WOMEN, RELATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND POWER: A QUALITATIVE

STUDY OF HOW SENIOR WOMEN LEADERS EXPERIENCE, CONCEPTUALIZE,

AND PRACTICE LEADERSHIP AND POWER

A dissertation submitted

by

DONNA F. CLARK, MA

to

FIELDING GRADUATE UNIVERSITY

in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of

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DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

in
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ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGE
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This dissertation has been accepted for

the faculty of Fielding Graduate University by

�it
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Placida V. Gaieis�
Committee Chair

Committee:
Judith Stevens-Long, PhD, Faculty Reader
Steven Schapiro, EdD, Faculty Reader
Jo Ann Morris, MA, Student Reader
Theo L. Dawson, PhD, External Examiner




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WOMEN, RELATIONAL LEADERSHIP, AND POWER

Women, Relational Leadership, and Power: A Qualitative Study of How Senior Women
Leaders Experience, Conceptualize, and Practice Leadership and Power

By

Donna F. Clark

Abstract

Traditional individualistic approaches to leadership are insufficient in a world where

organizations need collaborative efforts to resolve complex problems. The potential to

implement postheroic leadership is limited by deeply embedded gender and power

constructions that sustain traditional leadership dynamics. The purpose of this study was to

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understand how senior women leaders from diverse social locations experience,

conceptualize, and practice relational leadership and power in large organizations. This
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qualitative study used an intersectional approach to make visible power relations and explore
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the complexity of influences on the leadership of women including social location and

complexity of thinking.

Interviews were completed with 18 executive and senior women leaders from large
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organizations in Canada and the United States. The leaders were nominated as being

relational leaders. The interviews were assessed for the hierarchical complexity of the

reasoning demonstrated in the interviews using the Lectical™ Assessment System. All the

interviews were assessed to be at the systems level of hierarchical complexity. The findings

indicate distinctions in conceptions of leadership and power based on social identity. These

women leaders demonstrated fluidity in working with power using influence, consensus

building, and authority, with a preference for mutual approaches. They incorporated

spirituality, love, care, and strength in their conceptions and use of leadership and power.

Women of Colour were more comfortable with power than White women. Leaders’ beliefs

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WOMEN, RELATIONAL LEADERSHIP, AND POWER

and assumptions about leadership and power created a unique space of action in their

organizations. Deep structures of care, collaboration, and boundaries influenced leaders’

choices of practices. Practices included communicating skillfully, caring for the whole,

connecting to people and perspectives, developing people holistically, and enabling

emergence of results. This study provides a glimpse into deeper structures and leadership

practices and conditions in organizations that may serve to undo traditional heroic

approaches to leadership.

Key Words: relational leadership, power, qualitative, leadership practices, collaboration,

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hierarchical complexity, intersectionality, White women, women of Colour, spirituality, care,
love, metaphors, developmental theory, cognitive development, postheroic leadership

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WOMEN, RELATIONAL LEADERSHIP, AND POWER

Copyright by

DONNA FAY CLARK

2019

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WOMEN, RELATIONAL LEADERSHIP, AND POWER

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I want to begin by thanking the women who agreed to participate in my research.

Without you there would be no dissertation. From the first interview to the final verification

call, your insightful reflections and contributions inspired me!

I want to thank my Dissertation Committee. Placida Gallegos, my Committee Chair,

from your opening facilitation of the Fielding New Student Orientation, to graduation, I’ve

known I was in the right place. I will ever be grateful for your commitment to my

development as both a scholar practitioner and a human being who can make a difference in

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the world. You are a powerful woman and an inspiration to me to step into my power. Steve

Schapiro, my mentor, thanks for your belief in me and encouragement to bring my voice as a
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practitioner into scholarship. You held space for our anchor group, the Heart Scholars, to

make deep connections that have sustained me throughout our studies. Judith Stevens-Long,
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you helped me believe that I could do scholarly writing and your writing mentorship in the

dissertation has been deeply appreciated. Your expertise in adult development has made an
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essential contribution to my graduate studies and my dissertation research. Jo Ann Morris,

my dear friend and student reader, thanks for accompanying me on this dissertation quest

from the beginning and through the challenges in life that have been a part of the path. You

were always available to provide feedback on my ideas and writing and encouragement to get

me through the rough times. Theo Dawson, my external reader, provided sage advice

throughout my research and your detailed feedback deepened my knowledge of adult

development and the quality of my dissertation.

There have been many other Fielding colleagues and faculty who have made this

dissertation possible. I want to thank Frank Barrett for your guidance and encouragement in

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WOMEN, RELATIONAL LEADERSHIP, AND POWER

my relational leadership explorations. Margo Okazawa-Rey, your support to study feminist

research gave me the grounding I needed to dive in. Abby Rae, thanks for the hours of

mentoring on using the digital library and your outstanding commitment to the success of

students at Fielding. The Heart Scholars have provided me with a community here at

Fielding. Akasha, your support in countless calls when I was stuck always opened new

possibilities. You are a great coach and soul brother. Yeva Madden, you have accompanied

me each day in the dissertation process with our daily texts of mutual support and

encouragement. Your prodding to try CrossFit led me on a path of developing my physical

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power that has sustained me through this quest. Mari Kong, our student anchor, thanks for

modelling the way and helping us have fun along the way! Margaret Humphreys, my friend,
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local consulting colleague, and Fielding alum, thanks for your belief in me and picking up

the work when I was racing to complete this dissertation. You knew what it takes to finish
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and helped push me over the finish line. The Zapatistas, my dissertation seminar group with

both current students and alum who have worked with Placida Gallegos, you are scholar
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activists who have encouraged me to use my scholarship for change in the world. Thank you

for connecting me to many of the wonderful women who participated in my research. I look

forward to the work ahead with you.

Michelle Cooper and Marquis Bureau, my business partners in Courage Group, our

work together and your encouragement have given me the courage to continue with my

studies and research to the end. You have walked each step with me and supported me

through the life challenges along the way. Thanks for keeping the Courage fires burning

when I wasn’t always available. I appreciate your love and commitment to making a

difference in the world.

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WOMEN, RELATIONAL LEADERSHIP, AND POWER

Thank-you to my family, friends and colleagues who have held me in love during this

PhD quest. My local community of friends in Halifax, Nova Scotia, you made sure that I

took some time to refresh. Rotary Four Way Harmony, our singing always warmed my

heart. Leona MacDougall and Tim Houlihan, you welcomed me into your lives in many

ways and Leona you were always there with your energy work when I needed support. Rev.

Ivan Gregan, your wisdom, presence and prayers helped me through the darkest days.

Tannaya Hantelman, you coached me to fitness and strength to the end. My condo friends,

you made sure there was wine for celebration! Nan Armour and Sue Bookchin, you

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encouraged me to reach for this degree and share my learning in service of changing systems

for women. Roch Landry thanks for the design coaching. Peggy Issenman, thanks for
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bringing your graphic design talents to my FOR presentation and manuscript.

Finally, my children, Andrew Warren, Daniel Milford-Warren, and Emily Warren

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and their families have believed in me all the way. My step-children Michael Bagnall and

Debbie MacLeod and families, thanks for the many ways you supported me in my studies
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and with your dad in his last days. I hope I’ve made you all proud. To my sister Anne

Bernard, a special thanks for your love and care, and always creating a welcoming space to

take a break. To my brother and his wife, David and Bonita Clark and my sister-in-law and

husband Sheila and Rod Ives, thanks for your support. I also want to acknowledge the care

provided to my husband during my early days at Fielding by his cousin and my friend Diane

Muttart. I miss your fun-loving spirit. And finally, I want to thank my husband Allan

Bagnall. You always believed in me and encouraged me to be all that I could be. We

travelled many roads and laughed and danced together for 27 years. I am ever grateful to

have had you in my life and miss you every day.

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WOMEN, RELATIONAL LEADERSHIP, AND POWER

DEDICATION

To my children

Andrew Warren, Daniel Milford-Warren, and Emily Warren

Believe in yourself. Never give up. Follow your longing.

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WOMEN, RELATIONAL LEADERSHIP, AND POWER

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................1

Inspiration for this Study ........................................................................................................3
Purpose of the Study ..............................................................................................................3
Research Question ..................................................................................................................4
Significance of the Study .......................................................................................................4
Conceptual Framework and Theoretical Background ............................................................5
Relational Leadership .........................................................................................................5
Critical Leadership Perspectives ........................................................................................8
Developmental Stage Theories .........................................................................................10
Summary of Conceptual Framework................................................................................11
Overview of Methodology ...................................................................................................12
Limitations ...........................................................................................................................14
Assumptions and Biases ...................................................................................................15
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ...........................................................17

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Critical Leadership Perspectives ..........................................................................................17
Conceptions of Power in Organizations and Leadership .................................................18
Feminist Perspectives of Power........................................................................................25
Intersectionality ............................................................................................................27
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Gender, Leadership, and Power........................................................................................28
Gender and gendered organizations ..............................................................................29
Gender, race, and ethnicity in leadership – stereotypes and possibilities .....................32
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Style and effectiveness ..............................................................................................34
Marginalization and potential of alternative perspectives .........................................35
The Body Mind Connection in Leadership ......................................................................37
Making Sense of Critical Perspectives on Leadership, Power, and Gender ....................39
Relational Leadership: Theory and Research .......................................................................41
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The Relational Turn in Leadership ...................................................................................41

Mapping the Relational Leadership Field ........................................................................42
Entity perspective .........................................................................................................43
Relational perspective ...................................................................................................45
Relational Leadership and Power .....................................................................................46
Recent Contributions to Relational Leadership Scholarship ............................................50
The outcome and process tension in leadership ............................................................52
Contribution of systems thinking ..................................................................................53
Relational-systemic approach ...................................................................................54
Complexity leadership theory ...................................................................................54
The emergence of the practice emphasis ......................................................................56
Holistic Human Being and Embodied Leadership ...........................................................59
Women and Relational Leadership ..................................................................................60
Summary and Distinguishing Features of Relational Leadership ....................................65
Developmental Stage Theories and Leadership ...................................................................66
Foundations of Developmental Theory ............................................................................67
Cognitive development .................................................................................................67
Psychodynamic development .......................................................................................72

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Constructive development ............................................................................................74

Summary of foundations of developmental stage theories ...........................................75
Links between Developmental Stage Theories and Leadership Theory ..........................76
Measurement of Developmental Level ............................................................................81
Lectical™ Assessment System .......................................................................................81
Comparison of developmental measures ......................................................................83
Developmental Stage Theories Summary ........................................................................85
Summary and Implications of Literature Review ................................................................86
CHAPTER THREE – DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY .....................................................89
Philosophical and Interpretive Frameworks .........................................................................89
Interpretive Social Constructionism .................................................................................89
Feminist Interpretive Perspective .....................................................................................90
Integrated Research Approach .........................................................................................92
Study Participants .................................................................................................................93
Procedures for Identifying and Selecting Participants .....................................................94
Data-Gathering Methods ......................................................................................................95

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Data Analysis Strategy and Procedures..............................................................................100
Pilot Study ..........................................................................................................................102
Procedural Learning .......................................................................................................102
Analysis and Findings ....................................................................................................103
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Validity and Trustworthiness .............................................................................................105
Ethical Considerations........................................................................................................107
Summary ............................................................................................................................107
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CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS .............................................................................................109
Participant Profiles .............................................................................................................109
Conceptions of Leadership .................................................................................................121
Leadership is Collaborating ............................................................................................122
Leadership is Growing People........................................................................................125
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Leadership is Wayshowing.............................................................................................126
Leadership is Achieving and Caring ..............................................................................128
Leadership is Co-Creating Meaning ...............................................................................129
Common Characteristics across the Conceptions of Leadership ...................................130
Opportunities and Challenges of Leadership Approaches .............................................131
Challenges ...................................................................................................................131
Opportunities ..............................................................................................................132
Comparing Perspectives by Diverse Social Location ....................................................133
Developing self-confidence and comfort with self-promotion ...................................134
Responding to pressure to perform and represent identity group ...............................136
Lack of support in the workplace................................................................................137
Using the gifts of their intersecting social location ....................................................140
Summary of Conceptions of Leadership and the Impact of Social Location .................140
Conceptions of Power ........................................................................................................142
Power is the Ability to Put Things in Motion.................................................................143
Power is the Ability to Influence ....................................................................................144
Power is the Ability to Build Support and Consensus ...................................................145
Power is the Authority and Responsibility to Make Decisions ......................................145

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Power Includes Working with Love (Care) and Strength ..............................................148

Social Location and Use of Power .................................................................................149
Intersecting social identities of women of Colour ......................................................150
Intersecting social identities of White women ............................................................155
Summary of Conceptions of Power and Impact of Social Location ..............................158
Practices of Relational Leadership and Power ...................................................................160
Leadership Practices .......................................................................................................161
Theme 1: Caring for the whole ...................................................................................162
Co-creating direction and support ...........................................................................163
Sensing and responding to organizational context ..................................................165
Working with the system.........................................................................................167
Summary of theme 1: Caring for the whole ............................................................169
Theme 2: Communicating skillfully ...........................................................................169
Communicating intentionally ..................................................................................169
Working with tensions ............................................................................................173
Summary of theme 2: Communicating skillfully ....................................................176

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Theme 3: Connecting to people and perspectives.......................................................176
Cultivating relationships .........................................................................................176
Working with multiple perspectives .......................................................................179
Summary of theme 3: Connecting to people and perspectives ...............................181
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Theme 4: Enabling emergence of results ....................................................................181
Co-creating results...................................................................................................181
Enabling processes ..................................................................................................183
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Summary of theme 4: Enabling emergence of results.............................................186
Theme 5: Developing people holistically ...................................................................186
Working with whole human beings ........................................................................186
Grow and develop people ........................................................................................189
Summary of theme 5: Developing people holistically ............................................191
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Organizational Conditions that Impact Relational Leadership ......................................192

Meaningful work.........................................................................................................192
Collaborative principles ..............................................................................................193
Openness and commitment of senior leadership ........................................................195
Collaborative organizational culture ...........................................................................197
Adaptable structures and policies ...............................................................................199
Summary of organizational conditions that impact relational leadership ...................202
Personal Practices ...........................................................................................................202
Workplace practices ....................................................................................................203
Family and support networks ......................................................................................204
Self-care ......................................................................................................................205
Give back to community .............................................................................................206
Summary of personal practices ...................................................................................206
Summary of Practices of Relational Leadership and Power ..........................................206
Hierarchical Complexity ....................................................................................................207
Summary of Major Findings ..............................................................................................209
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION ..........................................................................................212
Summary of the Findings ...................................................................................................212

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Interpretation of Findings ...................................................................................................214

Conceptions of Leadership .............................................................................................215
Conceptions of Power.....................................................................................................221
Connecting Conceptions of Leadership and Power in Relational Leadership ...............228
Intersectional Analysis of Conceptions of Leadership and Power .................................231
Impact of social location on leadership experiences...................................................231
Influence of social location on alternative constructions of power ............................236
Hierarchical Complexity ................................................................................................238
Organizational Conditions and Practices ........................................................................240
Organizational conditions ...........................................................................................241
Practices of relational leadership ................................................................................244
Collective practices .................................................................................................245
Individual practices .................................................................................................252
Summary ............................................................................................................................253
Implications for Scholarship ..............................................................................................254
Recommendations for Future Research .............................................................................256

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Limitations of the Study .....................................................................................................257
Personal Reflections ...........................................................................................................258
References ..........................................................................................................................263
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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Conceptions of Power in Organizations…………………………………………….19

Table 2 Feminist Perspectives on Power…………………………………..……………...…25

Table 3 Critical Perspectives on Gender and Leadership…………………………………....29

Table 4 Comparison of Approaches to Relational Leadership……………………………...44

Table 5 Summary of Recent Contributions to Relational Leadership Scholarship………….51

Table 6 Relational Practice Versus Non-Relational Practice and Relational Malpractice…..62

Table 7 Action Logics by Focus, Method of Influence and Organizational Development….78

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Table 8 Comparison of Developmental Measures…………………………………………..84

Table 9 Summary of Participant Information……………………………………………...110

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Table 10 Leadership Conceptions, Metaphors, and Characteristics of Senior Women Leaders

………………………………………………………………………………………123
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Table 11 Relational Leadership Practice Themes of Senior Women Leaders……..………161

Table 12 Theme 1: Caring for the Whole………………………………………………….162

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Table 13 Theme 2: Communicating Skillfully………………………………………….…170

Table 14 Theme 3: Connecting to People and Perspectives.………………………………177

Table 15 Theme 4: Enabling Emergence of Results……………………………………….182

Table 16 Theme 5: Developing People Holistically……………………………………….187

Table 17 Personal Practices of Senior Level Women Leaders……………………………...203

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Concept diagram. ...................................................................................................... 6

Figure 2. Relational and distributive dimensions of power. ................................................... 23

Figure 3. Critical lenses on leadership and power. ................................................................. 40

Figure 4. Three component model of relational social constructionist leadership. ................ 48

Figure 5. Outcomes and conditions for a continuum of connection...................................... 63

Figure 6. Tiers and levels of development. ........................................................................... 70

Figure 7. Layers of conceptual structure. ............................................................................... 71

Figure 8. Relational leadership conceptions of executive/senior women leaders…………...122

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Figure 9. Conceptions of power in relational leadership by executive/senior women leaders.
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............................................................................................................................................... 142

Figure 10. Intersecting social locations that influenced how senior women work with power.
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............................................................................................................................................... 151

Figure 11. Practices of relational leadership and power by senior women leaders and
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conditions that impact relational leadership. ........................................................................ 207

Figure 12. Holistic model of relational leadership from the experiences of senior women

leaders from diverse social locations. ................................................................................... 213

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix A - Request for Participant Nominations Letter ...................................................293

Appendix B - Flyer for Nominations through Professional Networks ..................................294

Appendix C- Email Invitation to Participants in Study .........................................................295

Appendix D - Study Overview for Participants .....................................................................296

Appendix E - Screening Questionnaire..................................................................................299

Appendix F - Email to Participants Who Pass Screening Process.........................................301

Appendix G - Informed Consent Form ..................................................................................302

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Appendix H - Email to Participants Who Do Not Pass the Screening Process .....................305

Appendix I - Interview Scheduling Email .............................................................................306

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Appendix J - Interview Reminder Email ...............................................................................307

Appendix K - Participant Interview Guide ............................................................................308

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Appendix L - Supplemental Questionnaire............................................................................312

Appendix M - Thank You Email Following Interview .........................................................313

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Appendix N - Confidentiality Agreement for Research Assistance ......................................314

Appendix O - Transcript Email..............................................................................................315

Appendix P - Study Results – Email Invitation to Web-conference .....................................316

Appendix Q – Study Results Call Scheduled – Email Confirmation ....................................317

Appendix R – Lectical Scores of Participant Transcripts ......................................................318

Appendix S – Lectical™ Levels – Examples of Adult Learning Sequence Descriptions ......319

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WOMEN, RELATIONAL LEADERSHIP, AND POWER 1

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

We live in a global economy with rapid innovation cycles and social, political, and

environmental instabilities. Leaders try to make sense of the challenges of a volatile,

uncertain, complex, and ambiguous (VUCA) world. Traditional individualistic leadership,

leader-centric, or heroic approaches are insufficient in a world where organizations need

collaborative efforts to resolve complex problems (Avolio, Walumbwa, & Weber, 2009;

Davis, 2015; Nohria & Khurana, 2010). Many scholars point to the promising potential of a

relational perspective in leadership (Endres & Weibler, 2016; Uhl-Bien, 2006; Werhane &

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Painter-Morland, 2011). Uhl-Bien (2006) developed relational leadership theory (RLT) to

frame the study of relational dynamics in organizations. Relational leadership is defined as

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“a social influence process through which emergent coordination (i.e., evolving social order)

and change (i.e. new values, attitudes, approaches, behaviors, ideologies, etc.) are
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constructed and produced” (p. 668). This is a new way of thinking about and practicing

leadership.
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Leadership scholars who work with adult development theories argue that we are “in

over our heads” (Kegan, 1994). Leaders need more complex meaning making to deal with

adaptive challenges and work with mutual interdependence in relationships (Cook- Greuter,

2004; Kegan, 1994; Kegan & Lahey, 2016; Rooke & Torbert, 1998; Young, 2002). Complex

meaning-making systems are associated with later stages of adult development. At later

stages of development people have greater cognitive complexity that is associated with skills

and ideas such as flexibility of behavior, tolerance for difference and ambiguity, deep sense

of interdependence, and capability to function effectively in a complex world (Lectica, n.d.-

b). Torbert (2004) asserted that at later stages of complex thinking, individuals enact a
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fundamentally different kind of mutual power that supports the transformation of the

individual and the people and organizations with whom they relate.

Fletcher (2004) asserted that the power and gender challenges associated with

postheroic leadership approaches, such as relational leadership must be addressed if the

radical potential of these leadership models to transform organizations is to be realized.

Gordon (2002) has argued that traditional approaches to hierarchical power are deeply

embedded in historical and contextual antecedents. These scholars are part of a movement

called critical leadership studies (CLS). They are dedicated to describing “the power

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relations and identity constructions through which leadership dynamics are often reproduced,

frequently rationalized and occasionally transformed” (Collinson, 2011, p. 181). The study
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of gender in the context of leadership can enhance the understanding of the construction of

organizational processes (Calás, Smircich, & Holvino, 2014; Kyriakidou, 2011). If scholars
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can understand how leadership and power are socially constructed and produced, they can

support constructions that are more relational and emancipatory.

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Feminist scholars have found that an intersectional approach makes visible power

relations and informs potential for change in systems (Choo & Ferree, 2010; McCall, 2005;

MacKinnon, 2013). An intersectional approach recognizes that race, ethnicity, and gender

interact simultaneously, create our social location, and remain as powerful forces in our

society that impact the experiences of all. The exploration of relational leadership and power

as conceptualized and practiced by women leaders at the intersection of race, ethnicity, and

other social locations offers the potential to understand how alternative constructions of

leadership and power are socially constructed and produced.

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Inspiration for this Study

I come to the study of leadership as a woman who has served in senior leadership

roles and now regularly supports formal leaders in developing more collaborative and

relational approaches to leadership. In my time as a leader and in my consulting practice I

have worked extensively in male-dominated professions of science and engineering and with

women in these professions. My observation is that these shifts to more collaborative

approaches are challenging for those in formal leadership roles and require a deep personal

commitment to let go of command and control and lead more relationally. Out of this

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personal experience, I have a deep curiosity about what I can learn from those who succeed

in practicing relational approaches to leadership; in particular, I am interested in experiences

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of women in executive and senior leadership roles. It is my hope that this type of research

can help promote further study of alternative constructions of leadership and power.
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In this introductory chapter, I provide an overview of the purpose of the study,

research question, significance of the study, a conceptual framework and methodology, all of
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which are explained more fully in the chapters to follow.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to develop a more holistic understanding of relational

leadership and power. This study explored how women executives and senior leaders of

diverse race, ethnicity, age, sexuality, and other social locations experience, conceptualize,

and practice leadership and power. The results of this study will contribute to understanding

the connection between adult development and how relational leadership is constructed and

embodied in organizations. I bring a critical and feminist lens to this research, a standpoint

that is largely underexplored in adult development and leadership research and has the
WOMEN, RELATIONAL LEADERSHIP, AND POWER 4

potential to inform scholarship on collaborative, emancipatory, and inclusive leadership

conceptualizations and practices.

This study was based on the belief that we can learn a great deal from the

experiences of leaders who work with relational approaches. How do they construct

leadership and power with others? What is their level of adult development? How can their

leadership practices inform future development of leadership in organizations?

Research Question

The question that underlies this research study is,

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How do executive/senior women leaders from diverse social locations experience,

conceptualize, and practice relational leadership and power in large organizations?

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Significance of the Study

This research is important for four reasons. First, new collective approaches to
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leadership are needed in organizations dealing with the adaptive challenges of a volatile,

uncertain, complex, and ambiguous world. Documenting the lived experiences of leaders
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who are enacting relational models of leadership can inform both the theory and practice of

leadership.

Second, there is limited leadership research literature that documents the leadership

practices of those at a later developmental level (Brown, 2012b; McCauley, Drath, Palus,

O’Connor, & Baker, 2006) and empirical evidence linking developmental level to leadership

approaches has produced mixed results. This study assessed the level of development of a

unique group of leaders as well as documented details of their leadership practices. It will

add to the understanding of potential linkages between developmental level and leadership

practices.
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The final two contributions relate to the diversity of the participants in this study.

Women are historically underrepresented in executive and senior-level roles. Data and

findings from this study will contribute to a more complex understanding of the construction

and practice of leadership and power by bringing in perspectives of women from multiple

and intersecting social locations. Findings from this study have the potential to inform more

inclusive organizational practices and ways to work with power imbalances in organizations,

contributing to emancipatory and democratic organizational processes.

Conceptual Framework and Theoretical Background

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The conceptual framework that guided this study is depicted in Figure 1. It includes

three theoretical lenses: relational leadership theory, critical leadership studies, specifically
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power and gender in leadership, and developmental theory. A brief overview of some of the

literature that informs this conceptual framework is provided here. A more detailed
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discussion is included in Chapter 2.

Relational Leadership
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RLT was developed by Uhl-Bien (2006) to conceptualize the relational dynamics of

leadership and how change is constructed. She defined relational leadership as “a social

influence process through which emergent coordination (i.e. evolving social order) and

change (i.e. new values, attitudes, approaches, behaviors, ideologies, etc.) are constructed

and produced” (p. 668). She distinguished two ways to look at relational leadership. One

highlights leadership through interpersonal relationships and the influence of individual

characteristics and perceptions of people in the relationship. Uhl-Bien calls this the entity

perspective. The second perspective focuses on the collective dynamic or processes of

relating through which people co-construct leadership. Individuals and their actions emerge
WOMEN, RELATIONAL LEADERSHIP, AND POWER 6

and evolve in their unique contexts. Uhl-Bien called this the relational perspective. Scholars

of the entity perspective focus on individual agency and relationships as the outcome of

interactions between individuals. A relational approach surfaces the processes of power,

influence and identity constructions in organizational systems as people co-create leadership

in relationships.

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Figure 1. Concept diagram.

Various collective and process expressions of leadership are included in relational

leadership from shared leadership (Pearce & Conger, 2003) and distributed leadership

(Gronn, 2002) to plural leadership (Denis, Langley, & Sergi, 2012) and leadership-as-

practice (Crevani & Endrissat, 2016; Raelin, 2011, 2016a, 2016b). Denis, Langley, and Sergi

(2012) were critical of the absence of power considerations across these relational

approaches. Crevani, Lindgren, and Packendorff (2010) have emphasized that it is important

to understand how power is produced and reproduced in “doing leadership” (p. 84). Endres
WOMEN, RELATIONAL LEADERSHIP, AND POWER 7

and Weibler (2016) pointed out that dysfunctional dynamics are possible in relational

leadership and need further research. Ford (2016) raised concerns that relational scholars

may reinforce traditional assumptions about organizations and ignore power. She urged

scholars to take a critical and reflexive approach to research to uncover institutionalized

inequities.

Experiences of relational leadership can vary across different racial groups. Ospina

and Foldy (2009) argued that race/ethnicity is an important dimension in the co-construction

of leadership in interactions. Offermann (2012) found racial similarities between leaders and

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managers led to more positive perceptions of managers. African American and Asian groups

often reported less satisfactory relationships with managers than Whites or Hispanics.
IE
The focus of research to date has been limited in scope. Bradbury and Lichtenstein

(2000) pointed out that research on interactions has focused on linguistic and discursive
EV
processes rather than the relational experiences between people where power is enacted.

Researchers have argued for the need to consider the body and body consciousness in the
PR

lived experiences of leadership including feelings, sensations, and intuition (Küpers, 2013;

Ladkin, 2013; Shotter 2016). Woods (2016) advocated integration of the development of

people as whole human beings and more inclusive participation to more fully incorporate

democratic values into leadership and extend the social justice implications.

Relational leadership approaches offer potential to bring postheroic approaches to

leadership into organizations. Despite this potential, scholars have failed to study the power

dimensions of relational leadership approaches including the impact of social location. I turn

next to an overview of power and gender from critical leadership perspectives that informed

my study. This will be followed by an overview of cognitive developmental literature.

WOMEN, RELATIONAL LEADERSHIP, AND POWER 8

Critical Leadership Perspectives

CLS scholars illuminate the failure to explore complex leadership dynamics, the

social and cultural context, and issues of power and control (Collinson, 2011; Ford, 2006;

Gordon, 2011). Some even question the necessity of leadership (Learmonth & Morrell,

2016). When individual leaders are held responsible for organizational successes or blamed

for failures, it reinforces a heroic view of leadership. Feminist scholars point to the

dominance of masculine characteristics and heroic images within organizational and

leadership theory and practice (Fletcher, 2004; Ford, 2006; Werhane & Painter-Morland,

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2011).

Several scholars bring attention to the deep structures in society that serve to sustain
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heroic images of leadership and power in organizations (Giddens, 1979, 1984; Foucault,

trans. 1980; Collinson, 2011). Foucault argued that power has been pervasive in our lives
EV
and has become situated within each of us as a form of self-censorship that limits choices and

actions in life (Foucault, trans. 1980). Both Giddens and Foucault emphasized power in the
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flow of embodied daily actions in making social system change. These views of power lead

me to be curious about what we can understand about the complexity of power, the dynamics

of how it operates, and possibilities to change systems of power through exploration of the

embodied actions of people who make change happen.

In critical leadership literature two themes related to power dynamics are often

considered: leader/follower and the mind/body dichotomies (Collinson, 2014). The

leader/follower distinction implies a power differential and the traditional leadership

literature is built on this dualism and superiority of leaders (Gordon, 2002). Some scholars

argue for alternative interpretations of leadership that challenge traditional concepts (Kelly,