 20, 176
angle of internal friction, 20, 21 total ultimate, 205, 212
anthrax, 91 bearing pressure calculations, 202
area of reinforced pad base, 198 bearing pressure check, 204, 210, 254, 268
artesian ground water pressures, 176 using design charts, 201
articulated foundation, 105 bedding plane, 39, 69, 70, 75
asbestos, 9, 63, 91, 80, 86, 328, 330, 332 bedjoint reinforcement, 10
assumptions, 13, 16, 21, 37, 52, 64, 84, 117, 122, 150, 164, 189, bedrock, 3, 11, 14, 40, 42, 49, 116, 333
225, 266, 287, 359 bell workings, 101
attack by marine organisms, 166 bending and shear reinforcement, 215, 221
augered piles, 154, 155 bending in raft beams, 243
avoiding a service zone, 233 bending in raft slabs, 242
axial load plus bending: pressure wholly compressive, bending moment diagram for trapezoidal pressure, 218
184 bending moments, 7, 8, 14, 145, 151, 163, 171, 184, 194,
axial load plus bending: zero pressure, 185 200, 206, 212, 221, 230, 235, 257, 263, 274, 290, 302,
axially loaded foundations, 185 343, 348, 360
axially loaded pads and strips, 173 bending moments from area of the shear force diagram,
170, 215, 218, 222
backfilling, 50, 83, 101, 122, 305, 340 bentonite slurry, 155
balanced foundations, 228 biaxial bending, 176, 178, 180, 181, 184, 206
cantilevered, 230 biaxially loaded base, 206
economy, 233 blanket, 83, 118, 120, 124, 134
holed, 230 blanket raft, 150, 256
pad, 148 design example, 257
rectangular, 230 bond anchorage, 228
trapezoidal, 230 bonding into unfractured rock, 156
base area, 204 bored cast-in-place piles, 283
base centre of gravity, 232 bored piles, 154, 155, 283, 285, 286
base centroid, 148 borehole logs, 29, 37, 50, 51, 55, 57, 61
base with vertical and horizontal loads, 207 boreholes, 37, 41, 42, 48, 49, 50, 56, 57, 62, 70, 79, 83, 91, 92,
basement slabs, 151 99, 111, 113, 118, 122, 133, 169, 339, 340
basements, 25, 45, 48, 63, 71, 74, 101, 104, 111, 167, 177, 274, boulder clay, 7, 38, 40, 280, 316
304, 306, 311, 321 boulders, 27, 37, 38, 40, 49, 50, 52, 55, 64, 280, 285
beam design in raft foundations, 243, 251 Boussinesq, 16
beam shear, 198, 200, 243, 295, 343 box piles, 156, 282
beam strip raft, 151, 271, 274, 276 bracing, 107, 179
beam strip supporting point loads, 145 brick piers on concrete pads, 148
SFDD02 1/8/06 11:24 AM Page 362

362 Index

Brinch Hansen, 20 cohesion, 37, 129, 133, 286

brine, 37, 47, 48, 70, 95, 100, 152, 165, 276 cohesionless soils, 21
Brine Authority, 95 cohesive soils, 5, 18, 20, 22, 69, 75, 126, 129, 130, 131, 134,
buildability, 10, 13, 14, 62, 74, 76, 146, 311 286, 360
Bunter sandstone, 316 collapse compression, 134
buoyancy raft, 9, 151, 152, 272, 274, 304 column loads on combined balanced foundations, 230
Burland, 15, 42 combined bases, 228
combined partial load factor, 218
calculation combined partial safety factor: dead and imposed loads,
applied bearing pressures, 174 196
bearing pressures, 180 combined partial safety factors, 179, 196
centroid of the column loads, 232 combined soils, 22
procedure, 173 combustible materials, 88, 90, 92
short cut method, 184 combustion, 48, 71, 88, 91, 92, 111, 165, 167, 323, 335
California bearing ratio, 35, 63 compacted soils, 27
cantilever arrangements, 149 compacted stone column, 153
cantilever balanced foundation, 149, 223 compaction, 3, 12, 13, 23, 35, 37, 50, 101, 110, 112, 115, 118,
cantilevers 120, 121, 124, 125, 126, 133, 137, 187, 256, 283
propped, 161 composite action, 9, 161, 163, 291, 292
pure, 161 composite beams, 9, 291
tied, 161 compressive forces, 149
Casagrande, 15 compressive strength, 17
casing, 51, 55, 155 concrete crust raft, 150
cathodic protection, 156 concrete piles, 153, 279
CAZ box piles, dimensions and properties, 282 concrete strip footing
CDM Regulations, 76, 79 plain, 144
cellular raft, 265, 266, 270, 271, 276 reinforced, 144
beam design, 268 concrete trench fill, 145, 186, 189, 191
design example, 266 consolidation, 3, 12, 25, 37, 75, 101, 110, 111, 113, 115, 118,
cement grout injected, 155 122, 257, 316
centre of gravity, 189, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 237, 263, consolidation test, 23, 29
265, 274 constant head permeameter, 32
holed balanced, 237 construction, 12, 168, 186, 212
centroid of applied loads, 233, 235, 237 of T beam, 212
chalk, 38, 39, 41, 42, 48, 70, 316 contact pressure, 149
mining, 100 contaminants, 45, 63, 81, 82, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89, 91, 92, 93, 110,
characteristic foundation load, 19, 179 111, 131, 338
check list coal-carbonisation sites, 331, 333
site development, 165 hazard, 84, 91, 113, 320
site information, 165 industrial sites, 85, 91, 329
subsoil conditions, 165 inorganic, 85, 86, 92, 327, 328
chemicals, 68, 80, 89, 100, 113, 164, 165, 280, 329, 338, 339, metallic, 90, 94
340 organic, 87, 329, 330, 336, 338
chloride content, 37 risks, 44, 48, 76, 80, 81, 83, 84, 85, 91, 135, 280, 309, 338,
chlorides, 100 340
choice of foundations, 165 testing, 83, 91, 92, 113
clay, 3, 7, 13, 18, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 38, 40, 41, 42, 44, 50, 51, trigger values, 84
52, 64, 69, 70, 72, 75, 77, 89, 91, 93, 100, 116, 119, 121, contaminated land, definition, 80
122, 124, 129, 130, 144, 152, 155, 165, 188, 232, 247, 252, special site, 81
256, 257, 261, 266, 278, 280, 286, 294, 295, 307, 310, 314, contaminated sites, 11, 91, 92, 93
316, 322, 337 contaminated soils, 82, 93
clays contamination
boulder, 3, 40, 280, 316 air borne, 91
common types graphically, 315 anthrax, 91
effects of vegetation, 78, 320 asbestos, 63, 80
shrinkable, 13, 77, 186 chemical and toxic, 83
client’s requirements, 14, 45, 165 CLEA model, 84
coal, 38, 41, 71, 91, 95, 97, 99, 100, 102, 103, 121, 122 CLEA R&D publications, 336
extraction geographically, 318 cover systems, 92
coefficient of volume compressibility, 24, 32 effect of plant life, 85
SFDD02 3/8/06 10:39 AM Page 363

Index 363

fluoride, 91 definition of loads and pressures, 20, 173

foundation protection, 93 deflection criteria, 6
implications, 81 deflection of raft slabs, 240, 243
investigation, 91 deflection ratio, 6
investigation example, 336 degradable compressive material, 247
investigation methodology, 85 density, 19, 27, 52
remediation methods, 93 depression at corner of building, 198
risk assessment, 83, 84, 85, 91, 113, 336, 339, 340 depression at unsupported corner of slab, 226
risk based approach, 83 depressions, 151, 198
risk to buildings and construction materials, 89 depth of pad, 189
risk to humans, 85 description of soils, 28, 30
risk to the water environment, 89 design
sampling and testing, 83, 92, 340 of axially loaded foundation, 181
significant harm, categories, 325 of foundation in bending, 182
significant harm, definition, 84 of horizontal tie, 230
site identification, 91 by nominal assumptions, 151
site investigation example, 336 over a service trench, 236
site treatment, 92 by previous experience, 150
continuous beam of shallow mass pad, 190
shears and moments, 216 of steel foundations, 184
trapezoidal pressure, 218, 220 design charts, 343, 349, 352, 354, 355
uniform pressure, 217, 221 raft foundations, 345
continuous beam foundation, 172 rafts, 352, 354
continuous beam strips, 212 rc beams, 355
continuous flight auger piles, 284 slabs, 351, 353
continuous ground beams, 169 desk-top study, 45, 62
continuous T beam, 212 DETR Circular 02/2000, 81
continuous underpinning, 308 de-watering, 45, 55, 72, 77
continuous uniformity loaded strip, 189 diaphragms, 161
contraction, 3, 22 differential movement, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 14, 22, 25, 75, 115, 148,
contraction joint, 225 150, 187, 321
corrosive conditions differential settlement, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 14, 22, 25, 75, 115, 124,
below ground, 89, 156 148, 150, 321
electrolytic reaction, 97 dip, 39, 40, 48
ground water, 89 discontinuous underpinning, 310
cost indices for foundation types, 358 dishing, 172
costs, 3, 8, 10, 11, 13, 41, 43, 63, 81, 93, 104, 118, 124, 133, 138, dissolving rock, 150
168, 169, 188, 233, 285, 288, 293, 338, 340, 358 dissolving soils, 100
Coulomb, 18 dispersion, 189
counterforts, 161 dispersion angle, 16
cover, 89, 163, 168, 225 disturbed samples, 50
cow belly action, 256, 257 drainage, 42, 47, 71, 76, 77
crack control, 224 paths, 25, 29, 129
cracking of concrete slabs, 224 of retaining walls, 306
creep, 3, 22, 42, 69 and services, 186
crown holes, 100, 102 drift, 39, 40
crust raft, 149, 150, 225, 245, 249, 251 driven cast in situ piles, 154
and stone blanket 150 driven cast-in-place piles, 283
culverts, 71, 78 driven piles, 154, 283, 285
curved shear force diagrams, 216 driven precast piles, 154
cut-and-fill, 74 driving tolerance, 158, 293
dynamic consolidation, 11, 63, 117, 124, 133, 167, 319,
data reliability, 165 321
debonded longitudinal joint, 226 dynamic pile driving formulae, 286
decisions
design process, 13, 14, 168 earth pressure, 33, 54, 280, 305, 307
deep basements, 304, 311 earthquakes, 38
deep foundation beams, 8, 9, 151 eccentric loads, 176, 221, 230, 239
deep mass concrete pad base, 192 eccentrically loaded foundations, 177, 274
definition of bearing pressure, 20, 173 eccentrically loaded grillage foundations, 221
SFDD02 1/8/06 11:24 AM Page 364

364 Index

eccentricities, 202, 205, 207, 228, 230, 263 floating ground floor slab, 159, 224, 225
economic considerations, 118, 159, 193, 297 floating slab
economic design, 43, 45, 212 design example, 225, 226
effective depth, estimating 199 ground support, 225
reinforced pad base, 199 joint details, 226
effective length, 176 movement joints, 225
end bearing, 11, 152, 278, 280, 289, 294 spacing of joints, 225
engineering judgement, 37, 52, 61, 114, 122, 130, 164, 180, flooding, 47, 62
247, 257 flotation, 11, 62, 78, 274, 278, 306
Environmental Protection Act 1990, 80, 94 folds, 30, 40, 78
equilibrium, 12, 22, 25, 42, 55, 78, 204, 215, 218, 290 foundation
erosion, 14, 38, 45, 48, 62, 75, 78, 89, 100, 102, 133, 138 depth, 19, 62, 143
excavated trench sides as a shutter, 210 shape, 19, 143
excavation, 10, 15, 26, 33, 38, 42, 44, 46, 50, 53, 56, 62, 72, 77, foundation costs, 13, 14, 44, 45, 168, 188, 193, 228
79, 113, 119, 122, 133, 145, 168, 188, 193, 256, 265, 276, foundation design, 13, 14, 173
278, 285, 291, 310 full method, 184
excessive unpredictable subsidence, 152 general method, 180
existing services, 45, 149 short cut method, 184
existing soil pressure, 174 foundation economy, 13, 14, 44, 45, 113, 168, 169, 172, 188,
193, 228, 358
fabric reinforcement, crack control, 224 foundation failure, 3, 6, 12, 13, 14, 26, 37, 38, 43, 44, 45, 50,
factor of safety, 4, 6, 7, 20, 22, 26, 63, 173, 278, 284, 285, 289, 51, 76
306, 325, 359 foundation loads, 4, 25, 76, 172, 173, 176, 196, 202, 203, 209,
against sliding, 209 227, 252, 268, 275, 301, 341
factored foundation pressures, 179 foundation materials, 178
factored reactions, 180 foundation rotation, 187, 189
falling head permeameter, 32 foundation selection, 164, 165, 319
faults, 38, 77, 104 bearing strata strength and depth, 319
fill, 108 subsoil type, 320
calorific values, 92 varying site conditions, 321
compressibility, 114 foundation stiffness, 173
consolidation, 114, 115, 116, 118, 122 foundation types, 9, 141, 143, 165
constrained modulus, 115 fractures, 38
creep compression, 115 free cantilever retaining walls, 304
creep settlement, 113 friction piles, 289
differential settlement, 111, 114, 116, 118, 124, 129 frictional resistances, 357
friction drag, 108 frost, 13, 69, 75, 78, 147, 165, 166, 188, 248, 262
hazardous to health, 63 frost heave, 35, 45, 143, 151, 194, 320
inundation, 111
porewater pressure, 134 gases, 37, 45, 88, 90, 92, 110, 112, 335, 338
fill investigations, 112 geogrids, 126, 139
filled basements, 14, 167, 321 geology, 37
filled sites, 63, 108, 155, 165 geophysical investigation, 42
the container base, 110 geotechnical processes, 11, 45, 62
the container edges, 108 geotextiles, 126
the container sub-strata, 110 glaciation, 38
the container surface, 108 gneissic rocks, 314
development of, 116, 118 graded stone, 125, 187
development on new fill, 122 grading, 27
effect of water, 111 gravel, 5, 20, 26, 27, 50, 52, 73, 165, 314, 321
negative skin friction on piles, 117 Greywacke, 316
purchase of coal rights, 121 grillage
settlement, 113, 115, 117 concrete casing, 163, 222
treatment of, 117 design example, 223
fire-clay mining, 100 foundations, 162, 221
firm layer of soil at depth, 159 loading diagram, 223
fixed feet portals, 169 lower tier beams, 224
flange of inverted T beam, 212 precast, 163
flexible foundations, 149, 173 steel, 163
flexible service entries, 166 steel design to BS 5950, 222
SFDD02 1/8/06 11:24 AM Page 365

Index 365

timber, 163 horizontal wind loads, 209

upper tier beams, 224 hydraulic jacks, 97, 105
ground beam
reinforcement, 213, 217, 221 I sections, 151
selection, 169 ICRCL, 83, 94
trial sizes, 348 identification of soils, 28, 30
ground beams, 145, 149, 158, 169 igneous rock, 5, 38, 39, 314
ground heave, 9, 77, 133, 276, 285 individual bearing pressure components, 210
ground improvement, 25, 62, 83, 118, 120, 124, 322 induced settlement, 144
monitoring of compaction, 125 in situ tests, 49, 52
surface rolling, 124 instability of trench sides, 186
ground investigation, 14, 43, 46, 70, 113 inundation, 111, 113, 118
safety, 46 inverted T beam strip, 145
ground pressure, 172, 265, 307 iron ore mining, 100
ground slabs, floating, 224 isolation joint, 226
cantilever, 119
design decisions, 224 jacked piles, 284
design process, 225 jacking points, 25
joints, 225 jacking raft, 152, 176
local depression, 227 jetties, 156
reinforcement, 227 jetting, 127, 155
shrinkage, 227 joints, 9, 13, 25, 26, 39, 46, 74, 83, 102, 104, 106, 117, 122, 144,
sizing, 225 161, 169, 225, 227, 238, 242, 257, 266, 310
thermal and moisture movement, 225
thickening, 150 Keuper marl, 89, 316
typical assumed depressions, 227 Kimmeridge clay, 89, 314, 315, 317
various soil conditions, 227
ground strains, 151, 188, 261 laboratory tests for soils, 34
ground subsidence, 7, 106, 149, 321 lateral loading, 63
ground water, 13, 19, 48, 51, 53, 77, 111, 154 lateral reinforcement, 197
long term variations, 45 lateral restraint, 130, 157
lowering, 167, 310 leaking drains, 45
problems, 14, 165 lidded cellular raft, 151, 270
seasonal variations, 13, 89 lime/cement stabilization, 137
grout injection limestone, 38, 41, 100, 316
applications, 135 limestone mining, 100
shallow mine workings, 136 limit state design, 4, 7, 174, 179
swallow holes, 136 liner tube, 154
grouting, 78 liquefaction, 52, 113, 134
liquid pressure, 307
hand augers, 50 load
hard standings, 153 characteristic, 7
hardcore, 45, 124, 151, 159, 262, 322 concentrated, 15
compaction, 125, 322 horizontal, 207
dumplings, 262 imposed, 7, 25
grading, 322 inclined, 5
hazardous gases, 88, 335 surcharge, 76
Health Protection Agency, 92 ultimate design, 7
heave, 9, 77, 133, 276, 285 wind, 7
heavy metals, 92, 93, 339 load dispersion, 16, 190
Hiley formula, 287 load imbalance, 150
hogging, 6, 105, 170, 172 load spread, 16, 178
holed balanced foundation, design example, 231 load testing of piles, 285, 288
hollow tube auger, 155 loadcase, 179
horizontal ground strain, 153 loadcases for the ultimate limit state, 211
horizontal ground stress, 161 loading for spanning over depressions, 197
horizontal load resistance, 5, 212 loads and pressures, definition, 20, 173
horizontal loads, 5, 176, 177, 200, 207, 209 local bond, 200, 217
horizontal resistance to sliding, 210 local depressions, 240, 243, 257, 260
horizontal thrust, 8, 207, 228 local depressions design span, 240, 243, 255, 260
SFDD02 1/8/06 11:24 AM Page 366

366 Index

local shear at column face, 260 moisture content, 3, 12, 14, 22, 26, 29, 33, 37, 45, 50, 53, 69,
London clay, 316 75, 77, 108, 113, 137, 286
longitudinal or lateral ground strains, 186 movement
longwall working and mining, 103 differential, 3, 26, 104, 113, 122, 165, 187
low bearing capacity, 7, 9, 149, 194, 277 horizontal, 6, 95, 125
low bearing pressure, 168 movement joints, 25, 46, 161, 238, 242
mudstones, 5, 314
marine environments, 155
marine structures, 155 narrow trenches, 187
masonry strips, 282 necking of piles, 154, 155, 280, 283
mass concrete pads, deep, 147 negative skin friction, 62, 116, 117, 289
mass concrete strip, 145 net allowable bearing pressure, 20, 173
mass-filled brick diaphragm, 161 net increase in soil load, 121, 149, 176, 245, 249
mass pad-load dispersion, 189 nominal crust raft, 149
mature trees, 77, 165, 319 non-cohesive soils, 4, 5, 18, 22, 286
mechanical anchorage, 228 non-uniform foundation pressures, 15, 176
mechanical keying of piles, 154 non-vertical loading, 5
Mercia mudstone, 316
metallic contaminants, 90, 94 obstructions, 37, 55, 62, 69, 82, 83, 112, 280
metamorphic rock, 36 oedometer, 29, 36
methane gas, 45, 71, 167, 321 oils, 337
method of driving piles, 154 old walls in filled basements, 167
micro fungal attack, 166, 155 opposing horizontal forces, 228
middle third rule, 176, 177, 180, 184 Ordnance Survey maps, 47, 83
mine shafts overburden, 7, 9, 19, 133, 151, 174
cap or plug, 136 removal, 265, 274
capping, 79, 101, 102, 137 overturning, 4, 176, 207, 211, 341, 343
grouting, 101 Oxford clay, 89, 315, 316
treatment of, 100
mine workings, 79, 91, 105, 107, 110, 119, 121, 136, 240, pad base
252 allowable bearing pressure, 193
mineral extraction geographically, 318 axial and horizontal loads, 207
mines, 62, 71, 97, 99 axial plus bending moment, 206
mini piles, 284, 309, 358 bending about both axes, 207
minimum reinforcement requirements, 102, 197, 295, 343 design chart, 202
mining, 9, 69, 71, 95, 101, 151, 161, 165, 188, 212, 321 horizontal loading, 207
abandoned mine shafts and adits, 100 ultimate limit state, 212
chalk, 100 pad bases, 8, 132, 143, 147
fireclay and other clays, 100 pad foundations, 10, 143, 148, 200
flexible superstructures, 106 pad and strip foundations, 143, 190, 343
iron ores, 100 partial safety factor, 7, 14, 179
limestone, 100 partial safety factor for loads, 6, 8, 179, 196
other metals, 100 particle size, 26
rigid superstructures, 106 passive lateral pressure coefficient, 209
salt, 100 passive pressure, 130, 157, 209, 212, 228, 263
treatment of shallow workings, 101, 188, 212 passive resistance, 5, 6, 42, 63, 157, 186, 227
mining activity, 151 peat, 5, 11, 30, 31, 37, 43, 49, 56, 60, 72, 120, 123, 165, 320
mining areas, 74, 100, 130, 153 permanent formwork, 151, 196, 270
mining methods permeability, 25, 26, 32, 37, 45, 55, 128, 133, 338
bell-pits, 71, 99, 136 phenols, 89, 90, 94
longwall, 103 pier and beam foundation, 83, 159
pillar and stall, 103 piezometers, 53
mining subsidence, 95 pile and beam underpinning, 311
angle of draw, 96 pile cap design, 295
ground strains, 96 pile caps, 157, 289
horizontal displacement, 96 pile casing, 283
monitoring, 107 pile driving formulae, dynamic, 286
zone of influence, 96 pile foundation, 153
miscellaneous elements and forms, 143 pile head design, 291
Mohr, 35 pile point, 287
SFDD02 1/8/06 11:24 AM Page 367

Index 367

pile testing pressure

static, 288 effective, 24, 78
dynamic, 288 existing, 19
pile types, 279 overburden, 7, 9, 19, 133, 151, 174
piled foundation suspended flat slab, 299 porewater, 124, 130, 257
piles, 3, 6, 11, 13, 40, 42, 55, 74, 79, 105, 152 ultimate design, 7, 179
anchor, 156 pressure-contour charts, 16
augered, 154, 155 pressure distribution, 15, 173, 177
bored cast-in-place, 283 pressuremeter, 53
box piles, dimensions and properties, 282 pressures, 19
concrete, 153 prestressed brick diaphragm wall, 8
concrete cast in situ, 279 prestressed foundation, 134
continuous flight augered, 284 presumed allowable bearing values, 314
design of, 285 presumed bearing pressures, 314
displacement, 283 presumed bearing value, 4
driven cast in situ, 283 principles of design, 164
driven precast, 283 prop action, 161, 304
driving tolerances, 293 propped cantilever retaining walls, 305
durability, 285 protection/coatings, 156
economics of, 285 pudding action, 256
end bearing, 11, 152, 154, 278, 280, 283, 285, 304 punching shear, 199
in groups, 288
H piles, dimensions and properties, 281 quarries, 47, 71, 92, 110
in mining areas, 153, 284 questioning the information, 169
negative skin friction, 62, 116, 289
precast concrete, 105, 154, 166, 280 radon, 88, 93, 94
prestressed concrete, 283 testing, 92
replacement, 297 raft design charts, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248
restricted access/headroom, 284 raft foundations, 10, 11, 78, 95, 149, 167, 238
safe working loads, 293, 296, 297 rafts, 3, 110, 149, 164
set, 286 aspect ratio, 238, 239
skin friction, 11, 62, 117, 152, 286, 294 beam design, 242, 248
spacing of, 289 bearing pressure design, 239, 240, 241, 242, 250, 260
staggered, 291 blanket, 150
steel, 156, 280, 282, 285, 291 buoyancy, 9, 151
timber, 155 cellular, 105, 151
undesirable use of, 278 crust, 150, 254
piles and ground beams, 168, 293, 319 effect of compacted hardcore, 239, 242
piles and raft, 168, 319 external beam thickenings, 239, 242
piling in sands and gravels, 154 hard spots, 83, 111, 112, 122, 131, 186, 256
piling in soft silts and clays, 154 internal beam thickenings, 239, 240
piling systems and tenders, 153 jacking, 152, 176
pillar and stall, 97, 102 lidded cellular, 151, 270
pin piles, 284 movement joints, 238, 240, 242
pipes, 70 re-entrant corners, 238, 267
plant life, 89 reinforcement, 245, 249
plasticity index, 32, 53, 77, 78, 316 rigid, 143
plate bearing test, 53 slab design, 240, 242, 245
point of zero shear, 170, 220 soft spots, 150, 238, 256
pollution linkage, 81, 84 stiffening ribs, 161
poor ground, 41, 124, 151, 186, 195, 240 thickening layouts, 246, 250
poor quality sands, sandy silts, 145 voids, 151
porewater pressure, 19, 35, 54, 113, 120, 130, 133, 134, re-levelling, 151, 152, 270, 276
256 of lidded cellular raft, 151
portal frame, 5, 8 reaction piles, 156
post-tensioned diaphragm walls, 161 reactive design pressure, 197, 198
pre-boring, 155 rectangular and T beam continuous strips, 212
preliminary design, 4, 5, 14, 45, 314 rectangular balanced foundations, 230
preloading, 133 rectangular balanced pad foundations, 148
preservatives, timber, 155, 278 rectangular beam strips, 145, 212
SFDD02 1/8/06 11:24 AM Page 368

368 Index

rectangular reinforced ground beams, 145 shallow strips, 186

reducing lateral movement in tie rods, 229 shear
Register of Contaminated Land, 81 failure, 53, 129, 288
reinforced concrete fin wall, 161 forces, 170, 200, 215
reinforced concrete pads, 147, 194 links, 217
reinforced concrete pads and strips, 194 in raft beams, 244
reinforced pad base, 198, 345, 346, 358 in raft slabs, 243
reinforced soil, 138, 139 strength, 17, 29, 199, 218, 243
reinforced strip foundation, 195, 214 shear force diagram, 170, 172, 215, 218, 222
reinforcement at a slab corner, 227 for trapezoidal pressure, 219
relative rotation angular distortion, 6 shear wall base, 210
residual shear strength, 33, 36 shearing off of piles, 153
resistance to shock, timber piles, 155 shell and auger, 155
restrictive boundaries, 230, 232 shifting the centre of gravity of the base, 250
resultant load, 148, 170, 189, 203, 230, 265, 274 shortened base theory, 190, 193
resultant ultimate design pressures, 184, 185, 205 shrinkable clays, 176, 198
resultant ultimate pressure, 185 shrinkage, 79, 175, 198
retaining walls, 12, 63, 72, 104, 138, 156, 160, 304 shuttering, 145, 158, 168
drainage, 305 silos, 14
forces, 305 silt, 22, 26, 29, 51
rib of T beam, 213 siltstones, 314
rigid foundation, 95, 173 silty clay, 144
rigid rafts, 25 silty sand, 22, 120, 125, 166, 320
rotary auger, 155 single axis bending, 177, 180
rotary coring, 50, 76 sink holes, 41, 72
site boundaries, 47, 170, 232
safe bearing capacity, 22 site constraints, 217, 232
safety factor site development check list, 165
against sliding, 209 site information check list, 165
for pile design, 285 site investigation, 13, 42, 165
safety factors, 22, 26, 64, 173, 174, 179, 341 costs, 44
salt mining, 100 report, 13, 61, 307
sampling, 50 safety, 46
sands, 5, 25, 26, 27, 33, 51, 52, 69, 77 skin friction, 11, 62, 117, 152, 286, 294
sandstones, 314 slate, 38, 314
savings on foundations, 169 slip circle failure, 76, 306, 307
schists, 314 slip plane, 151, 153, 262
screw piles, 284, 289 slip plane frictional force, 262
sedimentary rock, 39 slip plane raft, 151, 167, 321
seepage, 49, 54, 89, 110 slip sandwich raft, 261
segmental liners, 154 slope stability, 69, 73, 75, 321
selection of foundations, 164 slopes, 42, 69, 73, 75
sensitive and wet material, 187 sloping sites, 69, 73, 165, 321
sensitive substrata, 148 small sites, 155
sensitive superstructure, 7, 148 soft alluvial deposits, 151
serviceability, 6, 21, 26, 46 soft silts and clays, 154, 155, 283
serviceability limit state, 7 soft spots, 9, 150, 178, 195, 224, 238, 256
settlement, 3, 5, 6, 22, 24, 26, 37, 62, 78, 113, 115, 117, 173 soft sub-strata, 118, 130, 145, 153, 212
criteria, 6, 174 soil
differential, 3, 6, 8, 9, 14, 25, 115, 117, 150 classification, 26, 49
immediate, 25 guideline values, 84, 85, 89, 92, 327, 336
joints, 161 mechanics, 15, 26, 37
rate of, 25 over-consolidated, 12
total, 24, 109, 115, 134, 285 profiles, 49, 50, 56, 62
severe mining activity, 151 properties, 11, 43, 53, 134, 137, 287
sewer supports, 156 report, 37
shafts, 72, 79, 100 stiffness, 22
shale, 71 testing, 62
shallow foundations, 13, 147, 186 soil-structure interaction, 8, 9, 13, 25
shallow mass concrete pads, 147 special site, 81
SFDD02 1/8/06 11:24 AM Page 369

Index 369

specialised activities, 165 tied foundations, 228

speed of construction, 13, 14, 186, 189 tied portal frame base, 229
spread underpinning, 311 tilting, 4, 7
stability, 69, 75, 186 timber piles, 155
stand pipes, 53 topographical survey, 47
standard penetration test, 21, 49, 52, 60, 65, 286 total allowable bearing pressure, 21, 173, 181, 209, 210,
steel grillage foundation, 10, 221 268, 343
steel piles, 155 total ultimate eccentricity, 205
steel shoes, 155 toxic wastes, 167, 321
stepped foundation, 73 trapezoidal balanced foundation, 148, 217, 231, 235, 236
stone ‘blanket’, 150 trapezoidal bearing pressure, 215, 217
stone trench fill, 145, 186 trees, 11, 13, 45, 78, 165
stone/gravel piles, 127, 153, 283 tremie techniques, 168
stowing, 105 trench fill, 77, 143, 145, 162, 186, 320
stress concentrations, 26, 185, 238, 239, 257 design decisions, 187
stress distribution, 176, 184, 185, 204 strip footing, 190
strike, 39 trench sides, 145, 157, 186
strip footing trenches at right angles, 186
plain, 144 trial pit logs, 57
reinforced, 144 trial pits, 13, 48, 49, 62, 70
strip footings, 10, 20, 143 triaxial compression test, 29
inverted T, 10, 143, 145, 212, 213, 270, 272 trigger values, 83
strip foundation, 195 tube piles, 156
strip loads, 143 turn-buckle, 228, 230
strips, 166, 186 tying action, 161
structural design of foundation members, 178 typical loadcases, 179
stub column pad base, 193 typical slab reinforcement, 224
stub column solution, 193
subsidence damage, 43, 103 ultimate bearing capacity, 4, 174, 268
subsidence tilt, 152 ultimate bearing pressures, 211
subsidence wave, 96, 97, 103, 105, 167, 263, 266, 268, 321 ultimate bending moments, 219
subsoil conditions check list, 165 ultimate design pressures, 201, 205, 206, 212, 236
suitable foundations, 165 ultimate foundation pressure, 184
sulfate attack, concrete, 89 ultimate limit state design, 7, 179
ACEC site classification, 90 ultimate loads and reactions, 214, 218
sulfate content, 32, 45, 63 ultimate shear forces and bending moments, 215, 221
sulfates, 62, 63, 83, 89, 93, 165, 297, 313 uncompacted soils, 27
surcharge, 19, 42, 63, 133, 134, 173, 179, 191, 196, 203, 252, unconfined compression test, 29
254, 268, 275, 277, 305 underpinning, 13, 72, 308
surface rolling, 121, 125 continuous, 308
density tests, 126 discontinuous, 310
surface spread foundation, 149 pile and beam, 311
suspended ground floor slabs, 158 spread, 311
swallow holes, 41, 62, 70, 78, 136, 316 under-reaming, 155, 156
swimming pools, 305, 306 undisturbed samples, 29, 49, 50
uniform bearing pressure, 148, 209, 213, 231, 266, 268,
tars, 81 274, 343
T beam strip, 145, 212 uniform bearing stress, 149
temporary ‘propping’, 304 uniformly distributed load, 16, 244, 247
temporary support, 158, 221 unit weight
temporary works, 26, 43, 76, 155, 156, 162, 186, 284, 310 saturated, 19, 21
tensile and compressive ground strains, 212 submerged, 21
tensile forces, 149 unreinforced concrete pads, 186
tension piles, 156, 288 unreinforced concrete strip footing, 143, 193
terminal moraine, 38, 41, 47 unsuitable bearing material, 153
Terzaghi, 15, 20 uplift, 156
three pinned arch, 8
threshold and action trigger values, 84 vane test, 52
tie rod, 157, 170, 207, 228, 229, 230 variable ground, 212
tied and balanced foundations, 156, 228 vegetation, 47, 69, 71, 72
SFDD02 1/8/06 11:24 AM Page 370

370 Index

ventilation, 158 migration, 79, 110

vertical pressure, 49 ratio, 23, 25
vertical stress, 16 volume of solids, 23
vibro compaction, 111, 116, 124, 127, 131, 133, 257, volume of voids, 23
322 volumetric change, 24
vibro concrete, 131
vibro stabilisation, 126, 153, 323 water, 111
dry process, 324 water table, 19, 49, 71, 72
foundation solutions, 153, 324 water-logged ground, 13, 165
installation of stone columns, 127 Wealden clay, 315
materials most suited to improvement, 128 weathering, 38
in mining areas, 130, 153 wedging with dry pack or slate, 309
relief trenches, 131 weight of the foundation, 20, 173
short term design, 130 wells, 43, 72, 79, 135, 136
shortening the drainage path, 129 wind loading, 174, 179
soil grading, 323 wood destroying insects, 155
testing, 131 working load reactions, 180
’wet’ system, 127 working space, 144, 189
working surface, 127 working stress, 7, 173
vibro-displacement/replacement, 129, 153 worst case loading, 178
vibro-replacement, 129
Vierendeel superstructure, 8 zero pressure under part of base, 183, 184
void zero shear, 171
formers, 293 zig zag walls, 161