Mechanism of Minds: How your brain works

Your brain contains billions of nerve cells arranged in patterns that coordinate thought, emotion,
behavior, movement and sensation. A complicated highway system of nerves connects your brain to the
rest of your body, so communication can occur in split seconds. Think about how fast you pull your
hand back from a hot stove. While all the parts of your brain work together, each part is responsible for a
specific function — controlling everything from your heart rate to your mood.

The cerebrum is the largest part of your brain. It's what you probably visualize when you think of brains
in general. The outermost layer of the cerebrum is the cerebral cortex, the "gray matter" of the brain.
Deep folds and wrinkles in the brain increase the surface area of the gray matter, so more information
can be processed.

The cerebrum is divided into two halves (hemispheres) by a deep fissure. The hemispheres communicate
with each other through a thick tract of nerves, called the corpus callosum, at the base of the fissure. In
fact, messages to and from one side of the body are usually handled by the opposite side of the brain.
Your brain's hemispheres are divided into four lobes.

 The frontal lobes control thinking, planning, organizing, problem solving, short-term memory
and movement.
 The parietal lobes interpret sensory information, such as taste, temperature and touch.
 The occipital lobes process images from your eyes and link that information with images stored
in memory.
 The temporal lobes process information from your senses of smell, taste and sound. They also
play a role in memory storage.

The cerebellum is a wrinkled ball of tissue below and behind the rest of your brain. It works to combine
sensory information from the eyes, ears and muscles to help coordinate movement.

The brainstem links the brain to the spinal cord. It controls many functions vital to life, such as heart
rate, blood pressure and breathing. This area is also important for sleep
Structures deep within the brain control emotions and memories. Known as the limbic system, these
structures come in pairs. Each part of this system is duplicated in the opposite half of the brain.

 The thalamus acts as a gatekeeper for messages passed between the spinal cord and the cerebral
hemispheres.
 The hypothalamus controls emotions. It also regulates your body's temperature and controls
crucial urges — such as eating or sleeping.
 The hippocampus sends memories to be stored in appropriate sections of the cerebrum and then
recalls them when necessary.

The peripheral nervous system is all the nerves in your body, aside from the ones in your brain and
spinal cord. It acts as a communication relay between your brain and your extremities. For example, if
you touch a hot stove, the pain signals travel from your finger to your brain in a split second. In just as
short a time, your brain tells the muscles in your arm and hand to snatch your finger off the hot stove.
Nerve cells (neurons) have two main types of branches coming off their cell bodies. Dendrites receive
incoming messages from other nerve cells. Axons carry outgoing signals from the cell body to other
cells — such as a nearby neuron or muscle cell.

Interconnected with each other, neurons are able to provide efficient, lightning-fast communication.

A nerve cell (neuron) communicates with other cells through electrical impulses when the nerve cell is
stimulated. Within a neuron, the impulse moves to the tip of an axon and causes the release of
neurotransmitters, chemicals that act as messengers.

Neurotransmitters pass through the synapse, the gap between two nerve cells, and attach to receptors on
the receiving cell. This process repeats from neuron to neuron, as the impulse travels to its destination
— a web of communication that allows you to move, think, feel and communicate.

Brain Anatomy and How the Brain Works

What is the brain?
The brain is a complex organ that controls thought, memory, emotion, touch, motor skills, vision,
breathing, temperature, hunger and every process that regulates our body. Together, the brain and spinal
cord that extends from it make up the central nervous system, or CNS.

What is the brain made of?

Weighing about 3 pounds in the average adult, the brain is about 60% fat. The remaining 40% is a
combination of water, protein, carbohydrates and salts. The brain itself is a not a muscle. It contains
blood vessels and nerves, including neurons and glial cells.

What is the gray matter and white matter?

Gray and white matter are two different regions of the central nervous system. In the brain, gray matter
refers to the darker, outer portion, while white matter describes the lighter, inner section underneath. In
the spinal cord, this order is reversed: The white matter is on the outside, and the gray matter sits within.

Gray matter is primarily composed of neuron somas (the round central cell bodies), and white matter is
mostly made of axons (the long stems that connects neurons together) wrapped in myelin (a protective
coating). The different composition of neuron parts is why the two appear as separate shades on certain
scans.
Each region serves a different role. Gray matter is primarily responsible for processing and interpreting
information, while white matter transmits that information to other parts of the nervous system.

How does the brain work?

The brain sends and receives chemical and electrical signals throughout the body. Different signals
control different processes, and your brain interprets each. Some make you feel tired, for example, while
others make you feel pain.

Some messages are kept within the brain, while others are relayed through the spine and across the
body’s vast network of nerves to distant extremities. To do this, the central nervous system relies on
billions of neurons (nerve cells).

Main Parts of the Brain and Their Functions

At a high level, the brain can be divided into the cerebrum, brainstem and cerebellum.

Cerebrum

The cerebrum (front of brain) comprises gray matter (the cerebral cortex) and white matter at its center.
The largest part of the brain, the cerebrum initiates and coordinates movement and regulates
temperature. Other areas of the cerebrum enable speech, judgment, thinking and reasoning, problem-
solving, emotions and learning. Other functions relate to vision, hearing, touch and other senses.

Cerebral Cortex

Cortex is Latin for “bark,” and describes the outer gray matter covering of the cerebrum. The cortex has
a large surface area due to its folds, and comprises about half of the brain’s weight.

The cerebral cortex is divided into two halves, or hemispheres. It is covered with ridges (gyri) and folds
(sulci). The two halves join at a large, deep sulcus (the interhemispheric fissure, AKA the medial
longitudinal fissure) that runs from the front of the head to the back. The right hemisphere controls the
left side of the body, and the left half controls the right side of the body. The two halves communicate
with one another through a large, C-shaped structure of white matter and nerve pathways called the
corpus callosum. The corpus callosum is in the center of the cerebrum.

Brainstem

The brainstem (middle of brain) connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord. The brainstem includes the
midbrain, the pons and the medulla.

 Midbrain. The midbrain (or mesencephalon) is a very complex structure with a range of
different neuron clusters (nuclei and colliculi), neural pathways and other structures. These
features facilitate various functions, from hearing and movement to calculating responses and
environmental changes. The midbrain also contains the substantia nigra, an area affected by
Parkinson’s disease that is rich in dopamine neurons and part of the basal ganglia, which enables
movement and coordination.
 Pons. The pons is the origin for four of the 12 cranial nerves, which enable a range of activities
such as tear production, chewing, blinking, focusing vision, balance, hearing and facial
expression. Named for the Latin word for “bridge,” the pons is the connection between the
midbrain and the medulla.
 Medulla. At the bottom of the brainstem, the medulla is where the brain meets the spinal cord.
The medulla is essential to survival. Functions of the medulla regulate many bodily activities,
including heart rhythm, breathing, blood flow, and oxygen and carbon dioxide levels. The
medulla produces reflexive activities such as sneezing, vomiting, coughing and swallowing.

The spinal cord extends from the bottom of the medulla and through a large opening in the bottom of
the skull. Supported by the vertebrae, the spinal cord carries messages to and from the brain and the rest
of the body.

Cerebellum

The cerebellum (“little brain”) is a fist-sized portion of the brain located at the back of the head, below
the temporal and occipital lobes and above the brainstem. Like the cerebral cortex, it has two
hemispheres. The outer portion contains neurons, and the inner area communicates with the cerebral
cortex. Its function is to coordinate voluntary muscle movements and to maintain posture, balance and
equilibrium. New studies are exploring the cerebellum’s roles in thought, emotions and social behavior,
as well as its possible involvement in addiction, autism and schizophrenia.

Brain Coverings: Meninges

Three layers of protective covering called meninges surround the brain and the spinal cord.

 The outermost layer, the dura mater, is thick and tough. It includes two layers: The periosteal
layer of the dura mater lines the inner dome of the skull (cranium) and the meningeal layer is
 below that. Spaces between the layers allow for the passage of veins and arteries that supply
blood flow to the brain.
 The arachnoid mater is a thin, weblike layer of connective tissue that does not contain nerves or
blood vessels. Below the arachnoid mater is the cerebrospinal fluid, or CSF. This fluid cushions
the entire central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and continually circulates around these
structures to remove impurities.
 The pia mater is a thin membrane that hugs the surface of the brain and follows its contours.
The pia mater is rich with veins and arteries.

Lobes of the Brain and What They Control

Each brain hemisphere (parts of the cerebrum) has four sections, called lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal
and occipital. Each lobe controls specific functions.
  Frontal lobe. The largest lobe of the brain, located in the front of the head, the frontal lobe is
involved in personality characteristics, decision-making and movement. Recognition of smell
usually involves parts of the frontal lobe. The frontal lobe contains Broca’s area, which is
associated with speech ability.
 Parietal lobe. The middle part of the brain, the parietal lobe helps a person identify objects and
understand spatial relationships (where one’s body is compared with objects around the person).
The parietal lobe is also involved in interpreting pain and touch in the body. The parietal lobe
houses Wernicke’s area, which helps the brain understand spoken language.
 Occipital lobe. The occipital lobe is the back part of the brain that is involved with vision.
 Temporal lobe. The sides of the brain, temporal lobes are involved in short-term memory,
speech, musical rhythm and some degree of smell recognition.

Deeper Structures Within the Brain

Pituitary Gland

Sometimes called the “master gland,” the pituitary gland is a pea-sized structure found deep in the brain
behind the bridge of the nose. The pituitary gland governs the function of other glands in the body,
regulating the flow of hormones from the thyroid, adrenals, ovaries and testicles. It receives chemical
signals from the hypothalamus through its stalk and blood supply.

Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is located above the pituitary gland and sends it chemical messages that control its
function. It regulates body temperature, synchronizes sleep patterns, controls hunger and thirst and also
plays a role in some aspects of memory and emotion.

Amygdala

Small, almond-shaped structures, an amygdala is located under each half (hemisphere) of the brain.
Included in the limbic system, the amygdalae regulate emotion and memory and are associated with the
brain’s reward system, stress, and the “fight or flight” response when someone perceives a threat.

Hippocampus

A curved seahorse-shaped organ on the underside of each temporal lobe, the hippocampus is part of a
larger structure called the hippocampal formation. It supports memory, learning, navigation and
perception of space. It receives information from the cerebral cortex and may play a role in Alzheimer’s
disease.

Pineal Gland

The pineal gland is located deep in the brain and attached by a stalk to the top of the third ventricle. The
pineal gland responds to light and dark and secretes melatonin, which regulates circadian rhythms and
the sleep-wake cycle.

Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid

Deep in the brain are four open areas with passageways between them. They also open into the central
spinal canal and the area beneath arachnoid layer of the meninges.

The ventricles manufacture cerebrospinal fluid, or CSF, a watery fluid that circulates in and around the
ventricles and the spinal cord, and between the meninges. CSF surrounds and cushions the spinal cord
and brain, washes out waste and impurities, and delivers nutrients.
Blood Supply to the Brain
Two sets of blood vessels supply blood and oxygen to the brain: the vertebral arteries and the carotid
arteries.

The external carotid arteries extend up the sides of your neck, and are where you can feel your pulse
when you touch the area with your fingertips. The internal carotid arteries branch into the skull and
circulate blood to the front part of the brain.

The vertebral arteries follow the spinal column into the skull, where they join together at the brainstem
and form the basilar artery, which supplies blood to the rear portions of the brain.

The circle of Willis, a loop of blood vessels near the bottom of the brain that connects major arteries,
circulates blood from the front of the brain to the back and helps the arterial systems communicate with
one another.
Cranial Nerves
Inside the cranium (the dome of the skull), there are 12 nerves, called cranial nerves:

 Cranial nerve 1: The first is the olfactory nerve, which allows for your sense of smell.
 Cranial nerve 2: The optic nerve governs eyesight.
 Cranial nerve 3: The oculomotor nerve controls pupil response and other motions of the eye,
and branches out from the area in the brainstem where the midbrain meets the pons.
 Cranial nerve 4: The trochlear nerve controls muscles in the eye. It emerges from the back of
the midbrain part of the brainstem.
 Cranial nerve 5: The trigeminal nerve is the largest and most complex of the cranial nerves,
with both sensory and motor function. It originates from the pons and conveys sensation from the
scalp, teeth, jaw, sinuses, parts of the mouth and face to the brain, allows the function of chewing
muscles, and much more.
 Cranial nerve 6: The abducens nerve innervates some of the muscles in the eye.
 Cranial nerve 7: The facial nerve supports face movement, taste, glandular and other functions.
 Cranial nerve 8: The vestibulocochlear nerve facilitates balance and hearing.
 Cranial nerve 9: The glossopharyngeal nerve allows taste, ear and throat movement, and has
many more functions.
 Cranial nerve 10: The vagus nerve allows sensation around the ear and the digestive system and
controls motor activity in the heart, throat and digestive system.
 Cranial nerve 11: The accessory nerve innervates specific muscles in the head, neck and
shoulder.
 Cranial nerve 12: The hypoglossal nerve supplies motor activity to the tongue.

The first two nerves originate in the cerebrum, and the remaining 10 cranial nerves emerge from the
brainstem, which has three parts: the midbrain, the pons and the medulla.