CHAPTER 2

Vectors

1. Basic Definitions
This chapter together with the following two chapters are devoted to analytic
geometry, also known as coordinate geometry, that is the study of geometry using
systems of coordinates. By introducing a so called basis and coordinate system in
the three dimensional space, one can represent a point using a triple of real num-
bers. Geometrical objects such as lines, planes, curves, etc. as well as geometrical
relations in space can then be represented by means of algebraic equations and vice-
versa. In what follows we assume that the reader has a well-developed intuition
about (the properties of) basic geometric objects such as points, lines and planes.
We begin by introducing the concept of a vector.

Vectors and Directed Line Segments.

In order to define a vector we first need to introduce directed line segments. If P

−→
and Q are two points in space, we denote by P Q the directed line segment which
starts at P and ends at Q. A directed segment is determined by its starting point
P , its direction, and its magnitude (or length).
−→ −→ −→ −→
Two directed segments P Q and RS are called equivalent (notation: P Q ∼ RS) if
they have the same direction and magnitude. This defines a so called equivalence
relation on the set of directed line segments in space.

Figure 1. PQ and RS equivalent directed segments

17
18 2. VECTORS

−→
The vector u which contains P Q is the set of all directed line segments in space that
−→
are equivalent to P Q (i.e. it is the equivalence class containing P~Q). In symbols:
n−→ −→ −→o
(1) u = RS : RS ∼ P Q .
−→
In this situation we say that the line segment P Q represents the vector u.
The direction and the magnitude of the vector u is defined as the direction and
−→
magnitude of some representative P Q. We will denote the length (or norm) of u
by the symbol kuk.
−→
In practice, one often briefly writes u = P Q instead of the using the bulky (but
more precise) notation in (1). We will often, without further mention, use this
convention in the following.
−→
The zero vector is the vector 0 = P P ; clearly k0k = 0. A vector u with kuk = 1 is
called a unit vector.

Vector Addition.

The sum u + v of two vectors is defined as follows. We choose a directed segment

−→ −→
P Q representing u, then a representative QR, with the same Q, of v. Then the
sum u + v is given by the vector
−→
u + v = P R.
This definition is sometimes called the triangle rule for vector addition and it is
obvious that it is independent of the start point P , i.e. of the choice of representative
directed segments.

Figure 2. The sum u + v

The above definition can be expressed in an alternative, equivalent way. Suppose

that the vectors u and v are not parallel, set them to emerge from a common start
point, P say, and consider the parallelogram spanned by the two vectors. Then the
sum u + v is the vector associated to the directed diagonal with start point P . This
definition is sometimes called the parallelogram law of addition.
 1. BASIC DEFINITIONS 19

The addition of vectors satisfies the following (easily verified) rules:

(i) u + v = v + u (”commutativity”)
(ii) u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w (”associativity”)
(iii) If u + v = u + w then v = w (”the cancellation law”)
(iv) u + 0 = u (”neutral element”).

Subtraction.
−→
If u = P Q is a vector, we denote by −u the vector with the same magnitude but
−→
opposite direction, i.e., −u = QP . It is clear that u + (−u) = 0 for all u. We define
the difference between u and v by

u − v = u + (−v).

Multiplication by Scalars.

Another basic but important operation that one can perform with vectors is mul-
tiplication by scalars. (Scalar is a synonym for ”real number”). This operation
models the change of length and/or reversing of direction of a vector.

Let s ∈ R and let u be a vector. Then the product su is defined in the following
way:
(1) If s > 0 we define su to be the vector with the same direction as u and
magnitude skuk. (So su is a ”rescaled” version of u.)
(2) If s = 0 we define su = 0.
(3) If s < 0 we define su to be the vector with the direction opposite to u and
length |s|kuk.
1
Note that if u 6= 0, then the vector kuk
· u is the unit vector with the same direction
as u.

The multiplication with scalars satisfies the following rules:

(a) s(tu) = (st)u,
(b) (s + t)u = su + tu,
(c) s(u + v) = su + sv.
(d) 0u = 0, 1u = u, s0 = 0.
Two non-zero vectors u, v are called parallel if one of them can be written as a scalar
multiple of the other one. We write u k v to denote that u and v are parallel.
20 2. VECTORS

−→ −→
Example 1. Let O, P , Q be three points in space and let u = OP and v = OQ.
Let M be the mid-point of the segment P Q. We claim that
−−→ 1
(1) OM = (u + v) .
2

Figure 3

To prove this, observe that

−→ −→ −→
OP + P Q = OQ,
i.e.,
−→ −→ −→
P Q = OQ − OP = v − u.
This gives that
−−→ −→ 1 −→ 1 1
OM = OP + P Q = u + (v − u) = (u + v) .
2 2 2
A simple geometric consequence of this is that the diagonals of a parallelogram
divide each other into equal parts. Namely, if S is the fourth corner in the parallel-
−→
ogram with sides u and v, then OS = u + v. It thus follows from (1) that M lies
halfway between O and S.
Example 2. Let O, P , Q, R be four points in space and let
−→ −→ −→
u = OP ; v = OQ ; w = OR.
By the centre of mass of the triangle P QR we mean the point N defined by
−−→ 1
(2) ON = (u + v + w) .
3
The three medians of the triangle P QR intersect at the point N . Recall that a
median of a triangle is a line segment connecting a vertex to the midpoint of the
opposite side.
In order to prove this let M be the midpoint of the segment P Q. Then (by (1))
−−→ −−→ −→ 1 1
RM = OM − OR = (u + v) − w = (u + v − 2w) .
2 2
 1. BASIC DEFINITIONS 21

Moreover,
−−→ −−→ −→ 1 1
RN = ON − OR = (u + v + w) − w = (u + v − 2w) .
3 3
We have shown that
−−→ −−→
2RM = 3RN ,
so N lies on the median RM and divides it according to the ratio 2 : 1. By
symmetry of the expression (2), the point N is also on the other medians. 

Exercises.
−→ −−→
1. Let A and B be two points and O a third point. Let a = OA, b = OB,
and let M be the midpoint of the line segment AB. Express the following
−−→ −→ −→ −−→ −−→
vectors in terms of a and b: a) OB + BA b) AB c) OM d) AM .

2. Simplify the following sums:

−−→ −−→ −−→ −→ −→ −−→
a) OB + BD + DC b) AC + CO + OB
−→ −→ −−→ −−→ −→ −→
c) AB + OA + BD d) BD − BA + DL.

3. Prove that a point N is the centre of mass of a triangle P QR if and only if

−−→ −−→ −−→
N P + N Q + N R = 0.

4. Let ABC be a triangle, A1 the midpoint on BC, B1 the midpoint on AC,

−−→ −−→ −−→
and C1 the midpoint of AB. Prove that the vectors AA1 , BB1 , and CC1
can be used to form a triangle.

5. A median in a tetrahedron is the line segment from a vertex to the centre

of mass of the opposite side. Let O be an arbitrary point and P QRS
a tetrahedron. Prove that the medians of P QRS intersect at a point T
22 2. VECTORS

which is given by
−→ 1 −→ −→ −→ −→
OT = (OP + OQ + OR + OS).
4
The point T is called the centre of mass of the tetrahedron.
 2. BASES AND COORDINATES 23

2. Bases and coordinates

We are now properly equipped to begin our journey in analytic geometry and
introduce the concepts of bases and coordinate systems. We start by defining basis
for a line.

Basis for a line.

Let ` be a line in space. We say that a vector u is parallel to `, or simply that

u belongs to `, if u can be represented by a directed line segment of `. Thus by
“u ∈ `”, we really mean that some representative of u belongs to `. We hence
use the phrase “belongs to” in slightly different meanings. This should not cause
confusion, as long as the reader is aware of the distinction.

Definition 1. Fix a line ` and let e 6= 0 be a vector in `. For any other vector
u in ` there is then an unique real number x such that
(1) u = xe.
The vector e is called a basis for the line ` and x is the coordinate of u with respect
to the basis e.

Basis for a plane.

As above, we say that a vector u belongs to a plane M if u can be represented by a

line segment in M . Let e1 , e2 be two non-parallel vectors in a plane M . We claim
that each vector u in M can be written
(2) u = x1 e1 + x2 e2
where x1 and x2 are real numbers.

To show this, we first choose two lines `1 and `2 in M such that e1 is in `1 and e2 is
in `2 . Let O be the point of intersection between `1 and `2 . To help our geometric
intuition, we will in the following fix O as our “origin”, and place all vectors in M
24 2. VECTORS

−−→
so that they emanate from the point O (that is e1 = OP1 for some point P1 on `1 ,
−→
u = OP , and so on.)

We then decompose u into a sum

u = u1 + u2
where u1 is on `1 and u2 is on `2 . As in (1) we can then write
u1 = x1 e1 and u2 = x2 e2
for some uniquely determined real numbers x1 and x2 . This proves (2).
Definition 2. Two non-parallel vectors e1 , e2 in a plane M are called a basis for
M . Given a vector u ∈ M , the numbers x1 and x2 in (2) are uniquely determined;
they are called the coordinates of u with respect to the basis e1 , e2 . If the basis
is fixed, and no misunderstandings can arise, we can suppress the basis vectors in
(2), and simply write
u = (x1 , x2 ).

Basis for the three-dimensional space.

To describe all vectors in space in a similar way, we need three vectors e1 , e2 , e3

which are non-coplanar (i.e. they do not lie in one and the same plane). We assert
that every vector u can be written as
(3) u = x1 e1 + x2 e2 + x3 e3
where x1 , x2 , x3 are real numbers, uniquely determined by u.
To prove this, we proceed in two steps. First, let M be a plane containing e1 and
e2 and let ` be a line containing e3 . Let O be the point of intersection between `
and M ; in the following we place all vectors so that they emanate from O.
We decompose u into a sum
(4) u = u0 + u00 , u0 ∈ M, u00 ∈ `.
Applying (2) and (1) we can write u0 = x1 e1 +x2 e2 and u00 = x3 e3 for some (unique)
real numbers x1 , x2 , x3 . This proves (3).
 2. BASES AND COORDINATES 25

Definition 3. Three vectors e1 , e2 , e3 which are non-coplanar are called a

basis for three-dimensional space. If u is a vector in space then the numbers x1 ,
x2 , x3 in (3) are called the coordinates of u with respect to the basis e1 , e2 , e3 . If
the basis is understood, we can abbreviate the notation (3) and write
u = (x1 , x2 , x3 ).
We also say that three non-coplanar vectors e1 , e2 , e3 are linearly independent
and we call a vector u as in (3) a linear combination of these vectors.
−→ −→ −→
Example. Let OP QR be a tetrahedron. The vectors e1 = OP , e2 = OQ, e3 = OR
then form a basis for three-dimensional space. Let N be the centre of mass of the
triangle P QR. By Example 2 in the previous section, we then have
−−→
ON = (1/3, 1/3, 1/3)
with respect to this basis. What are the coordinates of the basis vectors e1 , e2 , e3 ?

Computing with coordinates.

When we have a fixed basis for three-dimensional space, we can perform vector ad-
dition and multiplication by scalars by computing directly with coordinates relative
to this basis. If
u = x1 e1 + x2 e2 + x3 e3 v = y 1 e1 + y 2 e2 + y 3 e3 and s ∈ R
then
u + v = (x1 e1 + x2 e2 + x3 e3 ) + (y1 e1 + y2 e2 + y3 e3 )
= (x1 + y1 )e1 + (x2 + y2 )e2 + (x3 + y3 )e3 .
and
su = s(x1 e1 + x2 e2 + x3 e3 )
= (sx1 )e1 + (sx2 )e2 + (sx3 )e3 .
26 2. VECTORS

Thus, we may write:

(5) u + v = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) + (y1 , y2 , y3 ) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , x3 + y3 )
(6) su = s(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (sx1 , sx2 , sx3 ).

Projections.

In the decomposition (4) of a vector u, the vector u0 is called the projection of u

parallel to the line ` on the plane M , and u00 is called the projection of u parallel
to M on `.
If the line ` is normal to the plane M , then the projection u0 is called the orthogonal
(or “right angled”) projection of u on M .

If we decompose both u and v in this way, we find

u + v = (u0 + v0 ) + (u00 + v00 ),
which means that
(u + v)0 = u0 + v0 and (u + v)00 = u00 + v00 ,
which reads “’the projection of a sum of vectors equals the sum of the projections
of the individual summands”.

Exercises.
−→
6. Let OP QR be a tetrahedron and introduce a basis for 3-space by e1 = OP ,
−→ −→
e2 = OQ, e3 = OR. Let A be the mid-point of the segment OP and B the
mid-point of the segment QR. Also, let C be the mid-point on the segment
−→ −−→ −→
AB. Determine the coordinates of the vectors OA, OB, and OC relative
to the basis e1 , e2 , e3 .
 3. LINEAR DEPENDENCE 27

3. Linear Dependence
In this section we introduce some basic terminology that will allow us to express
relations between vectors in a more precise way. The concepts discussed below can
be extended beyond the three-dimensional space.
Definition 4. Let u1 , u2 , . . . , uk be a collection of vectors. A vector u of the
form
u = λ1 u1 + · · · + λk uk ,
where λ1 , . . . , λk are real numbers, is called a linear combination of the vectors
u1 , . . . , uk .

The collection u1 , u2 , . . . , uk is called linearly dependent if there are real numbers

λ1 , . . . , λk , not all equal to zero, such that
λ1 u1 + · · · + λk uk = 0.
Otherwise, i.e., if
λ1 u1 + · · · + λk uk = 0 ⇒ λ1 = λ2 = · · · = λk = 0,
we say that the collection is linearly independent.

Example 1. The fact that two vectors u1 , u2 are linearly dependent means precisely
that there are λ1 , λ2 , not both zero, such that λ1 u1 + λ2 u2 = 0.

If λ1 6= 0 this implies u2 = tu1 where t = −λ2 /λ1 , so u1 and u2 are parallel.

The same conclusion holds if λ2 6= 0. Conversely, if u1 and u2 are parallel, say
if u1 = tu2 , then the relation 1 · u1 + (−t)u2 = 0 shows that u1 , u2 are linearly
dependent.

Thus, two vectors are linearly dependent if and only if they are parallel.
The example above has the following generalisation for arbitrary collections of vec-
tors.
Theorem 5. A collection u1 , . . . , uk is linearly dependent if and only if (at
least) one uj can be written as a linear combination of the other ui ’s.
Proof. (⇒) Assume that u1 , . . . , uk are linearly dependent. Then there are
real numbers λ1 , . . . , λk , not all zero, such that
λ1 u1 + λ2 u2 + · · · + λk uk = 0.
We can without loss of generality assume that λ1 6= 0. But then
u1 = (−λ2 /λ1 )u2 + · · · + (−λk /λ1 )u2 ,
28 2. VECTORS

which shows that u1 is a linear combination of u2 , . . . , uk .

(⇐) Suppose that some uj is a linear combination of the other ui ’s. We can
assume, without loss of generality, that j = 1 and that
u1 = t2 u2 + · · · + tk uk ,
for some real numbers t2 , . . . , tk . Then
1 · u1 + (−t2 )u2 + · · · + (−tk )uk = 0.
Since the coefficient of u1 is not zero, we infer that the collection is linearly de-
pendent. 
Remark 6. If a collection u1 , . . . , uk is linearly dependent, then any larger
collection u1 , . . . , uk , uk+1 , . . . , un is also linearly dependent. This holds, since if
λ1 u1 + · · · + λk uk = 0
where not all λj are zero, then
λ1 u1 + · · · + λk uk + 0uk+1 + · · · + 0un = 0.

Example 2. Now suppose that three vectors u1 , u2 , u3 are linearly dependent. Then
one of them, say u3 , can be written as a linear combination of u1 and u2 :
u3 = t1 u1 + t2 u2 .
Hence if u1 and u2 are in a plane M , then u3 is also in M . Conversely, if u1 , u2 ,
u3 belong to a plane M , then they are linearly dependent. To see this, it suffices to
observe that either u1 , u2 are linearly dependent, whence u1 , u2 , u3 is also linearly
dependent by the remark above, or u1 , u2 is a basis for a plane M , whence u3 ∈ M
implies that u3 is a linear combination of u1 and u2 .

Thus, three vectors are linearly dependent if and only if they are coplanar.
Equivalently, three vectors are linearly independent if and only if they form a basis
for 3-space.
Example 3. Assume that the vectors u1 , u2 , u3 have coordinates
u1 = (1, −2, 2) , u2 = (−2, 3, 1) , u3 = (−1, 3, 2)
with respect to some basis for 3-space. We shall investigate whether or not the
vectors u1 , u2 , u3 form a basis. To this end, we consider the vector equation
λ1 u1 + λ2 u2 + λ3 u3 = 0,
 3. LINEAR DEPENDENCE 29

which is equivalent to the linear system


 λ1 − 2λ2 − λ3 = 0

−2λ2 + 3λ2 + 3λ3 = 0

2λ1 + λ2 + 2λ3 = 0


Solving this with the elimination method gives the only solution λ1 = λ2 = λ3 = 0.
Hence the collection u1 , u2 , u3 is linearly independent and (by the result of Example
2) it forms a basis for the three-dimensional space.

A collection of four or more vectors in 3-space is always linearly dependent. To

show this, it is enough to prove that four vectors are linearly dependent, for then
every larger collection is linearly dependent as well. Thus let u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 be four
arbitrary vectors in 3-space. Then either u1 , u2 , u3 are linearly dependent, and
therefore so are u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 , or u1 , u2 , u3 is a basis for 3-space, whence u4 is a
linear combination of u1 , u2 , u3 . In either case, u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 is linearly dependent.

Example 4. Consider the vectors u1 = (3, 4, 2), u2 = (5, 3, 1), u3 = (4, 1, 7) and
v = (7, 10, −2) with respect to a given basis for the three-dimensional space. One
can show that the vectors u1 , u2 , u3 are linearly independent in the same way as
in the previous example. Then these vectors form another basis for the three-
dimensional space. Let us determine the coordinates of the vector v = (7, 10, −2)
with respect to this new basis. The question is to determine x1 , x2 , x3 such that
x1 u1 + x2 u2 + x3 u3 = v, that is,

x1 (3, 4, 2) + x2 (5, 3, 1) + x3 (4, 1, 7) = (7, 10, −2)

which we write as

 3x1 + 5x2 + 4x3 = 7
4x1 + 3x2 + x3 = 10 .
2x1 + x2 + 7x3 = −2


We use Gauss elimination, and choose to first eliminate x2 using the third equation.
Multiply the third equation by (−5) and add the multiple to the first equation,
respectively by (−3) and add the multiple to the second equation. The system
becomes
 
 −7x1 − 31x3 = 17  7x1 + 31x3 = −17
−2x1 − 20x3 = 16 ⇐⇒ x1 + 10x3 = −8 .
2x1 + x2 + 7x3 = −2 xs1 + s2 + 7x3 = −2
 
30 2. VECTORS

We now multiply the second equation by (−7) and add the multiple to the first
equation to eliminate s1 :

 − 39x3 = 39
x1 + 10x3 = −8 .
2x1 + x2 + 7x3 = −2


We get x3 = −1 from the first equation, which yields x1 = 2 in the second equation
and finally x2 = 1. The vector v has coordinates (2, 1, −1) with respect to the basis
u1 , u2 , u3 .

Exercises. In the following exercises, vectors are expressed by their coordinates

relative to some fixed basis e1 , e2 , e3 .
7. Prove that the vector v = (2, −7, 1) lies in a plane spanned by the vec-
tors u1 = (2, −1, 3) and u2 = (1, 1, 2). (A plane containing two linearly
independent vectors is called a plane spanned by the vectors in question.)
Determine the coordinates for v with respect to the basis u1 , u2 .

8. Are the vectors (1, −2, 1), (2, −1, −1), (−1, −4, 5) coplanar?

9. Prove that the vectors (1, 1, 2), (4, 4, 9), (2, 3, 7) form a basis for the three-
dimensional space. Determine the coordinates of the vector (5, 4, 3) relative
to this basis.

10. For which values of k are the following sets of vectors linearly independent?
a) (k, k 2 , k 3 ), (2, 2, 2);
b) (1, 1, 1), (1, k, 2k), (k, 1, k);
c) (1, −1, −k), (2, k, 4), (k, 2, −4).
 4. EQUATIONS FOR LINES AND PLANES 31

4. Equations for Lines and Planes

In this section we introduce equations for lines and planes in the three-dimensional
space. Lines and planes are sets of points fulfilling certain conditions. An equation
for a line or a plane is just way of stating this conditions. To this end, we need a
concrete representation of points in the three-dimensional space. This is introduced
by means of a basis and a so-called system of coordinates.

Fix a point O in three-dimensional space. An arbitrary point P can then be de-

−→
scribed by the position vector OP . For a given basis e1 , e2 , e3 , there are then
unique numbers x1 , x2 , x3 such that
−→
OP = x1 e1 + x2 e2 + x3 e3 .
We associate with the point P the same triple of numbers (x1 , x2 , x3 ) that forms the
−→
coordinates of the position vector OP with respect to this basis. If the coordinate
system is clear from the context, we can simply write
P = (x1 , x2 , x3 ).
The fixed point O together with a given basis e1 , e2 , e3 are said to form the
coordinate system Oe1 e2 e3 .
Remark 7. In a similar way we can describe points in a plane M . Let O be a
point in M and e1 , e2 is a basis for M . Then for each point P in M we can write
−→
OP = x1 e1 + x2 e2
for unique x1 , x2 ∈ R. We say that x1 , x2 are the coordinates of P in the coordinate
system Oe1 e2 for M . In short: P = (x1 , x2 ).
Throughout the rest of this section we fix a coordinate system Oe1 e2 e3 for three-
dimensional space. Each point can then be identified with its coordinates, which
we denote by (x, y, z) rather than (x1 , x2 , x3 ).

Parametric equation of a line

Let ` be a line in space. Suppose that ` passes through a point Q and that a vector
u 6= 0 is parallel to `. Then a point P belongs to ` if and only if
−→
(1) QP = tu
for some t ∈ R. The vector u is called a direction vector of `.
Denote by (a, b, c) the coordinates of u with respect to the basis e1 , e2 , e3 . Thus
u = ae1 + be2 + ce3 .
32 2. VECTORS

−→ −→ −→
If Q0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and P = (x, y, z), then the vector QP = OP − OQ has coordin-
ates (x − x0 , y − y0 , z − z0 ). Hence (1) can be cast in the form

x − x0 = at

(2) y − y0 = bt , t ∈ R.

z − z0 = ct


The relation (2) is known as the parametric representation of the line `.

Example 1. Consider the line ` which passes through the points Q = (3, −6, −5)
and R = (4, −3, −3). A direction vector of ` is
−→ −→ −→
QR = OR − OQ = (4, −3, −3) − (3, −6, −5) = (1, 3, 2).
Since ` passes through Q, we conclude that

x − 3 = t

y + 6 = 3t , t ∈ R,

z + 5 = 2t


is a parametric representation for `.

Parametric equation of a plane

In a similar way, one can represent a plane M in space. Namely, let Q be a point
in M and u, v a basis for M , i.e. two non-parallel vectors which are parallel to M .
−→
Then a point P in space belongs to M if and only if the vector QP belongs to M ,
which is equivalent to the fact that
−→
(3) QP = su + tv
for some s, t ∈ R. The numbers s, t are the coordinates for P in the coordinate
system Quv of M .
 4. EQUATIONS FOR LINES AND PLANES 33

Let us denote
u = ae1 + be2 + ce3 , v = a0 e 1 + b 0 e 2 + c 0 e 3 , Q = (x0 , y0 , z0 ).

−→
With P = (x, y, z), QP = (x − x0 , y − y0 , z − z0 ), u = (a, b, c) and v = (a0 , b0 , c0 ),
the equation (3) can be written as

0
x − x0 = as + a t

(4) y − y0 = bs + b0 t , s, t ∈ R.

z − z0 = cs + c0 t


This formula is called a parametric representation of the plane M .

Example 2. Consider the plane M passing through the points Q = (1, 2, 0), R1 =
(0, 1, 1), and R2 = (2, −1, −3). Two non-parallel vectors in M are
−−→ −−→
u = QR1 = (−1, −1, 1) , v = QR2 = (1, −3, −3).
Hence 
x − 1 = −s + t

y − 2 = −s − 3t , s, t ∈ R

z = s − 3t


is a parametric representation of M .
Example 3. Let us determine the point of intersection between the line ` of Example
1 and the plane M of Example 2. To this end, we have to distinguish between the
t-parameters in the representations for ` and M and write
 
x − 3 = t1
 x − 1 = −s + t2

` : y + 6 = 3t1 , M : y − 2 = −s − 3t2 .
 
z + 5 = 2t1 z = s − 3t2
 
34 2. VECTORS

At the point of intersection, the values of x, y, and z must match, i.e.,

 
 3 + t1 = 1 − s + t2
  s + t1 − t2 = −2

−6 + 3t1 = 2 − s − 3t2 ⇔ s + 3t1 + 3t2 = 8 .
 
−5 + 2t1 = s − 3t2 −s + 2t1 + 3t2 = 5
 

After Gaussian elimination, this gives s = 2, t1 = −1, and t2 = 3. Inserting t1 = −1

into the equation for ` gives (x, y, z) = (2, −9, −7).

The (point-normal) equation of a plane

We claim that planes in space correspond precisely to equations of the form

(5) Ax + By + Cz = D

where not all coefficients A, B, C are zero. Indeed, suppose that A 6= 0 (the cases
B 6= 0 and C 6= 0 are analogous). Then a point (x, y, z) satisfies (5) if and only if

x − (D/A) = −(B/A)s − (C/A)t

y = s

z = t


for some s, t ∈ R.
Thus (5) describes the plane passing through the point (D/A, 0, 0), which is parallel
to the vectors (−B/A, 1, 0), (−C/A, 0, 1).

Conversely, one can, by eliminating s and t in the parametric representation (4),

prove that any plane can be described by an equation of the form (5). We omit the
details, since we shall anyway find an easier method to prove this later on. Instead,
we turn to some examples.

Example 4. Consider again the plane


x − 1 = −s + t

M : y − 2 = −s − 3t , s, t ∈ R

z = s − 3t


A point (x, y, z) is in M if and only if there are s and t satisfying these equations.
To determine when this is the case, we can first eliminate s from the last two
 4. EQUATIONS FOR LINES AND PLANES 35

equations, and then t from the last equation:

 
x − 1 = −s + t
  x
 − 1 = −s + t
y − 2 = −s − 3t ⇔ −x + y − 1 = −4t
 
z = s − 3t x+ z−1= −2t
 

 x
 − 1 = −s + t
⇔ −x + y −1= −4t .

3x − y + 2z − 1 = 0


Since we can always choose s and t so that the first two equations are satisfied, we
see that a point (x, y, z) belongs to M if and only if the third equation is satisfied,
i.e., iff
3x − y + 2z − 1 = 0.

Lines in space can be described as the intersection between two non-parallel planes.
This is illustrated by the following example.
Example 5. The points (x, y, z) which belong to both of the planes
2x + y − 3z = 5 and x + 2y − z = 4
are precisely the solutions of the system
( (
2x + y − 3z = 5 2x + y − 3z = 5
∼ .
x + 2y − z = 4 3y + z = 3

Inserting z = 3t (to obtain integer coefficients in the parametric representation) we

get

x = 2 + 5t

y =1− t .

z= 3t


The intersection line thus passes through the point (2, 1, 0) and has direction vector
(5, −1, 3).

Remark 8. To describe a line in space we need two equations of the form

Ax + By + Cz = D. On the other hand, if we only consider points in a plane M ,
and if x, y denote coordinates with respect to some coordinate system in M , then
one equation Ax + By = C is sufficient to describe a line. If for example A 6= 0,
36 2. VECTORS

then (x, y) satisfies the equation if and only if

(
x = (C/A) − (B/A)t
y= t
for some t ∈ R. This is a parametric representation of a line in M passing through
the point (C/A, 0), with direction vector (−B/A, 1).

Exercises.
11. Give a parametric representation for the line passing through the points
(1, −1, 4) and (2, 3, 5).

12. Consider the lines

 
x = 2 + t
 x = 1 + 2t

`1 : y = 1 − t , `2 : y = t .
 
z= 2t z = −1 + t
 

Do they intersect? Are they parallel?

13. Determine whether the following lines intersect:

 
x = 1 + 15t
 x = 6 − 65t

y = −4 − 21t y = −11 + 91t .
 
z = 5 + 33t z = 16 − 143t
 

14. Find a parametric representation of the line ` which passes through the
point (3, 2, −1) and intersects the lines
 

 x = 1 + t x = 10 + 5t

y= t and y = 5+ t .
 
z = −1 + t z = 2 + 2t
 

15. Find a parametric representation of the plane π which passes through the
points (2, 3, 0), (1, 5, 2), and (−1, 4, 3).

16. Are the four points (−1, −1, 0), (0, 4, 1), (1, 0, −1), (1, −3, −2) coplanar?
 5. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES 37

17. Find, in the form Ax + By + Cz = D, the equation for the plane π which
passes through the point (1, −1, 2) and which contains the line

x = 3 − t

y = 2 + 2t .

z = 1 − 3t


18. Prove that a line with direction-vector (a, b, c) is parallel to the plane Ax +
By + Cz = D if and only if
Aa + Bb + Cc = 0.
19. Find a parametric representation for the line passing through the point
(1, 2, 4) and which is parallel to the planes
2x + y − z = 3 and 3x − 3y + z = 0.

20. Determine the equation for the plane which contains the line
(
3x + 4y + z = 5
,
x− y = −6
and which passes through the midpoint on the segment between the points
(1, 1, 2) and (3, 1, 4).

5. Answers to Exercises
1. a) a b) b − a c) 21 (a + b) d) 12 (b − a).
−→ −→ −−→ −→
2. a) OC b) AB c) OD d) AL.
−→ −−→ −→
6. OA = (1/2, 0, 0), OB = (0, 1/2, 1/2), OC = (1/4, 1/4, 1/4).
7. v = 3u1 − 4u2 .
8. Yes, (−1, −4, 5) = 3(1, −2, 1) − 2(2, −1, −1).
9. (5, 4, 3) = 23(1, 1, 2) − 4(4, 4, 9) − (2, 3, 7).
The coordinates are thus (23, −4, 1).
10. a) k 6∈ {0, 1}
 b) k 6∈ {1/2, 1} c) k 6∈ {−2, 4}.
x = 1 + t

11. y = −1 + 4t .

z = 4+ t

12. The lines do not intersect and they are not parallel.
13. The lines coincide.
38 2. VECTORS


x = 5 + 2t

14. ` : y = 4 + 2t .

z= t


x = 2 − s − 3t

15. π : y = 3 + 2s + t .

z= 2s + 3t

16. Yes.
17. π : 5x − 3y − 14z = 60.
18. : x − y − z = 0.
π
x = 1 + 2t

19. y = 2 + 5t .

z = 4 + 9t

20. 13x + 36y + 7z = 83.