DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

Dr. Pradip Kumar Sahu

Associate Professor,
Department of Information Technology
Lecture 1 and 2 of Module 2

Logic Gates
Overview

 Introduction
 Logical Operators
 Basic Gates
 Universal Gates
 Realization of Basic Gates using Universal Gates
 Other Logic Gates
 Introduction

 Binary variables take on one of two values

 Logical operators operate on binary values and binary variables
 Basic logical operators are the logic functions AND, OR and NOT
 Logic gates implement logic functions
 Boolean Algebra: a useful mathematical system for specifying and
transforming logic functions
 We study Boolean algebra as a foundation for designing and analyzing digital
systems
Binary Variables

 Recall that the two binary values have different names:

 True/False
 On/Off
 Yes/No
 1/0
 We use 1 and 0 to denote the two values.
 Variable identifier examples:
 A, B, x, y, z, or X1 , X2 etc. for now
Logical Operations

 The three basic logical operations are:

 AND
 OR
 NOT
 AND is denoted by a dot (·)
 OR is denoted by a plus (+)
 NOT is denoted by an over bar ( ¯ ), a single quote mark (') after, or (~) before
the variable
 Operator

Operators operate on binary values and binary variables

Operations are defined on the values "0" and "1" for each operator:

AND OR NOT
0·0=0 0+0=0 0=1
0·1=0 0+1=1 1= 0
1·0=0 1+0=1
1·1=1 1+1=1
 Truth Tables

 Truth table - a tabular listing of the values of a function for all possible combinations of values
on its arguments
 Example: Truth tables for the basic logic operations:

AND OR NOT
X Y Z = X·Y X Y Z = X+Y X Z = ̅X
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
Logic Function Implementation

Switches in parallel => OR

 Using Switches
 For inputs:
 logic 1 is switch closed
 logic 0 is switch open
 For outputs:
 logic 1 is light on Switches in series => AND
 logic 0 is light off.
Logic Gates

 In the earliest computers, switches were opened and closed by magnetic

fields produced by energizing coils in relays. The switches in turn opened
and closed the current paths.
 Later, vacuum tubes that open and close current paths electronically replaced
relays.
 Today, transistors are used as electronic switches that open and close current
paths.
 NOT, AND and OR Gates (Basic gates)
 NAND and NOR Gates (Universal logic gates)
 NOT Gate

A NOT gate accepts one input signal (0 or 1) and returns the opposite signal as output
AND Gate

If all inputs are 1, the output is 1; otherwise, the output is 0

Or if any input is 0, output is 0
OR Gate

If all inputs are 0, the output is 0; otherwise, the output is 1

Or if any input is 1, output will be 1
Universal Gates

 Universal Logic Gate: Any basic gate or logic function can be

realized using this gate
 Two universal logic gates
 NAND
 NOR
NAND Gate

If all inputs are 1, the output is 0; otherwise, the output is 1

NOR Gate

If all inputs are 0, the output is 1; otherwise, the output is 0

Realization

NAND gates are sometimes called universal gates because they can be used to
produce the other basic Boolean functions.

A A A AB
B
Inverter AND gate

A A
A+B A+B
B B

OR gate NOR gate

Realization

NOR gates are also universal gates and can form all of the basic gates.

A A A A+ B
B
Inverter OR gate

A A
AB AB
B B

AND gate NAND gate

XOR Gate

If odd numbers of inputs are 1, the output is 1; otherwise, the output is 0

X-NOR Gate

XNOR X Y Z
X
Z 0 0 1
Y
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Constructing Gates
Transistor
A device that acts either as a wire that conducts electricity or as a resistor that blocks the
flow of electricity, depending on the voltage level of an input signal
A transistor has no moving parts, yet acts like a switch
It is made of a semiconductor material, which is neither a particularly good conductor of
electricity nor a particularly good insulator
A transistor has three terminals
 A source
 A base
 An emitter, typically connected to a ground wire
If the electrical signal is grounded, it is allowed to flow through
an alternative route to the ground (literally) where it can do
no harm
AND Gate OR Gate
Timing Diagram

t0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6
1
Input A 0
1 Transitions
signals B 0

1
F=A•B 0 Basic
Gate
1 Assumption:
Output G=A+B 0 Zero time for
Signals 1
H=A’ 0
signals to
propagate
Through gates
Gate Delay

 In actual physical gates, if one or more input changes causes the output to change, the
output change does not occur instantaneously.
 The delay between an input change(s) and the resulting output change is the gate delay
denoted by tG:
1
Input
0
tG tG tG = 0.3 ns
1
Output
0

0 0.5 1 1.5 Time (ns)

Lecture 3 and 4 of Module 2

Boolean Algebra
Overview

 Introduction
 Boolean Algebra
 Properties
 Algebraic Manipulation
 De-Morgan Theorem
 Complementation
 Truth Table
 Introduction

 Understand the relationship between Boolean logic and digital computer circuits.
 Learn how to design simple logic circuits.
 Understand how digital circuits work together to form complex computer systems.
 In the latter part of the nineteenth century, George Boole suggested that logical
thought could be represented through mathematical equations.
 Computers, as we know them today, are implementations of Boole‟s Laws of
Thought.
 In this chapter, you will learn the simplicity that constitutes the essence of the
machine (Boolean Algebra).
 Boolean algebra

 Boolean algebra is a mathematical system for the manipulation of

variables that can have one of two values.
 In formal logic, these values are “true” and “false.”
 In digital systems, these values are “on” and “off,” 1 and 0, or “high”
and “low.”
 Boolean expressions are created by performing operations on Boolean
variables.
 Common Boolean operators include AND, OR, NOT, XOR, NAND
and NOR
 A Boolean operator can be completely described using a truth
table.
 The truth table for the Boolean operators AND, OR and NOT are
shown at the right.
 The AND operator is also known as a Boolean product.
 The OR operator is the Boolean sum.
 The NOT operation is most often designated by an over-bar. It is
sometimes indicated by a prime mark ( „ ) or an “elbow” ().
 A Boolean function has:
• At least one Boolean variable,
• At least one Boolean operator, and
• At least one input from the set {0,1}
 It produces an output that is also a member of the set {0,1}

Now you know why the binary numbering system is so

handy in digital systems
Conceptually
Boolean
Algebra

Truth Logic
Table Circuit
 Digital computers contain circuits that implement Boolean functions.
 The simpler that we can make a Boolean function, the smaller the circuit
that will result.
 Simpler circuits are cheaper to build, consume less power, and run faster
than complex circuits.
 With this in mind, we always want to reduce our Boolean functions to their
simplest form.
 There are a number of Boolean identities that help us to do this.
Properties of Boolean Algebra

 Most Boolean identities have an AND (product) form as well as an OR

(sum) form.
 Our second group of Boolean identities should be familiar to you
from your study of algebra:
 Our last group of Boolean identities are perhaps the most useful.
 If you have studied set theory or formal logic, these laws are also familiar to you.
 We can use Boolean identities to simplify the function:

as follows:
With respect to duality, Identities 1 – 8 have the following
relationship:

1. X + 0 = X 2. X • 1 = X (dual of 1)
3. X + 1 = 1 4. X • 0 = 0 (dual of 3)
5. X + X = X 6. X • X = X (dual of 5)
7. X + X’ = 1 8. X • X’ = 0 (dual of 8)
Algebraic Manipulation

 Boolean algebra is a useful tool for simplifying digital circuits.

 Why do it? Simpler can mean cheaper, smaller, faster.
 Example: Simplify F = x’yz + x’yz’ + xz.
F= x’yz + x’yz’ + xz
= x’y(z+z’) + xz
= x’y•1 + xz
= x’y + xz
 Example: Prove x’y’z’ + x’yz’ + xyz’ = x’z’ + yz’
 Proof: x’y’z’+ x’yz’+ xyz’
= x’y’z’ + x’yz’ + x’yz’ + xyz’
= x’z’(y’+y) + yz’(x’+x)
= x’z’•1 + yz’•1
= x’z’ + yz’
Complementation

 Sometimes it is more economical to build a circuit using the complement of a

function (and complementing its result) than it is to implement the function
directly.
 DeMorgan‟s law provides an easy way of finding the complement of a Boolean
function.
 DeMorgan‟s law states:
 Find the complement of F(x, y, z) = x y’ z’ + x’ y z

 G = F’ = (xy’z’ + x’yz)’
= (xy’z’)’ • (x’yz)’ DeMorgan
= (x’+y+z) • (x+y’+z’) DeMorgan again

 Note: The complement of a function can also be derived by finding the

function’s dual, and then complementing all of the literals
 Truth Table

 Enumerates all possible combinations of variable values x y z F1 F2 F3

and the corresponding function value 0 0 0 0 1 1
 Truth tables for some arbitrary functions 0 0 1 0 0 1
F1(x,y,z), F2(x,y,z), and F3(x,y,z) are shown to the right.
0 1 0 0 0 1
 Truth table: a unique representation of a Boolean function
 If two functions have identical truth tables, the functions 0 1 1 0 1 1
are equivalent (and vice-versa). 1 0 0 0 1 0
 Truth tables can be used to prove equality theorems. 1 0 1 0 1 0
 However, the size of a truth table grows exponentially with
the number of variables involved. This motivates the use of
1 1 0 0 0 0
Boolean Algebra. 1 1 1 1 0 1
Lecture 5 of Module 2

Standard SOP and POS

Overview

 Introduction
 SOP and POS
 Minterms and Maxterms
 Canonical Forms
 Conversion Between Canonical Forms
 Standard Forms
Introduction

 Through our exercises in simplifying Boolean expressions, we

see that there are numerous ways of stating the same Boolean
expression.
 These “synonymous” forms are logically equivalent.
 Logically equivalent expressions have identical truth tables.
 In order to eliminate as much confusion as possible, designers
express Boolean functions in standardized or canonical form.
SOP and POS

 There are two canonical forms for Boolean expressions: Sum-Of-Products

(SOP) and Product-Of-Sums (POS).
 Recall the Boolean product is the AND operation and the Boolean sum
is the OR operation.
 In the Sum-Of-Products form, ANDed variables are ORed together.
 For example:

 In the Product-Of-Sums form, ORed variables are ANDed together:

 For example:
Definitions

 Literal: A variable or its complement

 Product term: literals connected by •
 Sum term: literals connected by +
 Minterm: a product term in which all the variables appear exactly
once, either complemented or un-complemented
 Maxterm: a sum term in which all the variables appear exactly
once, either complemented or un-complemented
 Truth Table notation for Minterms and Maxterms

 Minterms and Maxterms are easy to denote

using a truth table. x y z Minterm Maxterm
 Example: 0 0 0 x’y’z’ = m0 x+y+z = M0
Assume 3 variables x,y,z (order is fixed)
0 0 1 x’y’z = m1 x+y+z’ = M1
 Any Boolean function F( ) can be expressed as a
unique sum of minterms and a unique product 0 1 0 x’yz’ = m2 x+y’+z = M2
of maxterms (under a fixed variable ordering). 0 1 1 x’yz = m3 x+y’+z’= M3
 In other words, every function F() has two 1 0 0 xy’z’ = m4 x’+y+z = M4
canonical forms:
 Canonical Sum-Of-Products (sum of 1 0 1 xy’z = m5 x’+y+z’ = M5
minterms) 1 1 0 xyz’ = m6 x’+y’+z = M6
 Canonical Product-Of-Sums (product of 1 1 1 xyz = m7 x’+y’+z’ = M7
maxterms)
 Canonical Forms

 Canonical Sum-Of-Products:
The minterms included are those mj such that F( ) = 1 in row j of the truth table for F( ).
 Canonical Product-Of-Sums:
The maxterms included are those Mj such that F( ) = 0 in row j of the truth table for F( ).

• f1(a,b,c) = ∑ m(1,2,4,6), where ∑ indicates that this is a sum-of-products form, and

m(1,2,4,6) indicates that the minterms to be included are m1, m2, m4, and m6.
• f1(a,b,c) = ∏ M(0,3,5,7), where ∏ indicates that this is a product-of-sums form,
and M(0,3,5,7) indicates that the maxterms to be included are M0, M3, M5, and M7.
• Since mj = Mj‟ for any j,
∑ m(1,2,4,6) = ∏ M(0,3,5,7) = f1(a,b,c)
Conversion Between Canonical Forms

 Replace ∑ with ∏ (or vice versa) and replace those j’s that appeared in
the original form with those that do not.
 Example:
f1(a,b,c) = a‟b‟c + a‟bc‟ + ab‟c‟ + abc‟
= m1 + m2 + m4 + m6
= ∑(1,2,4,6)
= ∏(0,3,5,7)
= (a+b+c)•(a+b‟+c‟)•(a‟+b+c‟)•(a‟+b‟+c‟)
 F = XY Z  XYZ  XY Z  XYZ = m0  m2  m5  m7 =  m(0, 2, 5, 7)
F = XY Z  XYZ  XY Z  XYZ = m1  m3  m4  m6 =  m(1, 3, 4, 6)

F = m1  m3  m4  m6
 F = m1  m3  m4  m6 = m1  m3  m4  m6

 F = M 1  M 3  M 4  M 6 = ( X  Y  Z )( X  Y  Z )( X  Y  Z )( X  Y  Z )
=  M (1, 3, 4, 6)
Standard Forms

• Standard forms are “like” canonical forms, except that not all
variables need appear in the individual product (SOP) or sum
(POS) terms.
• Example:
f1(a,b,c) = a‟b‟c + bc‟ + ac‟
is a standard sum-of-products form
• f1(a,b,c) = (a+b+c)•(b‟+c‟)•(a‟+c‟)
is a standard product-of-sums form.
Conversion of SOP from standard to canonical form

 Expand non-canonical terms by inserting equivalent of 1 in

each missing variable x:
(x + x‟) = 1
 Remove duplicate minterms
 f1(a,b,c) = a‟b‟c + bc‟ + ac‟
= a‟b‟c + (a+a‟)bc‟ + a(b+b‟)c‟
= a‟b‟c + abc‟ + a‟bc‟ + abc‟ + ab‟c‟
= a‟b‟c + abc‟ + a‟bc‟ + ab‟c‟
Conversion of POS from standard to canonical form

 Expand non-canonical terms by adding 0 in terms of missing

variables (e.g., xx‟ = 0) and using the distributive law
 Remove duplicate maxterms
 f1(a,b,c) = (a+b+c)•(b‟+c‟)•(a‟+c‟)
= (a+b+c)•(aa‟+b‟+c‟)•(a‟+bb‟+c‟)
= (a+b+c)•(a+b‟+c‟)•(a‟+b‟+c‟)•(a‟+b+c‟)•(a‟+b‟+c‟)
= (a+b+c)•(a+b‟+c‟)•(a‟+b‟+c‟)•(a‟+b+c‟)
Lecture 6, 7 and 8 of Module 2

Minimization Techniques
Overview

 Introduction
 Karnaugh Map (K-Map)
 Simplification Rules
 K-Map Simplification for Two Variables
 K-Map Simplification for Three Variables
 K-Map Simplification for Four Variables
 Don‟t Care Conditions
 Redundancy
 Design of Combinational Circuits
Introduction

Truth Boolean
Table Function

Unique Many different expressions exist

Simplification from Boolean function

- Finding an equivalent expression that is least expensive to implement

- For a simple function, it is possible to obtain a simple expression for
low cost implementation
- But, with complex functions, it is a very difficult for implementation
Karnaugh Map (K-map) is a simple procedure for simplification of
Boolean expressions.

Truth
Table
Simplified
Karnaugh Boolean
Map Function
Boolean
function
Karnaugh Map (K-Map)

 Karnaugh maps (K-maps) are graphical C’D’ C’D CD CD’

representations of Boolean functions. A’B’

 One map cell corresponds to a row in the truth A’B

table.
 Also, one map cell corresponds to a minterm or AB

a maxterm in the Boolean expression AB’

 Each term is identified by a decimal number
whose binary representation is identical to the
binary interpretation of the input values of the
term.
K-Map Simplification for Two Variables

 Of course, the Minterm function that we derived from our

Truth Table was not in simplest terms.
 That‟s what we started with in this example.
 We can, however, reduce our complicated expression to its
simplest terms by finding adjacent 1s in the K-map that can
be collected into groups that are powers of two.

• In our example, we have two

such groups.
– Can you find them?
K-Map Rules

The rules of K-map simplification are:

• Groupings can contain only 1s; no 0s.
• The number of 1s in a group must be a power of 2 – even if it
contains a single 1.
• Nearby 1s are to be grouped.
• Corner 1s are to be grouped.
• Group that wraps around the sides of a K-map.
• Diagonal groups are not allowed.
• The groups must be made as large as possible.
• Groups can overlap.
K-Map Rules

 The best way of selecting two groups of 1s form our simple K-

map is shown.
 We see that both groups are powers of two and that the groups
overlap.
K-Map Simplification for Two Variables

2-variable Karnaugh maps are trivial but can be used to introduce the
methods you need to learn. The map for a 2-input OR gate looks like this:
A
A 0 1
Y B
B
0 1
A
A B Y 1 1 1
0 0 0
0 1 1 B
1 0 1
1 1 1 A+B
K-Map Simplification for Three Variables

 A K-map for three variables is constructed as shown in the diagram below.

 We have placed each Minterm in the cell that will hold its value.
 Notice that the values for the yz combination at the top of the matrix
form a pattern that is not a normal binary sequence.
 Consider the function:
F (X, Y, Z) = X’Y’Z + X’YZ + XY’Z + XYZ
 Its K-map is given below.
 What is the largest group of 1s that is a power of 2?
 This grouping tells us that changes in the variables x and y have no influence upon
the value of the function: They are irrelevant.
 This means that the function, F (X, Y, Z) = X’Y’Z + X’YZ + XY’Z + XYZ
reduces to F = Z.

You could verify this

reduction with
Boolean Algebra
 Now for a more complicated K-map. Consider the function:

 Its K-map is shown below. There are (only) two groupings of 1s.
 Can you find them?
 In this K-map, we see an example of a group that wraps around the
sides of a K-map.
 f =  (0,4) = B C f =  (4,5) = A B f =  (0,1,4,5) = B f =  (0,1,2,3) = A

BC BC BC BC
A 00 01 11 10 A 00 01 11 10 A 00 01 11 10 A 00 01 11 10
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0

f = ∑ (1,3) = A’C
f =  (0,4) = A C f =  (4,6) = A C f =  (0,2) = A C f =  (0,2,4,6) = C

BC BC BC BC
A 00 01 11 10 A 00 01 11 10 A 00 01 11 10 A 00 01 11 10
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
K-Map Simplification for Four Variables

 The K-map can be extended to accommodate the 16 Minterms that are

produced by a four-input function.
 This is the format for a 16-minterm K-map.
 We have populated the K-map shown below with the nonzero minterms
from the function:

 Can you identify (only) three groups in this K-map?

 Our three groups consist of:
 A purple group entirely within the K-map at the right.
 A pink group that wraps the top and bottom.
 A green group that spans the corners.
 Thus we have three terms in our final function:
 It is possible to have a choice as to how to pick groups within a K-map, while
keeping the groups as large as possible.
 The (different) functions that result from the groupings below are logically
equivalent.
 CD CD CD CD
AB 00 01 11 10 AB 00 01 11 10 AB 00 01 11 10 AB 00 01 11 10
00 1 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0
01 0 0 0 0 01 0 1 0 0 01 0 0 0 0 01 1 0 0 1
11 0 0 0 0 11 0 1 0 0 11 0 1 1 0 11 0 0 0 0
10 1 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0

f =  (5,13) = B  C  D f =  (13,15) = A  B  D f =  (4,6) = A  B  D

f =  (0,8) = B  C  D

CD CD CD CD
AB 00 01 11 10 AB 00 01 11 10 AB 00 01 11 10 AB 00 01 11 10
00 0 0 1 1 00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 1 1 00 1 0 0 1

01 0 0 1 1 01 1 0 0 1 01 0 0 0 0 01 0 0 0 0
11 0 0 0 0 11 1 0 0 1 11 0 0 0 0 11 0 0 0 0
10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 1 1 10 1 0 0 1

f =  (2,3,6,7) = A  C f =  (4,6,12,14) = B  D f =  (2,3,10,11) = B  C f =  (0,2,8,10) = B  D

 CD CD CD CD
AB 00 01 11 10 AB 00 01 11 10 AB 00 01 11 10 AB 00 01 11 10
00 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 1 0 00 1 0 1 0 00 0 1 0 1
01 1 1 1 1 01 0 0 1 0 01 0 1 0 1 01 1 0 1 0
11 0 0 0 0 11 0 0 1 0 11 1 0 1 0 11 0 1 0 1
10 0 0 0 0 10 0 0 1 0 10 0 1 0 1 10 1 0 1 0

f =  (0, 3, 5, 6, 9,10,12,15) f =  (1, 2, 4, 7, 8,11,13,14)

f =  (4, 5, 6, 7) = A  B f =  (3, 7,11,15) = C  D
f = A  B C D f = A  B C D

CD CD CD CD
AB 00 01 11 10 AB 00 01 11 10 AB 00 01 11 10 AB 00 01 11 10
00 0 1 1 0 00 1 0 0 1 00 0 0 0 0 00 1 1 1 1
01 0 1 1 0 01 1 0 0 1 01 1 1 1 1 01 0 0 0 0
11 0 1 1 0 11 1 0 0 1 11 1 1 1 1 11 0 0 0 0
10 0 1 1 0 10 1 0 0 1 10 0 0 0 0 10 1 1 1 1

f =  (1, 3,5, 7, 9,11,13,15) f =  (0,2,4,6,8,10,12,14) f =  (4,5,6,7,12,13,14,15) f =  (0,1,2,3,8,9,10,11)

f = D f = D f =B f = B
Don’t Care Conditions

 Real circuits don‟t always need to have an output defined for every possible
input.
 For example, some calculator displays consist of 7-segment LEDs. These
LEDs can display 2 7 patterns but all patterns are not used.
 If a circuit is designed so that a particular set of inputs can never happen, we
call this set of inputs a don’t care condition.
 They are very helpful to us in K-map circuit simplification.
 In a K-map, a don‟t care condition is identified by an X in the cell of the
minterm(s) for the don‟t care inputs, as shown below.
 In performing the simplification, we are free to include or ignore the X‟s
when creating our groups.
 In one grouping in the K-map below, we have the function:
 F = W’X’ + YZ
 A different grouping gives us the function:
 The truth table of:
F (W, X, Y, Z) = W’X’ + YZ
differs from the truth table of:

 However, the values for which they differ, are the inputs for which we have
don‟t care conditions.
Redundancy
Design of combinational digital circuits

 Steps to design a combinational digital circuit:

 From the problem statement derive the truth table
 From the truth table derive the unsimplified logic expression
 Simplify the logic expression
 From the simplified expression draw the logic circuit

 Example: Design a 3-input (A,B,C) digital circuit that will give at its
output (X) a logic 1 only if the binary number formed at the input has
more ones than zeros.
 Inputs Output
A B C X X =  (3, 5, 6, 7)
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 X
BC
2 0 1 0 0 A 00 01 11 10
3 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
4 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
5 1 0 1 1
6 1 1 0 1
7 1 1 1 1 X = AC  AB  BC
A B C
 Example: Design a 4-input (A,B,C,D) digital circuit that will give at its output (X) a
logic 1 only if the binary number formed at the input is between 2 and 9 (including).
Inputs Output
A B C D X X=  (2,3,4,5,6 ,7,8,9)
0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 X
2 0 0 1 0 1 CD
3 0 0 1 1 1 AB 00 01 11 10
4 0 1 0 0 1 00 0 0 1 1 Same
5 0 1 0 1 1
01 1 1 1 1
6 0 1 1 0 1
7 0 1 1 1 1 11 0 0 0 0
8 1 0 0 0 1 10 1 1 0 0
9 1 0 0 1 1
10 1 0 1 0 0
11 1 0 1 1 0
12 1 1 0 0 0 X = AC  AB  A B C
13 1 1 0 1 0
14 1 1 1 0 0
15 1 1 1 1 0 A B C D X
Conclusion

 K-maps provide an easy graphical method of simplifying Boolean

expressions.
 A K-map is a matrix consisting of the outputs of the minterms of a
Boolean function.
 In this section, we have discussed 2- 3- and 4-input K-maps. This
method can be extended to any number of inputs through the use of
multiple tables.
Recapping the rules of K-map simplification:
• Groupings can contain only 1s; no 0s.
• Groups can be formed only at right angles; diagonal groups are not
allowed.
• The number of 1s in a group must be a power of 2 – even if it contains a
single 1.
• The groups must be made as large as possible.
• Groups can overlap and wrap around the sides of the K-map.
• Use don‟t care conditions when you can.
• Redundancy must be reduced